Hardwired Control Unit:

- When the control signals are generated by hardware using conventional logic design
techniques, the control unit is said to be hardwired.
Micro programmed control unit:
- A control unit whose binary control variables are stored in memory is called a micro
programmed control unit.
Dynamic microprogramming:
- A more advanced development known as dynamic microprogramming permits a micro
program to be loaded initially from an auxiliary memory such as a magnetic disk. Control
units that use dynamic microprogramming employ a writable control memory. This type
of memory can be used for writing.
Control Memory:
- Control Memory is the storage in the micro programmed control unit to store the micro
program.
Writeable Control Memory:
- Control Storage whose contents can be modified, allow the change in micro program and
Instruction set can be changed or modified is referred as Writeable Control Memory.
Control Word:
- The control variables at any given time can be represented by a control word string of 1 's
and 0's called a control word.
Micro operation, Microinstruction, Micro program
Micro operations:
- In computer central processing units, micro-operations (also known as a micro-ops or
μops) are detailed low-level instructions used in some designs to implement complex
machine instructions (sometimes termed macro-instructions in this context).
Micro instruction:
- A symbolic microprogram can be translated into its binary equivalent by means of an
assembler.
- Each line of the assembly language microprogram defines a symbolic microinstruction.
- Each symbolic microinstruction is divided into five fields: label, microoperations, CD,
BR, and AD.
- A microinstruction format includes 20 bits in total. They are divided into four
elements as displayed in the figure.

-
F1, F2, F3 are the micro-operation fields. They determine micro-operations for
the computer.
- CD is the condition for branching. They choose the status bit conditions.
- BR is the branch field. It determines the type of branch.
- AD is the address field. It includes the address field whose length is 7 bits.
Micro programmed Control/Micro programmed control Unit:
- A control unit whose binary control values are saved as words in memory is
called a micro programmed control unit.
- The sets of control signals are generated specific micro-operations that can be
saved in the memory.
- Each bit that forms the microinstruction is linked to one control signal. When the
bit is set, the control signal is active. When it is cleared the control signal turns
inactive. These microinstructions in a sequence can be saved in the internal
’control’ memory.
- The control unit of a micro program-controlled computer is a computer inside a
computer.
- The following figure shows the block diagram of a Micro programmed Control
organization.

There are the following steps followed by the micro programmed control are −

 It can execute any instruction. The CPU should divide it down into a set of
sequential operations. This set of operations are called microinstruction. The
sequential micro-operations need the control signals to execute.
 Control signals saved in the ROM are created to execute the instructions on the
data direction. These control signals can control the micro-operations concerned
with a microinstruction that is to be performed at any time step.
 The address of the microinstruction is executed next is generated.
 The previous 2 steps are copied until all the microinstructions associated with the
instruction in the set are executed.
Advantages of Micro programmed Control Unit
There are the following advantages of micro programmed control are as follows −

 It can more systematic design of the control unit.

 It is simpler to debug and change.
 It can retain the underlying structure of the control function.
 It can make the design of the control unit much simpler. Hence, it is inexpensive
and less error-prone.
  It can orderly and systematic design process.
 It is used to control functions implemented in software and not hardware.
 It is more flexible.
 It is used to complex function is carried out easily.
Disadvantages of Micro programmed Control Unit
There are the following disadvantages of micro programmed control are as follows −

 flexibility is obtained at more cost.

 It is slower than a hardwired control unit.
Control Memory
- A control memory is a part of the control unit.
- Any computer that involves micro programmed control consists of two memories.
They are the main memory and the control memory.
- Programs are usually stored in the main memory by the users. Whenever the
programs change, the data is also modified in the main memory. They consist of
machine instructions and data.
- The control memory consists of micro programs that are fixed and cannot be
modified frequently.
- The machine instructions generate a chain of microinstructions in the control
memory. Their function is to generate micro-operations that can fetch instructions
from the main memory, compute the effective address, execute the operation,
and return control to fetch phase and continue the cycle.
The figure shows the general configuration of a micro programmed control organization.

Here, the control is accepted to be a Read-Only Memory (ROM), where all the control
information is stored permanently. ROM provides the address of the microinstruction.
The other register, that is, the control data register stores the microinstruction that is
read from the memory. It consists of a control word that holds one or more micro-
operations for the data processor.
The next address must be computed once this operation is completed. It is computed in
the next address generator. Then, it is sent to the control address register to be read.
 - The next address generator is also known as the microprogram sequencer.
Based on the inputs to a sequencer, it determines the address of the next
microinstruction. The microinstructions can be specified in several ways.
The main functions of a micro program sequencer are as follows −

 It can increment the control register by one.

 It can load the address from the control memory to the control address register.
 It can transfer an external address or load an initial address to begin the start
operation.
The main advantage of using a micro programmed control is that, if the hardware
configuration is established once, no further changes can be done.

Address Sequencing

In summary the address sequences capabilities required in control memory are:

1. Increment of the control address register

2. Unconditional and conditional branches
3. A mapping process from the bits of the machine instructions to an address for control
memory
4. A facility for subroutine call and return
Micro program Example
Once the configuration of a computer and its micro programmed control unit is
established, the designer’s task is to generate the microcode for the control memory. This
code generation is called microprogramming and is a process similar to conventional
machine language programming.
Computer Hardware Configuration/hardwire control unit
The above block diagram of the computer consists of:
1. Two memory units:
i. Main memory -> for storing instructions and data, and
ii. Control memory -> for storing the microprogram.
2. Six Registers:
i. Processor unit register: AC(accumulator),PC(Program Counter), AR(Address
Register), DR(Data Register)
ii. Control unit register: CAR (Control Address Register), SBR(Subroutine Register
3. Multiplexers: The transfer of information among the registers in the processor is done
through multiplexers rather than a common bus.
4. ALU:The arithmetic, logic, and shift unit performs micro operations with data from DR
and places the result in AC.

 DR can receive information from AC, PC, or memory.

 AR can receive information from PC or DR.
 PC can receive information only from AR.
 Input data written to memory come from DR, and data read from memory can go only to
DR
Microinstruction Format
The microinstruction format for the control memory is shown in below figure. The 20 bits of the
microinstruction are divided into four functional parts as follows:
1. The three fields F1, F2, and F3 specify micro operations for the computer. The micro
operations are subdivided into three fields of three bits each. The three bits in each field
are encoded to specify seven distinct micro operations. This gives a total of 21 micro
operations.
2. The CD field selects status bit conditions.
 3. The BR field specifies the type of branch to be used.
4. The AD field contains a branch address. The address field is seven bits wide, since the
control memory has 128 = 27 words.

Each micro operation below is defined using resister transfer statements and is assigned a symbol
for use in symbolic micro program.

CD (condition) field consists of two bits representing 4 status bits and BR (branch) field (2-bits)
used together with address field AD, to choose the address of the next microinstruction.