PHY 7101: METHODS OF MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS

UNIT 1: LINEAR VECTOR SPACES

A vector space is the collection of objects, called vectors on which we have two operations;
vector addition and scalar multiplication

Operations must satisfy the following properties

 The sum 𝑢 + 𝑣 is in the vector space

 𝑢+𝑣 =𝑣+𝑢
 (𝑢 + 𝑣) + 𝑤 = 𝑢 + (𝑣 + 𝑤)
 There is a zero vector 0 + 𝑢 = 𝑢
 For each u we can find a – 𝑢 ∶ 𝑢 + (−𝑢) = 0
 The scalar multiple cu is in the vector space
 𝑐(𝑣 + 𝑢) = 𝑐𝑢 + 𝑐𝑣
 (𝑐 + 𝑑)𝑢 = 𝑐𝑢 + 𝑑𝑢
 𝑐(𝑑𝑢) = (𝑐𝑑)𝑢
 1𝑢 = 𝑢

Example 1

 ℝ𝑛 is an example of a vector space

Example 2

𝑃𝑛 is the collection of all polynomials of degree n or less

𝑃3 = {𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 3 ; 𝑎𝑖 ∈ ℝ}

P is the collection of all polynomials of any degree

Example 3

The set of all infinite sequences made up of real numbers

𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 …

Example 4
 PHY 7101: METHODS OF MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS

The set of real-valued functions on a set of real numbers.

A real-valued function of a real variable is a mapping of a subset of the set R of all real
numbers into R. For example, a function f(n) = 2n, n = 0, ±1, ±2, …, is a mapping of the set R' of
all integers into R', or more precisely a one-to-one mapping of R' onto the set R″ of all even
numbers, which shows R' ∼ R″

Subspace

A subspace of a vector space V is a subset H of V which has three properties

 The zero vector is in H

 H is closed under vector addition
 H is closed under scalar multiplication

Observation

Every subspace satisfies all the rules of a vector space. So every subspace is a vector space

Zero subspace

The set H={0} is a subspace of any vector space. This is the trivial subspace

Example 1

Determine subspace

Is the following set a subspace

𝑐1
𝐻 = {[ 0 ]: 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 ∈ ℝ3 }
𝑐2

1. Yes, H contains the zero vector. Let 𝑐1 = 0, 𝑐2 = 0

𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑎1 + 𝑏1
0
2. [ ] + [ 0 ] = [ 0 ] this is in H. so H is closed under addition
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑎2 + 𝑏2
𝑎1 𝑐𝑎1
3. 𝑐 [ 0 ] = [ 0 ] This is in H is closed under scalar multiplication
𝑎2 𝑐𝑎2
 PHY 7101: METHODS OF MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS

Hence H is a subspace

Example 2

Determine subspace

Is the following set a subspace of ℝ3

𝑐1
𝐻 = {[ 4 ]: 𝑐1 ∈ ℝ}
−𝑐1

Is not subspace because there is no zero vector is in H

Example 3

Determine subspace

Is the following set a subspace of ℝ3

7𝑐1
𝐻 = {[ 4𝑐1 ]: 𝑐1 ∈ ℝ}
−2𝑐1

1. Yes, H contains the zero vector. Let 𝑐1 = 0

7𝑎1 7𝑏1 7𝑎1 + 7𝑏1 7(𝑎1 + 𝑏1 )
2. [ 4𝑎1 ] + [ 4𝑏1 ] = [ 4𝑎1 + 4𝑏1 ] = [ 4(𝑎1 + 4𝑏1 ) ] So H is closed under addition
−2𝑎1 −2𝑏1 −2𝑎2 + −2𝑏2 −2(𝑎2 + 𝑏2 )
7𝑎1 7(𝑐𝑎1 )
3. 𝑐 [ 4𝑎1 ] = [ 4(𝑐𝑎1 ) ] This is in H is closed under scalar multiplication
−2𝑎1 −2(𝑐𝑎2 )

