Introduction

of
Network

By
Syed Ahsan Shabbir
Asst. Prof (IT)
NSU
 What is a Computer Network?
❖A computer network is a set of computers that are connected together so
that they can share information.
❖There are multiple devices or mediums which helps in the
communication between two different devices which are known
as Network devices. Ex: Router, Switch, Hub, Bridge.
Characteristics of a Computer Network
❖Share resources from one computer to another.
❖Create files and store them in one computer, access those files from
the other computer(s) connected over the network.
❖Connect a printer, scanner, or a fax machine to one computer within
the network and let other computers of the network use the machines
available over the network.
 Network Connecting Devices
❑Here is the common network devices list:
❖NIC

❖Hub

❖Switch

❖Router

❖Bridge

❖Gateway

❖Modem

❖Repeater
 NIC(Network Interface Card)
❖A network interface card (NIC) is a hardware component without
which a computer cannot be connected over a network.
❖NIC is a device that helps the computer to communicate with another
device.
❖The network interface card contains the hardware addresses, the
data-link layer protocol use this address to identify the system on the
network so that it transfers the data to the correct destination.
❖Itis also called network interface controller, network adapter or
LAN adapter.
NIC
 HUB
❖In general, a hub refers to a hardware device that enables multiple devices or
connections to be connected to a computer.
❖A hub, also called a network hub, is a common connection point for devices in
a network.
❖Hubs are devices commonly used to connect segments of a LAN.
❖An example is a USB hub, which allows multiple USB devices to be connected
to one computer, even though that computer may only have a few USB
connections. Pictured is an example of a USB hub.
 Bridge
❖A bridge operates in the data link layer.
❖It can regenerate the signal that it receives and as a data link layer
device, it can check the physical (MAC) addresses of source and
destination contained in the frame.
❖The major difference between the bridge and the repeater is that the
bridge has a filtering capability.
❖That means it can check the destination address of a frame and decide if
the frame should be forwarded or dropped.
❖Ifthe frame is forwarded, then the bridge should specify the port over
which it should be forwarded.
 Switches
❖Switch is a network device that connects other devices
to Ethernet networks through twisted pair cables.
❖Ituses packet switching technique to receive, store and forward
data packets on the network.
❖Switches generally have a more intelligent role than hubs. A switch is a
multiport device that improves network efficiency.
❖Generally, switches can read the hardware addresses of incoming
packets to transmit them to the appropriate destination.
❖The switch maintains a list of network addresses of all the devices
connected to it.
❖A switch can work at the Data Link layer OSI model.
 Routers
❖Routers are inter-networking devices operating at layer 3 or a network
layer of the OSI model.
❖They are responsible for receiving, analysing, and forwarding data
packets among the connected computer networks.
❖When a data packet arrives, the router inspects the destination address,
consults its routing tables to decide the optimal route and then transfers
the packet along this route.
❖Ittransfers data in the form of IP packets. In order to transmit data, it
uses IP address mentioned in the destination field of the IP packet.
❖Routers have a routing table in it that is refreshed periodically
according to the changes in the network.
❖In order to transmit data packets, it consults the table and uses a
routing protocol.
 Gateways
❖A gateway is a hardware device that acts as a "gate" between
two networks.
❖It may be a router, firewall, server, or other device that enables traffic
to flow in and out of the network.
❖A gateway is normally operates in all the seven layers of OSI model.
❖Gateways perform all of the functions of routers and more. In fact, a
router with added translation functionality is a gateway.
❖Gateways make communication possible between different
architectures and environments.
 Modem
❖Modem is abbreviation for Modulator – Demodulator.
❖Modems are used for data transfer from one computer network to
another computer network through telephone lines.
❖The computer network works in digital mode, while analog technology
is used for carrying massages across phone lines.
❖Modem is a hardware device that allows a computer to send and
receive information over telephone lines.
❖When sending a signal, the device converts ("modulates") digital data to
an analog signal, and transmits it over a telephone line.
❖Similarly,when an analog signal is received, the modem converts it
back ("demodulates" it) to a digital signal.
 Repeater
❖As signals travel along a network cable they degrade and become
distorted in a process that is called attenuation.
❖Ifa cable is long enough, the attenuation will finally make a signal
unrecognizable by the receiver.
❖A Repeater enables signals to travel longer distances over a network.
❖Repeaters work at the OSI's Physical layer.
❖A repeater regenerates the received signals and then retransmits the
regenerated signals on other segments.
 Measuring Network Performance
❖Latency is the time required to transmit a packet across a network.
❖With regards to network performance measurement, latency is simply
the amount of time it takes for data to travel from one defined location to
another.
❖Latency is a synonym for delay.
❖ Latency will be as close to zero as possible.
❖Network latency can be measured by determining the round-trip time
(RTT) for a packet of data to travel to a destination and back again.
❖Latency is usually measured in milliseconds or ms.
❑Throughput is defined as the quantity of data being sent/received
by unit of time.
❑Throughput is presented as kbps, Mbps or Gbps.
❑Throughput refers to how much data can be transferred from one
location to another in a given amount of time.
You can think of bandwidth as a tube and data throughput as sand.
If you have a large tube, you can pour more sand through it at a faster rate.
Conversely, if you try to put a lot of sand through a small tube, it will go
very slowly.
❑Jitter
❖In Computer Networking, jitter refers to the delay variation in the
packets' arrival, i.e., a scenario where the time a network packet takes
to traverse from one host to the other differ.
❖Jitter, or network jitter, is the variance in time delay in milliseconds
(ms) between data packets over a network.
 Network Topology
❖Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the
components are interconnected to each other.
❖Network topology is the way a network is arranged.
 Mesh Topology
❖In a mesh network topology, each of the network node, computer and
other devices, are interconnected with one another.
❖This type of topology is very expensive as every computer is connected
to each other, thus it is not generally used in computer networks
❑Advantages:
1. Failure of a device does not affect the data transmission to the
destination device.
2. Easy to troubleshoot

