ME 2403 Mechanics of Solids

4 hours/week Credits: 4.00

Professor Dr. Md. Anowar Hossain

Department of Mechanical Engineering
DUET, Gazipur
Email: anowar96me@gmail.com, anowar96me@duet.ac.bd
Mobile: 01821769479, 01993399304

11/15/2020 ME 2403_Lecture-19_ Prof. Dr. Md. Anowar Hossain 1

 Lecture-19

COLUMNS

11/15/2020 ME 2403_Lecture-19_ Prof. Dr. Md. Anowar Hossain 2

 Lecture Learning Outcome

1) Study basic concepts of elastic buckling of slender columns.

2) Derive formulas for the Euler buckling load of slender columns
having a variety of different support conditions.
3) Study the buckled mode shapes and compute the effective lengths
of columns with different support conditions.
4) Study the secant formula, which gives maximum compressive
stresses in slender columns acted on by eccentric axial compressive
loads.

11/15/2020 ME 2403_Lecture-19_ Prof. Dr. Md. Anowar Hossain 3

 Introduction
Columns and struts: A structural member , subjected to axial compressive force, is called a strut.
These may be horizontal, inclined or even vertical.
The vertical struts which are being used in buildings and frames are more precisely called as
columns which are relatively long compared to their lateral dimensions.
Generally, the term column is used to denote vertical members and the term strut denotes inclined
members.

Examples: strut in a truss, Piston rods, side links in forging machines, connecting rods etc.

COLUMNS AND STRUTS

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 Introduction

BUCKLING PHENOMENON
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 Introduction

USES OF STRUTS

TO SUPPORT ROOFS

AS SUSPENSIONS IN IN MAKING FRAMES

AUTOMIBILES Eg. LADDER

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 Introduction
Stability of a Structure:
Structural stability can be defined as the power to recover equilibrium.
Stable equilibrium: A stable equilibrium is one in which a body in static
equilibrium on being displaced slightly, returns to its original position and
continues to remain in equilibrium.
Neutral equilibrium: A neutral equilibrium is
one in which a body in equilibrium, on being
displaced does not returns to its original
position, but its motion stops and resumes its
equilibrium state in its new position.
Unstable equilibrium: An unstable
equilibrium is one in which a body in
equilibrium on being slightly disturbed,
moves away from its equilibrium position
Equilibrium diagram for buckling of an
and loses its state of equilibrium.
idealized structure
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 Introduction
Buckling Load: The transition between the stable and unstable conditions occurs at
a special value of the axial force known as the critical load (denoted by the symbol Pcr).
The maximum load which a column can support before becoming unstable is known as
buckling load or crippling load or critical load

If the axial load is less than Pcr, the effect of the moment in the spring
predominates, and the structure returns to the vertical position after a slight
disturbance; if the axial load is larger than Pcr , the effect of the axial force
predominates and the structure buckles:
If P < Pcr , the structure is stable.
If P > Pcr , the structure is unstable.
At this stage, the maximum stress in the column will be less
than the yield stress (crushing stress) of the material.
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 Introduction
Safe load: It is the load to which a column is subjected
to and is well below the buckling load. It is obtained by
dividing the buckling load by a suitable factor of safety.

safe load = buckling load / factor of safety

Stability factor: The ratio of critical load to the

allowable load on a column is called stability factor

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 MODES OF FAILURE OF THE COLUMNS
The mode of failure of columns depends upon their lengths and depending on the
mode of failure columns are classified as

a. Short columns b. Long columns

Short Columns: A short column buckles under compression as shown in figure
and fails by crushing. The load causing failure is called crushing load.
P
The load carrying capacity of a short column depends only on its cross
sectional area (A) and the crushing stress of the material(σcu). The crushing
load Pu for axially loaded short column is given by Pcu =σcu × A .

The safe load on the column is obtained by dividing the crushing load
by suitable factor of safety. i.e., Psafe =Pcu/ FS P

11/15/2020 ME 2403_Lecture-19_ Prof. Dr. Md. Anowar Hossain 10

 MODES OF FAILURE OF THE COLUMNS
Long columns: Long columns, which are also called slender
columns, when subjected to compression, deflects or bends in a
lateral direction as shown in the figure. The lateral deflection of
the long column is called buckling.