Hence H is a subspace

Example 4

Determine subspace

Is the following set a subspace of ℝ3

𝑐1
𝐻 = {[𝑐 ]: 𝑐1 ∈ ℝ}
2
 PHY 7101: METHODS OF MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS

Is not a subspace of ℝ3 but subspace of ℝ2

Example 5

Determine subspace

Is the following set a subspace of 𝑃3

𝐻 = {𝑎0 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 : 𝑎0 , 𝑎2 ∈ ℝ}

1. Yes, H contains the zero vector. Let 𝑎0 = 0, 𝑎2 = 0

2. (𝑎0 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 ) + (𝑏0 + 𝑏2 𝑥 2 ) = (𝑎0 + 𝑏0 ) + (𝑎2 + 𝑏2 )𝑥 2 So H is closed under addition
3. 𝑐(𝑎0 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 ) = 𝑐𝑎0 + 𝑐𝑎2 𝑥 2 This is in H is closed under scalar multiplication

Example 6

Determine subspace

Is the following set a subspace of 𝑃3

𝐻 = {6 + 𝑎0 𝑥: 𝑎0 , 𝑎2 ∈ ℝ}

Is not subspace of 𝑃3 because it does not contain zero vector

Example 7

Determine subspace

Is the following set ofa subspace of 𝑃3 (with polynomial function notation)

𝐻 = {𝑝(𝑥): 𝑝(7) = 0}

𝐻 = {𝑝(𝑥): 𝑝(7) = 0}

𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 49

𝑝(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 14

Not in H 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 4

1. Yes the zero vector is in H 𝑝(𝑥) = 0

 PHY 7101: METHODS OF MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS

2. 𝑝1 (𝑥) + 𝑝2 (𝑥) = (𝑝1 + 𝑝2 )(𝑥)

𝑝1 (7) + 𝑝2 (7) = 0 + 0
𝑝1 + 𝑝2 ∈ 𝐻
H is closed under addition
3. 𝑐𝑝(7) = 𝑐0 = 0
𝑐𝑝 ∈ 𝐻
H is closed under scalar multiplication

Example

Determine subspace

Is the following set ofa subspace of the set of all function defined in ℝ

𝐻 = {𝑓(𝑥): 𝑓(4) = −2}

Is not subspace of ℝ because it does not contain zero vector

Example

Determine subspace

Is the following set ofa subspace of the set of all function defined in ℝ

𝐻 = {𝑓(𝑥): 𝑓(−3) = 0}

1. Yes the zero vector is in H 𝑓(−3) = 0

2. (𝑓1 + 𝑓2 )(−3) = 𝑓1 (−3) + 𝑓2 (−3) = 0 + 0 = 0
H is closed under addition
3. 𝑐𝑓(−3) = 𝑐0 = 0
H is closed under scalar multiplication

Hence H is a subspace

Linear combination

A linear combination of a vector refers to any sum of scalar multiples of the vectors
 PHY 7101: METHODS OF MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS

𝑐1 𝑣1 + 𝑐2 𝑣2 + 𝑐3 𝑣3

Span of a set

The span of a set of vectors {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 , … 𝑣𝑝 } is the set of all linear combinations of those vectors

Span is a subspace

If {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 , … 𝑣𝑝 } is a set of vectors in a vector space V then span{𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 , … 𝑣𝑝 } is a subspace

of V

Example

Is the polynomial 3𝑥 2 + 2 in 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛{2𝑥 + 1, 3𝑥 + 4}

𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛{2𝑥 + 1, 3𝑥 + 4}

3𝑥 2 + 2 = 𝑐1 (2𝑥 + 1) + 𝑐2 (3𝑥 + 4)

3𝑥 2 + 2 = 2𝑐1 𝑥 + 𝑐1 + 3𝑐2 𝑥 + 4𝑐2

The left hand side is quadratic, the right hand side is linear so 3𝑥 2 + 2 is not linear combination
so not in the span

Example

Is the polynomial 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 2 in 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛{𝑥 2 + 1, 3𝑥 − 1}

3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 2 = 𝑐1 (𝑥 2 + 1) + 𝑐2 (3𝑥 − 1)