❑Disadvantages:
1. It is difficult to set up.
2. It is more expensive than other topology.
 Star Topology
❖In Star topology, all the components of network are connected to the
central device with a point-to-point connection.
❖Every computer is indirectly connected to every other node by the help of
“hub”.
Advantages:
❖ It is easy to add or remove computers from this topology.
❖ If one link fails in the network, the other workstations are not affected.
❖ It is more reliable.
❖ In this topology, very high transmission rates are possible.
❑Disadvantages:
❖If the central hub fails, the whole network goes down.
❖Long cable length is required since each device is directly connected to
the hub.
❖It may be costly to install since long length cable is required.
 Bus Topology
❖In a network, when all the nodes are connected by a single physical cable
and the central cable becomes the backbone of the network then, it is
called as a Bus topology.
❖Usually Ethernet cable is used for Bus Topology. In this topology, the
information intended for the last node has to pass through all the
computers present in the network. If this cable is damaged then the
connection of all the computers will be lost.
❑Advantages:
❖It is very simple to design.
❖Require less cabling compared to other topologies.
❖It is easy to expand by simply joining two cables together.
❖Very cost-effective.
❑Disadvantages:
❖If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
❖If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network.
❖This topology is very slow compared to other topologies.
❖It is difficult to find the flaws and faults in the network connected with
this method.
 Ring Topology
❖It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is
connected to another computer, with the last one connected to the first.
❖Exactly two neighbours for each device.
❖A ring topology can be a logical circle that has no start and no
end. Terminators are not necessary in a ring topology.
❑Advantages:
❖Easy to install and reconfigure.
❖Adding or deleting a device in-ring topology needs you to move only two
connections.
❖Faster error checking and acknowledgment.