The long column fails when there is excessive buckling i.e. when the load
on the column exceeds critical load.

Critical load denotes the maximum load carrying capacity of the long
column.
The load carrying capacity of long column depends upon several factors like
the length of the column, M.I of its cross–section, Modulus of elasticity of the
material, nature of its support, in addition to area of cross section and the
crushing strength of the material.
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 MODES OF FAILURE OF THE COLUMNS

Short columns fails by crushing or yielding of the material under the load P1
Long column fails by buckling at a substantially smaller load P2 (less than P1).

The buckling load is less than the crushing load for a

long column
The value of buckling load for long column is low P1
whereas for short column the value of buckling load
is relatively high.

P2

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 Failure of long columns(contd)

Consider a long column of uniform cross sectional area A

throughout its length L subjected to an axial compressive load
P. The load at which the column just buckles is known as
buckling load or crippling load.
Stress due to axial load σc = P/A
Stress due to buckling
σb = ( M.ymax)/I
= {(P.e).ymax}/I
= (P.e)/ Z
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 Failure of long columns(contd)
Extreme stress at centre of column will be the sum of direct compressive
stress and buckling stress
σmax = σc + σb
In case of long columns, the direct compressive stresses are negligible when
compared to buckling stress. So always long columns fail due to buckling.

Intermediate Columns: These are columns which have moderate length,

length lesser than that of long columns and greater than that of short columns.

In these columns both bulging and buckling effects are predominant. They
show the behavior of both long columns and short columns when loaded.

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 EULER’S THEORY (FOR LONG COLUMNS)
Assumptions:
➢ The column is initially straight and of uniform lateral
dimension
➢ The material of the column is homogeneous, isotropic,
obeys Hookes law
➢ The stresses are within elastic limit
➢ The compressive load is axial and passes through the
centroid of the section
➢ The self weight of the column itself is neglected.
➢ The column fails by buckling alone
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 EULER’S THEORY (FOR LONG COLUMNS)
Sign convention for Bending Moments

A Bending moment which bends the column as to

present convexity towards the initial centre line of the
member will be regarded as positive

Bending moment which bends the column as to

present concavity towards the initial centre line of
the member will be regarded as negative

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 EULER’S FORMULA FOR PIN-ENDED BEAMS (BOTH ENDS HINGED)
Consider an axially loaded long column AB of length L. Its both ends
A and B are hinged. Due to axial compressive load P, let the deflection
at distance x from A be y.

The bending moment at the section is

given by
d2y
=-Py
EI dx2

-ve sign on right hand side, since

as x increases curvature decreases
d2y Py
2 + =0
dx EI
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 EULER’S FORMULA FOR PIN-ENDED BEAMS (BOTH ENDS HINGED)
This is the linear differential equation, whose solution is
Y = c1.cos [x√P/(EI)] + c2.sin[x √P/(EI)] …(1)
Where c1 and c2 are the constants of integration. They
can be found using the boundary conditions.
At x =0, y =0,we get c1=0 (from eq.1)
Also at x=L, y =0 we get
c2 .sin [L√P/(EI)] =0
If c2 = 0, then y at any section is zero, which means
there is no lateral deflection which is not true
Therefore sin [L√P/(EI)] =0
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 EULER’S FORMULA FOR PIN-ENDED BEAMS (BOTH ENDS HINGED)
This is the linear differential equation, whose solution is
Y = c1.cos [x√P/(EI)] + c2.sin[x √P/(EI)] …(1)
Where c1 and c2 are the constants of integration. They can be found
using the boundary conditions.
At x =0, y =0,we get c1=0 (from eq.1)
Also at x=L, y =0 we get
c2 .sin [L√P/(EI)] =0
If c2 = 0, then y at any section is zero, which means
there is no lateral deflection which is not true
Therefore sin [L√P/(EI)] =0
11/15/2020 ME 2403_Lecture-19_ Prof. Dr. Md. Anowar Hossain 19
 Euler’s Formula for Pin-Ended Beams (both ends hinged)
sin [L√P/(EI)] =0