3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 2 = 𝑐1 𝑥 2 + +3𝑐2 𝑥 + 𝑐1 − 𝑐2

𝑐1 = 3

3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 2 = 3 × 𝑥 2 + 3𝑐2 𝑥 + 3 − 𝑐2

−4𝑥 + 2 = 3𝑐2 𝑥 + 3 − 𝑐2

−4
𝑐2 =
3
 PHY 7101: METHODS OF MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS

−4 −4
−4𝑥 + 2 = 3 × 𝑥+3−
3 3

13
−4𝑥 + 2 = −4𝑥 +
3

13
2=
3

False

So 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 2 is not in span

Question

Is the polynomial 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 5 in span {𝑥 2 + 1,3𝑥 − 1}

Linearly independent

A set of vectors {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 , … 𝑣𝑝 } in a vector space V is linearly independent if the vector

equation

𝑐1 𝑣1 + 𝑐2 𝑣2 + ⋯ 𝑐𝑝 𝑣𝑝 = 0

Only has the trivial solution

Linearly dependent

A set of vectors {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 , … 𝑣𝑝 } in a vector space V is linearly dependent if one vector can be
written as alinear combination of others.

𝑐2 𝑣2 + ⋯ 𝑐𝑝 𝑣𝑝 = −𝑐1 𝑣1

Determine independence/dependence

Example

Determine whether the following vectors are linearly independent or linearly dependent in ℝ3
 PHY 7101: METHODS OF MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS

2 −1 1
𝑣1 = [3] 𝑣2 = [ 0 ] 𝑣3 = [ 6 ]
1 −2 −4

Solution

2 −1 1 𝑐1 0
[3 0 6 ] [𝑐2 ] = [0]
1 −2 −4 𝑐3 0

Has nontrivial solution there fore the vectors are linearly dependent

Example

Determine whether the following vectors are linearly independent or linearly dependent in 𝑃2

𝑣1 = 3, 𝑣2 = 4𝑥 − 2 , 𝑣3 = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1

Solution

𝑣1 = 3, 𝑣2 = 4𝑥 − 2 , 𝑣3 = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1

𝑐1 𝑣1 + 𝑐2 𝑣2 + 𝑐3 𝑣3 = 0

𝑐1 (3) + 𝑐2 (4𝑥 − 2 ) + 𝑐3 (𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1) = 0

3𝑐1 + 4𝑐2 𝑥 − 2𝑐2 + 𝑐3 𝑥 2 − 3𝑐3 𝑥 + 𝑐3 = 0

𝑐3 𝑥 2 +(4𝑐2 − 3𝑐3 )𝑥 + (3𝑐1 + −2𝑐2 + 𝑐3 ) = 0

For the polynomial to be zero we must have

𝑐3 = 0

4𝑐2 − 3𝑐3 = 0 → 𝑐2 = 0

3𝑐1 + −2𝑐2 + 𝑐3 = 0 → 𝑐1 = 0

Only the trivial solution

So vectors are linearly independent

Question
 PHY 7101: METHODS OF MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS

Determine whether the following vectors are linearly independent or linearly dependent in 𝑃2

𝑣1 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥, 𝑣2 = 4𝑥 − 2 , 𝑣3 = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥

Basis

Let H be a subspace of a vector space V. A set of vectors 𝛽 = {𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , … 𝑏𝑝 } is a basis for H if

(i) 𝛽 is a linearly independent set of vectors and

(ii) 𝐻 = 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛{𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , … 𝑏𝑝 }

Basis for ℝ𝒏

(i) The columns of the identity matrix form one basis for ℝ𝑛
(ii) The columns of × matrix are a basis if and only if the matrix row reduces to identiy
(iii) The columns of 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix are basis if and only if the matrix is invertible

Basis for 𝑷𝒏

(i) The set {1, 𝑥, 𝑥 2 , … 𝑥 2 } is the basis for 𝑝𝑛 . This is the standard basis for 𝑝𝑛
(ii) Any set 𝑛 + 1 linearly independent polynomials form a basis for 𝑝𝑛

Example

Determine if the vectors form a basis for ℝ3

3 −2
𝑣1 = [−2] 𝑣2 = [ 1 ]
4 1

It can not form basis because even putting the matrix together you can not get the square matrix.