❑Disadvantages:
❖Unidirectional traffic.
❖Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.
❖Ring will become down also when any network maintenance happen.
❖Adding or removing the computers can disturb the network activity.
 Tree Topology
❖In Tree Topology, all the computer are connected like the branches of a
tree.
❖The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node.
❖In a tree topology, there can be only one connection between any two
connected nodes.
❖Because any two nodes can have only one mutual connection, tree
topologies create a natural parent and child hierarchy.
❖Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star
topology.
❑Advantages:
❖Other nodes in a network are not affected, if one of their nodes get
damaged
❖It provides easy maintenance and fault identification.
❖Existing network can be easily expanded.
❑Disadvantages:
❖If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
❖Central hub fails, network fails.
❖Large cabling is required as compared to star and bus topology.
 Hybrid Topology
❖It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more
topologies.
❖Combination of Star-Ring and Star-Bus networks are the most common
examples of the hybrid network topology.
❑Advantages:
❖Highly effective and flexible networking topology.
❖It is scalable so you can increase your network size.
❖If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the functioning
of the rest of the network.
❑Disadvantages:
❖The design of hybrid topology is complex
❖It is one of the costliest processes
❖The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of
cabling, network devices, etc.
 Network Types
❖A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer
network is mainly of four types:
❑LAN(Local Area Network)
❑PAN(Personal Area Network)
❑MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
❑WAN(Wide Area Network)
 LAN(Local Area Network)
❖Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a
small area such as building, office.
❖LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a
communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
❖It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs,
network adapters, and Ethernet cables.
❖The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area
Network.
❖Local Area Network provides higher security.
 PAN(Personal Area Network)
❖PAN is the interconnection between devices within the range of a
person’s private space, typically within a range of 10 metres.
❖If you have transferred images or songs from your laptop to mobile or
from mobile to your friend’s mobile using Bluetooth, you have set up
and used a personal area network.
❖A person can connect laptop, smart phone, personal digital assistant
and portable printer in a network at home. This network could be fully
Wi-Fi or a combination of wired and wireless.
❖There are two types of Personal Area Network (PAN):
❑Wired Personal Area Network
❑Wireless Personal Area Network
❖Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is
developed by simply using wireless technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth.
It is a low range network.
❖Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is
created by using the USB.
PAN
 MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
❖It is a network spread over a city, college campus or a small region.
❖MAN is larger than a LAN and typically spread over several kilometres.
❖Objective of MAN is to share hardware and software resources, thereby
decreasing infrastructure costs.
❖MAN can be built by connecting several LANs.
❖It can also be used for communication in the military.
• It mostly covers towns and cities in a maximum 50 km range
• Mostly used medium is optical fibre cables.
 WAN(Wide Area Network)
❖A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large
geographical area such as states or countries.
❖A WAN is quite bigger network than the LAN.
❖A WAN is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite
links.
❖The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
❖A WAN is widely used in the field of Business, government, and
education.
 Features of Computer network
❖Sharing devices such as printers saves money.
❖Site(software) licences are likely to be cheaper than buying several
standalone licences.
❖Files can easily be shared between users.
❖Network users can communicate by email and instant messenger.
❖Securityis good - users cannot see other users' files unlike on stand-
alone machines.
❖Data is easy to backup as all the data is stored on the file server.
❑Disadvantages
❖Purchasing the network cabling and file servers can be expensive.
❖Managing a large network is complicated, requires training and a
network manager usually needs to be employed.
❖If the file server breaks down the files on the file server become
inaccessible. Email might still work if it is on a separate server. The
computers can still be used but are isolated.
❖Viruses can spread to other computers throughout a computer
network.
❖There is a danger of hacking, particularly with wide area networks.
Security procedures are needed to prevent such abuse, eg a firewall.
 Network Architecture
❖A Computer Architecture is a design in which all computers in a
computer network are organized. An architecture defines how the
computers should get connected to get the maximum advantages of a
computer network.
❖The two types of widely used network architectures are peer-to-peer
aka P2P and client/server aka tiered.
❑Peer-to-Peer Architecture
❖In a peer-to-peer network, tasks are allocated to every device on the
network.
❖Furthermore, there is no real hierarchy in this network, all computers
are considered equal and all have the same abilities to use the resources
available on this network.
❖Instead of having a central server which would act as the shared drive,
each computer that's connected to this network would act as the server
for the files stored on it.
❑Advantages of a Peer to Peer Architecture
1) Less costly as there is no central server that has to take the backup.
2) In case of a computer failure all other computers in the network are not
affected and they will continue to work as same as before the failure.
3) Installation of peer to peer architecture is quite easy as each computer
manages itself.
❑Disadvantages of a Peer to Peer Architecture
1) Each computer has to take the backup rather than a central computer
and the security measures are to be taken by all the computers
separately.
2) Scalability is a issue in a peer to Peer Architecture as connecting each
computer to every computer is a headache on a very large network.
 Client Server Architecture
❖In a client/server network, a centralized, really powerful
computer(server) acts as a hub in which other computers or
workstations(clients) can connect to.
❖This server is the heart of the system, which manages and provides
resources to any client that requests them.
❖A server
performs all the major operations such as security and network
management.
❖All the clients communicate with each other through a server.
❖For example, if client1 wants to send some data to client 2, then it first
sends the request to the server for the permission. The server sends the
response to the client 1 to initiate its communication with the client 2.
❑Advantages of a client/server network
1. Data backup is easy and cost effective as there is no need to manage the
backup on each computer.
2. Performance is better as the response time is greatly improves because
the server is more powerful computer than the other computers in the
network.
3. Scalability is not an issue in this Architecture as large number of
computers can be connected with server.
❑Disadvantages of Client Server Architecture
1. In case of server failure entire network is down.
2. Server maintenance cost is high as the server is the main component in
this Architecture.
 OSI Model
➢OSI Model stands for Open System interconnection model.
➢It has been developed by ISO– ‘International Organization of
Standardization‘, in the year 1984.
➢Itis a 7 layer architecture with each layer having specific functionality to
perform.
➢All these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one
person to another across the globe.
➢OSI Model defines how data is transferred from one computer to another
computer.