=> [L√P/(EI)] = 0, π, 2 π ,……n π

Taking least non zero value we get
[L√P/(EI)] = π
Squaring both sides and simplifying

This load is called critical or buckling load or crippling load

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 Extension of Euler’s formula

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 Note: L is the actual length of respective column and Le is to be considered in calculating
Euler's buckling load
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 The Effective length: of a column with given end conditions is the
length of an equivalent column with both ends hinged, made up of
same material having same cross section, subjected to same
crippling load (buckling load) as that of given column.
Slenderness ratio: It is the Ratio of the effective length of the
column to the least radius of gyration of the cross sectional ends of
the column.
Slenderness ratio, λ =Le /k
Least radius of gyration, k= √ Imin/A
Imin is the least of I xx and I yy
L =actual length of the column
Le=effective length of the column
11/15/2020 A= area of crossMEsection of Prof.
2403_Lecture-19_ theDr.column
Md. Anowar Hossain 23
 ILLUSTRATIVE NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
1. A solid round bar 60mm in diameter and 2.5m long is
used as a strut. One end of the strut is fixed, while its other
end is hinged. Find the safe compressive load, for this strut,
using Euler’s formula. Assume E=200GN/m2 and factor of
safety =3.
Solution: end condition: one end hinged, other end fixed
effective length Le = L /(√ 2)= 2.5/ (√ 2)= 1.768m
Euler’s crippling load =PE= (π2EI) / Le 2
= [π 2 × 200 × 109 × π × (0.06)4 /64] / (1.7682)
= 401.7 ×103 N =401.4 kN
11/15/2020
Safe compressiveMEload = P Prof./3Dr. Md. Anowar
2403_Lecture-19_E
=133.9kN
Hossain 24
 Based on slenderness ratio ,columns are classified as
short ,long and intermediate columns.
Generally the slenderness ratio of short column is less
than 32 ,and that of long column is greater than 120,
Intermediate columns have slenderness ratio greater than
32 and less than 120.

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 Limitation of Euler's theory

The validity of Euler’s theory is subjected to condition that

failure is due to buckling. The Euler’s formula for crippling is
Pcr= (π 2 EI) / Le 2
But I =Ak2

∴ Pcr/A= π 2E/(Le/K)2
σcr = π2E/(Le/K)2
Where σcr is crippling stress or critical stress or stress at failure
The term Le/K is called slenderness ratio. As slenderness ratio
increases critical load/stress reduces. The variation of critical stress
with respect to slenderness ratio is shown in figure 1. As Le/K
approaches to zero the critical stress tends to infinity. But this
11/15/2020 cannot happen. Before this stageProf.the
ME 2403_Lecture-19_ material
Dr. Md. will get crushed.
Anowar Hossain 26
 Hence, the limiting value of crippling stress is the crushing
stress. The corresponding slenderness ratio may be found by the
relation

σcr = σc
∴ σc = π 2E/(Le/K)2

Le/K= √ (π2E / σc)

For steel σc = 320N/mm2
and E =2 x 105 N/mm2
Limiting value (Le/K) is given by
(Le/K)lim =√ (π2E / σc) = √ π2 × 2 × 105/320) = 78.54
Hence if Le /k < (Le /k)lim Euler's formula will not be valid.

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 Empirical formula or Rankine - Gordon formula

We know that, Euler’s formula for calculating crippling load is valid

only for long columns.

But the real problem arises for intermediate columns which fails
due to the combination of buckling and direct stress.
The Rankine suggested an empirical formula which is valid for all
types of columns. The Rankine’s formula is given by,

1 1 1
= +
PR PC PE

PR = crippling load by Rankine’s formula

Pc = crushing load = σc .A
11/15/2020 PE = buckling load=
ME 2403_Lecture-19_ PMd.
Prof. Dr. (π Hossain
E=Anowar
2 EI) / L 2
e 28
 For short columns: The effective length will be small and hence the
value of PE =(π 2 EI) / Le2 will be very large.