Example

Determine if the vectors form a basis for ℝ3

2 5 1
𝑣1 = [4] 𝑣2 = [6] 𝑣3 = [−1]
1 7 3
 PHY 7101: METHODS OF MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS

Solution

2 5 1 1 0 0
𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑓 [4 6 −1] = [0 1 0]
1 7 3 0 0 1

The vector do for a basis ℝ3

Example

Determine basis for 𝑃𝑛

Is the set {1,2𝑥 + 3, 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5} a basis for 𝑃2

Solution

Check for linear independent

1,2𝑥 + 3, 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5

𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 𝑥 + 3𝑐2 + 𝑐3 𝑥 2 − 4𝑐3 𝑥 + 5𝑐3 = 0

𝑐3 𝑥 2 + (2𝑐2 − 4𝑐3 )𝑥 + 5𝑐3 + 𝑐1 + 3𝑐2 = 0

𝑐3 = 0

2𝑐2 − 4𝑐3 = 0 → 𝑐2 = 0

5𝑐3 + 𝑐1 + 3𝑐2 → 𝑐1 = 0

The vectors are linearly independent

We have 3 of them

So the vectors would be the basis for the polynomials

CHANGE OF BASIS

Choose a basis.

When we choose a basis for a vector space V, the coordinate mapping onto ℝ𝑛 provides a
coordinate system for V
 PHY 7101: METHODS OF MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS

𝛽 coordinate vector

𝑣 = 𝑐1 𝑏1 + 𝑐2 𝑏1 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑝 𝑏𝑝

𝑐1
𝑐2.
The coordinate vector of 𝑣 (relative to the basis 𝛽) is the vector [𝑣]𝛽 = [ .. ]
𝑐𝑝

Lots of basis

Abasis for a vector space is not unique(we may find many)

Why use different bases

Being able to translate and communicate between people using different systems

Transformations are going to look nicer in different bases

Use basis

2
 Think about vector 𝑥 = [ ]
1
4 2
 If we are using the basis 𝛽 = {[ ] , [ ]}
−1 1
0
 The 𝛽 coordinate vector for x is [𝑣]𝛽 = [[ ]]
1

4 2 0 2 4 2 2
Look [ ][ ] = [ ] 0[ ] + 1[ ] = [ ]
−1 1 1 1 −1 1 1

Translate

Two bases 𝛽 = {𝑏1 , 𝑏2 } and 𝑐 = {𝑐1 , 𝑐2 } where 𝑏1 = 2𝑐1 + 𝑐2 and 𝑏2 = 1𝑐1 + 4𝑐2

Let 𝑣 = 5𝑏1 + 3𝑏2 write v with respect to c

𝑏1 = 2𝑐1 + 𝑐2 and 𝑏2 = 1𝑐1 + 4𝑐2

Let 𝑣 = 5𝑏1 + 3𝑏2

 PHY 7101: METHODS OF MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS

𝑣 = 5(2𝑐1 + 𝑐2 ) + 3(𝑐1 + 4𝑐2 )

𝑣 = 7𝑐1 + 17𝑐2

Translate

Two bases 𝛽 = {𝑏1 , 𝑏2 } and 𝑐 = {𝑐1 , 𝑐2 } where 𝑏1 = 2𝑐1 + 𝑐2 and 𝑏2 = −1𝑐1 + 4𝑐2

5
Let [𝑣]𝛽 = [ ]
3

Find [𝑣]𝑐

5
Let [𝑣]𝛽 = [ ]
3

[𝑣]𝛽 → [𝑣]𝑐

2 −1 5 7
[ ] [ ] = [ ] = [𝑣]𝑐
1 4 3 17

2
[ ] = [𝑏1 ]𝑐
1

−1
[ ] = [𝑏2 ]𝑐
4

Use matrix to translate

 Change of basis matrix

 Ingenera [𝑥]𝑐 = 𝑃𝑐 ← 𝛽[𝑥]𝛽
 Where 𝑃𝑐 ← [[𝑏1 ]𝑐 , [𝑏2 ]𝑐 ]