❑ISO is the organization. OSI is the model.

Seven layers of the OSI model
 Layer 7: Application layer
➢In the OSI model, this is the layer that is the “closest to the end
user”.
➢Applications that work at Layer 7 are the ones that users interact
with directly.
➢A web browser (Google Chrome, Firefox, Safari, etc.) or other app -
Skype, Outlook, Office - are examples of Applications Layer.
➢Application layer defines the protocols that are used by computer
applications for example:
➢HTTP and HTTPS protocols are used by web browsers such as google
chrome, FireFox, Safari etc.
➢FTP protocol is used for file transfer between two or more
computers.
➢SMTP protocol is used for emails
➢Telnet is used for virtual terminals.
➢Inshort you can say that application layer provides the
services to computer applications with the help of protocols
that are defined in it.
 Layer 6: Presentation Layer
➢Presentation layer is also called the Translation layer.
➢The data from the application layer is extracted here and
manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the
network.
➢It acts as a data translator for a network.
❑Translation: The data received from application layer is in
form of characters and numbers such as 1234, ERFF etc.
➢The presentation layer converts these characters and numbers
into machine understandable format which is known as binary
format for example 100111101.
❑Encryption: To protect the sensitivity of data, presentation
layer encrypts the data at the sender side before the
transmission and the receiver side this data is decrypted by the
presentation layer at the receiver side.
➢Secure sockets layer protocol (SSL) is used by the presentation
layer for encryption and decryption.
❑Compression: Compress the data to small size so that it can
be transferred faster over a network. This compression can be
lossy or lossless compression.
 Layer 5: Session Layer

➢This layer is responsible for establishment of connection,

maintenance of sessions, authentication and also ensures
security.
➢When two devices, computers or servers need to “speak” with one
another, a session needs to be created, and this is done at the
Session Layer.
➢Functions at this layer involve setup, coordination (how long
should a system wait for a response, for example) and
termination between the applications at each end of the session.
 Layer 4: Transport Layer
➢TheTransport Layer deals with the coordination of the data
transfer between end systems and hosts.
➢How much data to send, at what rate, where it goes, etc.
➢The best known example of the Transport Layer is the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which is built on top of the
Internet Protocol (IP), commonly known as TCP/IP.
➢TCP and UDP port numbers work at Layer 4, while IP addresses
work at Layer 3, the Network Layer.
➢The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the
data completely.
➢Itreceives the data from the upper layer and converts them into
smaller units known as segments.
➢This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a
point-to-point connection between source and destination to
deliver the data reliably.
 Layer 3: Network Layer

➢Here at the Network Layer is where you’ll find most of the

router function.
➢The main purpose of network layer is to receive the data
segments from transport layer and transfer them from one
computer to another computer on different network.
➢It determines the best path to move data from source to the
destination based on the network conditions, the priority of
service, and other factors.
➢ Examples of protocols are IPv4 and Ipv6.
 Layer 2:Data Link Layer
➢The data link layer is responsible for the node to node delivery
of the message.
➢The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is
error-free from one node to another, over the physical layer.
➢When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of
DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.
➢In the networking world, most switches operate at Layer 2.
 Layer 1: Physical Layer

➢The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual

bits from one node to another node.
➢It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
➢It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
➢We know that a transport layer converts the data into segments, network
layer converts the segments into packets and data link layer converts the
packets into frames.
➢A frame is nothing but a sequence of bits such as 1001011.
➢Physical layer converts these binary sequences into signals and transfer it
through a transmission media such as cables etc.
 TCP/IP Model
❖TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol.
❖The TCP/IP model was created in the 1970s by the Defense Advance
Research Project Agency (DARPA) as an open, vendor-neutral, public
networking model.
❖Just like the OSI model, it describes general guidelines for designing and
implementing computer protocols.
❖Itconsists of four layers: Network Access, Internet, Transport, and
Application:
❖As you can see in picture, the TCP/IP model has fewer layers than the
OSI model.
❖The Application, Presentation, and Session layers of the OSI model
are merged into a single layer in the TCP/IP model. Also, Physical and
Data Link layers are called Network Access layer in the TCP/IP model.
❑Network Access Layer
❖A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
❖A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link
layer defined in the OSI reference model.
❖It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
❖This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between
two devices on the same network.
❑Internet Layer
❖An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
❖An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
❖The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from
any network, and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route
they take.
❑Transport Layer
❖The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and
correction of data which is being sent over the network.
❖The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram
protocol (UDP) and Transmission control protocol(TCP).

