Mars

. Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun. It is nicknamed "the Red Planet" for its
orange-red appearance, readily visible from Earth.[22][23] Mars is a cold rocky desert
planet with surface temperatures from −110 °C (−166 °F) to 35 °C (95 °F), and a
tenuous carbon dioxide (CO2) atmosphere, which has an average surface pressure
of less than a hundredth of Earth's, making the surface highly exposed to cosmic
radiation. On Mars there is no liquid surface water, but atmospheric water
forms cirrus clouds, a large quantity of water ice exists underground, and the polar
regions are covered in water ice, as well as seasonal carbon dioxide snow. Its
surface gravity is roughly a third of Earth's or double that of the Moon. It is half as
wide as Earth, with a diameter of 6,779 km (4,212 mi), and has a surface area the
size of all the dry land of Earth.

Fine dust is prevalent across the surface and the atmosphere, being picked up and
spread at the low Martian gravity even by the weak wind of the tenuous atmosphere.
The terrain of Mars roughly follows a north-south divide, the Martian dichotomy, with
the northern hemisphere mainly consisting of relatively flat, low lying plains, and the
southern hemisphere of cratered highlands. Geologically, the planet is fairly active
with marsquakes trembling underneath the ground, but also hosts many enormous
extinct volcanoes (the tallest is Olympus Mons, 21.9 km or 13.6 mi tall) and one of
the largest canyons in the Solar System (Valles Marineris, 4,000 km or 2,500 mi
long). Mars has two natural satellites that are small and irregular in
shape: Phobos and Deimos. With a significant axial tilt of 25 degrees Mars
experiences seasons, like Earth (which has an axial tilt of 23.5 degrees). A Martian
solar year is equal to 1.88 Earth years (687 Earth days), a Martian solar day (sol) is
equal to 24.6 hours.

Mars was formed approximately 4.5 billion years ago. During the Noachian period
(4.5 to 3.5 billion years ago), it's surface was marked by meteor impacts, valley
formation, erosion, the possible presence of water oceans and the loss of
its magnetosphere. The Hesperian period (3.5 to 3.3–2.9 billion years ago) was
dominated by widespread volcanic activity and flooding that carved immense outflow
channels. The Amazonian period, which continues to the present is the currently
dominating and remaining influence on geological processes. Due to Mars's
geological history, the possibility of past or present life on Mars remains an area of
active scientific investigation.

Mars has been observed throughout history and has been an element in many
cultures with different associations. In 1963 the first flight to Mars took place with the
en-route lost Mars 1. The first successful exploration of Mars came about in 1965
with Mariner 4. 1971 saw the very first orbit around Mars and anywhere beyond the
Moon (Mariner 9), as well as the first (uncontrolled) impact (Mars 2) and landing
(Mars 3) on Mars. As of 2023, there are at least 11 active probes orbiting Mars or on
the Martian surface. Mars is an often proposed target for future human exploration
missions, though no such mission is planned yet.

Natural history
Main article: Geological history of Mars

Scientists have theorized that during the Solar System's formation, Mars was created
as the result of a random process of run-away accretion of material from
the protoplanetary disk that orbited the Sun. Mars has many distinctive chemical
features caused by its position in the Solar System. Elements with comparatively low
boiling points, such as chlorine, phosphorus, and sulfur, are much more common on
Mars than on Earth; these elements were probably pushed outward by the young
Sun's energetic solar wind.[24]

After the formation of the planets, the inner Solar System may have been subjected
to the so-called Late Heavy Bombardment. About 60% of the surface of Mars shows
a record of impacts from that era,[25][26][27] whereas much of the remaining surface is
probably underlain by immense impact basins caused by those events. However,
more recent modeling has disputed the existence of the Late Heavy Bombardment.
[28]
There is evidence of an enormous impact basin in the Northern Hemisphere of
Mars, spanning 10,600 by 8,500 kilometres (6,600 by 5,300 mi), or roughly four
times the size of the Moon's South Pole–Aitken basin, which would be the largest
impact basin yet discovered if confirmed.[29] It has been hypothesized that the basin
was formed when Mars was struck by a Pluto-sized body about four billion years
ago. The event, thought to be the cause of the Martian hemispheric dichotomy,
created the smooth Borealis basin that covers 40% of the planet.[30][31]

A 2023 study shows evidence, based on the orbital inclination of Deimos (a

Artist’s impression of Mars four billion years ago

The geological history of Mars can be split into many periods, but the following are
the three primary periods:[35][36]

 Noachian period: Formation of the oldest extant surfaces of Mars, 4.5 to 3.5 billion years
ago. Noachian age surfaces are scarred by many large impact craters.
The Tharsis bulge, a volcanic upland, is thought to have formed during this period, with
extensive flooding by liquid water late in the period. Named after Noachis Terra.[37]
 Hesperian period: 3.5 to between 3.3 and 2.9 billion years ago. The Hesperian period is
marked by the formation of extensive lava plains. Named after Hesperia Planum.[37]
 Amazonian period: between 3.3 and 2.9 billion years ago to the present. Amazonian
regions have few meteorite impact craters but are otherwise quite varied. Olympus
 Mons formed during this period, with lava flows elsewhere on Mars. Named
after Amazonis Planitia.[37]
Geological activity is still taking place on Mars. The Athabasca Valles is home to
sheet-like lava flows created about 200 million years ago. Water flows in
the grabens called the Cerberus Fossae occurred less than 20 million years ago,
indicating equally recent volcanic intrusions.[38] The Mars Reconnaissance
Orbiter has captured images of avalanches