Change of basis matrix

Let 𝐴 = {𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 } and 𝐵 = {𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 } be the bases for a vector space V

𝑎1 = 2𝑏1 + 4𝑏3

𝑎2 = −1𝑏1 + 5𝑏2 + 6𝑏3

𝑎3 = 2𝑏2 + 4𝑏3
 PHY 7101: METHODS OF MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS

Find 𝑷𝑩←𝑨

𝑎1 = 2𝑏1 + 4𝑏3

𝑎2 = −1𝑏1 + 5𝑏2 + 6𝑏3

𝑎3 = 2𝑏2 + 4𝑏3

[𝑣]𝐴 → [𝑣]𝐵

2 −1 0
𝑃𝐵←𝐴 = [0 5 1]
4 6 4

Check

2 −1 0 1 2
𝑃𝐵←𝐴 = [0 ]
5 1 0 [ ] = [ 0]
4 6 4 0𝐴 4𝐵

Gram- Schmidt Process

Goal

Given a subspace W of ℝ𝑛 we would like to find an orthogonal or orthonormal basis for W

The Gram-Schmidt process allows us to start with any basis for W and construct a new basis that
is orthogonal(or orthonomal, as desired)

The processes

Let {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑝 } be the basis for W. the we construct new vectors 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑝 as follows

𝑣1 = 𝑥1

𝑥2 𝑣1
𝑣2 = 𝑥2 −
𝑣1 . 𝑣1

𝑥2 . 𝑣1
𝑣2 = 𝑥2 − 𝑣
𝑣1 . 𝑣1 1
 PHY 7101: METHODS OF MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS

𝑥3 . 𝑣1 𝑥3 . 𝑣2
𝑣3 = 𝑥3 − 𝑣1 − 𝑣
𝑣1 . 𝑣1 𝑣2 . 𝑣2 2

𝑥𝑝 . 𝑣1 𝑥𝑝 . 𝑣2 𝑥𝑝 . 𝑣𝑝−1
𝑣𝑝 = 𝑥𝑝 − 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 − ⋯ − 𝑣
𝑣1 . 𝑣1 𝑣2 . 𝑣2 𝑣𝑝−1 . 𝑣𝑝−1 𝑝−1

Theorem

The vectors {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑝 } form an orthogonal basis for W

Idea of proof

 𝑣2 is the component of 𝑥2 that is orthogonal to 𝑣1

 𝑣3 is the component of 𝑥3 that is orthogonal to 𝑣1 and 𝑣2
 Etc

Orthonormal basis

 If an orthonormal basis is desired, then we first use Gram-Schmidt to find an orthogonal

basis
 Then we normalise each vector to obtain an orthonomal basis

Example

1 −1 2
Let 𝑥1 = [ ], 𝑥2 = [ ] and 𝑥3 = [ 0 ]
0 1
2 0 0
−1 1 −2

And let 𝑊 = 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛{𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , }

Find an orthonomal for W

1
𝑣1 = 𝑥1 = [ 0 ]
2
−1
 PHY 7101: METHODS OF MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS

2
−
3
−1 1 1
𝑥2 𝑣1 −2
𝑣2 = 𝑥2 − 𝑣1 = [ 1 ] − ( ) [0] = 2
𝑣1 . 𝑣1 0 6 2
1 1 3
2
[ 3 ]

𝑥2 . 𝑣1
𝑣2 = 𝑥2 − 𝑣
𝑣1 . 𝑣1 1

4
2
− 7
3 8
2 1 −8 1
𝑥3 . 𝑣1 𝑥3 . 𝑣2 4
𝑣3 = 𝑥3 − 𝑣1 − 𝑣2 = [0] − ( ) [0] − ( 3 ) 2 = 7
𝑣1 . 𝑣1 𝑣2 . 𝑣2 0 6 2 7 4
2 1 3 3 −
2 7
4
[ 3 ]
[− 7]