➢Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a connection-oriented protocol

that computers use to communicate over the internet.
➢It is one of the main protocols in TCP/IP networks.
➢TCP provides error-checking and guarantees delivery of data and that
packets will be delivered in the order they were sent.
➢TCP is reliable. Data sent using a TCP protocol is guaranteed to be
delivered to the receiver. If data is lost in transit it will recover the data
and resend it.
➢TCP uses a flow control mechanism that ensures a sender is not
overwhelming a receiver by sending too many packets at once.
➢TCP stores data in a send buffer and receives data in a receive buffer.
➢When an application is ready, it will read the data from the receive buffer.
If the receive buffer is full, the receiver would not be able to handle more
data and would drop it.
➢TCP does ordering and sequencing to guarantee that packets sent from a
server will be delivered to the client in the same order they were sent.
➢TCP is slower than UDP because it has a lot more to do. TCP has to
establish a connection, error-check, and guarantee that files are received
in the order they were sent.
❑How TCP Works
❖TCP is the most commonly used protocol on the Internet.
❖When you request a web page in your browser, your computer sends TCP
packets to the web server’s address, asking it to send the web page back
to you.
❖Theweb server responds by sending a stream of TCP packets, which your
web browser stitches together to form the web page.
❖When you click a link, sign in, post a comment, or do anything else, your
web browser sends TCP packets to the server and the server sends TCP
packets back.
❖TCP is used by HTTP, HTTPs, FTP, SMTP and Telnet.
❖User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a connectionless protocol that works
just like TCP but assumes that error-checking and recovery services are
not required.
❖Instead, UDP continuously sends datagrams to the recipient whether
they receive them or not.
❖UDP is unreliable, it does not provide guaranteed delivery and a
datagram packet may become corrupt or lost in transit.
❖UDP does not provide flow control. With UDP, packets arrive in a
continuous stream or they are dropped.
❖UDP sends packets in any order.
❑How UDP Works
➢UDP is used when speed is desirable and error correction isn’t necessary.
For example, UDP is frequently used for live broadcasts and online
games.
➢For example, let’s say you’re watching a live video stream, which are
often broadcast using UDP instead of TCP.
➢The server just sends a constant stream of UDP packets to computers
watching.
➢Ifyou lose your connection for a few seconds, the video may freeze or get
jumpy for a moment and then skip to the current bit of the broadcast.
➢If you experience minor packet-loss, the video or audio may be distorted
for a moment as the video continues to play without the missing data.
 Difference between TCP and UDP
TCP UDP
It is a connection-oriented protocol. It is a connectionless protocol.

TCP messages make their way across the It is not connection-based, so one program can
internet from one computer to another. send lots of packets to another.

TCP rearranges data packets in the specific UDP protocol has no fixed order because all
order. packets are independent of each other.

The speed for TCP is slower. UDP is faster as error recovery is not
attempted.
TCP does error checking and also makes error UDP performs error checking, but it discards
recovery. erroneous packets.

Acknowledgment segments No Acknowledgment segments

Using handshake protocol like SYN, SYN-ACK, No handshake (so connectionless protocol)
ACK
TCP is reliable as it guarantees delivery of data The delivery of data to the destination can't be
to the destination router. guaranteed in UDP.

TCP offers extensive error checking UDP has just a single error checking
mechanisms because it provides flow control mechanism which is used for checksums.
and acknowledgment of data.
❑Application Layer
❖An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
❖This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
❖TCP/IP protocol suite is included with a large number of applications
and application protocols.
❖This layer uses a number of protocols, the main among which are as
follows −
➢HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol.
➢This protocol allows us to access the data over the world wide web.
➢It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio, video.
➢Itis known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to use
in a hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps from one
document to another.
➢SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol.
❖The TCP/IP protocol that supports the e-mail is known as a Simple mail
transfer protocol.
❖This protocol is used to send the data to another e-mail address.
➢DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System.
❖An IP address is used to identify the connection of a host to the internet
uniquely.
❖But, people prefer to use the names instead of addresses. Therefore, the
system that maps the name to the address is known as Domain Name
System.
➢TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network.
❖It establishes the connection between the local computer and remote
computer in such a way that the local terminal appears to be a
terminal at the remote system.
➢FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol.
❖FTP is a standard internet protocol used for transmitting the files
from one computer to another computer.
Thank you!!!