Hence 1/ PE is very small and can be neglected.

therefore 1/ PR= 1/ Pc or PR =Pc

For long column: we neglect the effect direct compression or
crushing and hence the term 1/ Pc can be neglected.

therefore 1/ PR= 1/ PE or PR =PE

Hence Rankines formula,

1/ PR= 1/ Pc + 1/ PE is satisfactory for all types of

columns
11/15/2020 ME 2403_Lecture-19_ Prof. Dr. Md. Anowar Hossain 29
1 1 1
= +
PR PC PE
1 PC + PE
=
PR PC  PE
PC  PE PC
PR = =
PC + PE P
1+ C
PE
 EI2

substituting PC =  c A and PE =
Le 2 ➢(I=AK2)
c A c A c A c A
PR = = = =
 A c A  c Le2  c ( Le / K ) 2
1+ c 1+ 1+ 1+
 EI 2
 E ( AK 2 )
2
 EK2 2
 E 2

Le 2 Le 2
c A
PR =
1 + a ( Le / K ) 2
c
where a =
 E
2
 PR = σcA / (1+a.λ2 )
where a = Rankine’s constant =σc / π 2EI
and λ = slenderness ratio = Le/ k
 2.A slender pin ended aluminium column 1.8m long and of
circular cross-section is to have an outside diameter of
50mm. Calculate the necessary internal diameter to prevent
failure by buckling if the actual load applied is 13.6kN and
the critical load applied is twice the actual load. Take
Ea = 70GN/m2.
Solution: outside diameter of the column =D =50mm
=0.05m; E=70 × 10 9N/m2
Inside diameter = ?

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 End condition: pin-ended ( hinged)

Le =L =1.8m
Euler’s crippling load =PE= π 2 (EI) / Le 2

Critical load =PE = 2 × safe load (given condition)

= 2 × 13.6=27.2kN

I= π (D4-d4) /64 = π (0.054-d4) /64

 (0.05 4 − d 4)
  70 10 
2 9

27.2 103 = 64
1.82
d = 0.0437m = 43.7mm
 3. A built up beam shown in the figure is simply supported at its
ends. Compute its length, given that when it subjected to a load of
40kN per metre length. It deflects by 1cm. Find the safe load, if this
beam is used as a column with both ends fixed. Assume a factor of
safety of 4. use Euler’s formula. Take E = 210GN/m2.

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 Load =40kN/m , length of the beam =?

Moment of inertia of section about X-X axis,

 300  503  20 10003
I xx = 2 + (300  50) 525 2  +
 12  12
= 994166 × 104 mm4.= 99.41×10-4m
5 wL 4
Using the relation, δ =
384EI

5 × 40 × 10 3 × L 4
0.01 =
( 384 × 210 × 109 × 99.41 × 10-4

L = 14.15m
 Safe load, the beam can carry as column:
End condition: Both ends fixed
Le = L/2 = 14.15/2 = 7.07m
Iyy = 2[ (50 × 300 3) /12] + (1000 × 20 3 ) /12
= 22567 × 10 4 mm4 = 2.25 × 10 -4 m4
PE = π 2 (EIyy) / Le 2
= (π 2 × 210 × 109 × 2.25 × 10 -4) / (7.07)2
= 9.33 × 10 6 N = 9.33 × 10 3 kN
Safe load = Pe /F.S = 9.33 × 10 3 / 4 = 2.333 × 10 3 kN

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 4.From the test on steel struts with ends fixed in position and fixed in
direction the following results are obtained.

Assuming the values in agreement with Rankine’s formula ,find the two
constants
11/15/2020 ME 2403_Lecture-19_ Prof. Dr. Md. Anowar Hossain 37
Rankine’s critical load = PR = σcA / (1+a.λ2 )
Rankine’s critical stress = PR / A

200= σc / [1+a.(70 2 ) ] …. (1)

69= σc / [1+a.(170 2 ) ] …(2)
(1) / (2) gives
200 1 + a (170) 2
=
69 1 + a (70) 2
 
2.8986 1 + a (70) 2 = 1 + a (170) 2
constant a = 1.29 × 10 -4
substituting ‘a ‘ in (1) or (2)
we get σc = 326.4 N/ mm
5.Find the Euler’s crushing load for a hollow cylindrical cast iron
column, 15cm external diameter and 2cm thick, if it is 6m long and
hinged at both ends. E = 80GPa. Compare this load with the
crushing load as given by the Rankine’s formula, using
σc= 550MPa and a =1/600. For what length of the strut of this
cross-section does the Euler’s formula ceases to apply ?
Solution: Internal diameter = 15 – 2 × 2 = 11 cm
A = π/4[ 0.152- 0.112 ] = 81.7 × 10-4 m2.
I = π [ 0.154 - 0.114 ] /64
=17.66 × 10-6 m4 .

I min
K= = 0.0465 m
A
 Euler’s critical load is given by

PE = π 2 (EI) / Le 2

= (π 2 × 80 × 10 9 × 17.66 × 10 -6 ) / 62
= 387327.14 N (higher)
Rankine’s critical load, PR = (σc A) / [1+ a (Le / K)2]
= (550 × 10 6 × 81.7 × 10 -4)/ [1+1/600 (6/0.0465)2]
= 156301.78

To calculate limiting length : σc = 550 MPa =550N/mm2 = PE / A

550 = π 2 (EI) / A Le 2
therefore Le = 1.761m
6. The built up column shown in the figure consisting of
150mm × 100mm RSJ with 120mm wide plate riveted to each
flange. Calculate the safe load, the column can carry , if it is 4m
long having one end fixed and other end hinged with a factor of
safety 3.5. Take the properties of the joist as
A = 21.67 × 102 mm2 ; Ixx = 839.1 × 104 mm4 ; Iyy = 94.8 × 104
mm4.
Assume Rankine’s constant as 315N/mm2 and a =1/7500
 120mm
12m
m

150m
m

100mm
 Solution:
Ixx = 839.1 × 104 + 2[ (120 × 123)/12 + 120 × 12 ×( 75 +6)2]
= 2732.1 × 104 mm4

= 2732.1 × 10-8 m4
Similarly, Iyy = 94.8 × 10 4 + 2[ (12 × 1203 )/12 ] mm4
= 440.4 × 104 mm4
= 440.4 × 10-8 m4

(Iyy is the lower value, column will tend to buckle in

YY direction, Iyy has to be considered)
A = 21.67×102 + 2 (120×12) = 5047 mm2=50.47×10-4 m2
 Exercise problems

1. Calculate the safe compressive load on a hollow cast iron

column one end fixed and other end hinged of 150mm external
diameter,100mm internal diameter and 10m length. Use Euler's
formula with a factor of safety of 5 and E=95GN/m2
Ans: 74.8kN
2. Bar of length 4m when used as a simply supported beam and
subjected to a u.d.l of 30kN/m over the whole span., deflects
15mm at the centre. Determine the crippling loads when it is
used as a column with the following end conditions:
(i) Both ends pin jointed (ii) one end fixed and other end
hinged (iii) Both ends fixed
Ans: (i) 4108 kN (ii) 8207kN (iii) 16432 kN
 Exercise problems (contd) sc - 42

3.Determine the ratio of the buckling strengths of two columns of circular cross-
section one hollow and other solid when both are made of the same material, have the
same length, cross sectional area and end conditions. The internal diameter of the
hollow column is half of its external diameter
Ans: 1.66
4. Calculate the critical load of a strut 5m long which is made of a bar circular in
section and pin jointed at both ends. The same bar when freely supported gives mid
span deflection of 10mm with a load of 80N at the centre.
Ans: 8.22kN

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 Exercise problems (contd) sc - 43

5. A hollow C.I column whose outside diameter is 200mm

has a thickness of 20mm. It is 4.5m long and is fixed at both
ends. Calculate the safe load by Rankine’s formula using a
factor of safety of 4. Take σc =550MN/m2 , a=1/1600
Ans: 0.877 MN
6. A hollow cylindrical cast iron column is 4m long with both
ends fixed. Determine the minimum diameter of the column,
if it has to carry a safe load of 250kN with a factor of safety
of 5. Take the internal diameter as 0.8 times the external
diameter.
σC =550MN /m 2 a= 1/1600
Ans: D= 136mm d= 108.8mm
11/15/2020 ME 2403_Lecture-19_ Prof. Dr. Md. Anowar Hossain 47