1.

Answers multiple-choice questions

i. HVDC transmission commercially began in the year
Answer: (b) 1954
ii. In a bipolar system
Answer: (c) One conductor is positive, and the other is negative
iii. In a 12-pulse bridge, if one Y-Y transformer has a turn ratio of 1:1, the other Y-Δ transformer will have a
turns ratio of
Answer: (c) 1:√3
iv. Break-even distance usually lies between
Answer: (c) 1000 to 2000 kms
v. During commutation in a converter
Answer: (b) Current is transferred from one valve to another
2. Actual Characteristics of the HVDC Control System
HVDC control systems are essential for managing power transmission efficiently. Some key characteristics
include:
• Fast Response: HVDC systems react quickly to changes in load demand and network conditions.
• Precise Power Flow Control: Unlike AC systems, HVDC allows direct control over power flow, reducing
transmission losses.
• Fault Isolation: HVDC links can quickly isolate faults, preventing disturbances from spreading across the
grid.
• Voltage and Frequency Stability: Helps stabilize weak or isolated power networks.
• Bidirectional Power Flow: Power can be transmitted in both directions by changing the polarity of DC
voltage.

3. Different Types of HVDC Links

HVDC links are categorized based on their configurations:
1. Monopolar HVDC Link
o Uses a single conductor with the earth or sea return.
o Cost-effective for long distances but has environmental concerns.
2. Bipolar HVDC Link
o Uses two conductors (one positive, one negative).
o If one pole fails, the other can continue operation with ground return, improving reliability.
 3. Back-to-Back HVDC Link
o No transmission lines; used to connect two AC grids with different frequencies or phase
differences.
o Often used for interconnecting power systems of different regions.
4. Multi-Terminal HVDC Link
o More than two converter stations share a common DC link.
o Useful for integrating multiple renewable energy sources or large interconnected grids.

4. Modern Trends in DC Transmission

Several advancements in HVDC technology have improved efficiency and reliability:

• Voltage Source Converter (VSC)-Based HVDC:
o Allows easier integration of renewable energy like wind and solar.
o Provides independent control over active and reactive power.
o Enables underground and subsea cable transmission.
• Ultra-High Voltage DC (UHVDC):
o Operates at voltage levels above ±800 kV.
o Used for bulk power transfer over extremely long distances, like in China and India.
• Advancements in Insulation & Cable Technology:
o Development of XLPE cables for underground and underwater transmission.
o Reduced transmission losses and higher power capacity.
• Smart Grid Integration:
o HVDC systems are being integrated with smart grids to enhance efficiency and reliability.

5. Advantages of 12-Pulse Converters

A 12-pulse converter is widely used in HVDC systems due to its benefits:
• Lower Harmonics: Reduces harmonic distortion, minimizing interference with AC systems.
• Higher Efficiency: Provides better voltage and current waveform quality.
• Reduced Ripple in DC Output: Ensures smooth DC voltage with minimal fluctuations.
• Smaller Filter Requirements: Since harmonics are lower, filtering components can be smaller and less
expensive.
 6. Components of HVDC Transmission System

The HVDC system consists of several key components:

1. Converters (Rectifiers & Inverters):
o Convert AC to DC at the sending end and DC back to AC at the receiving end.
2. DC Transmission Lines:
o Overhead lines or underground/submarine cables transport power over long distances.
3. Filters & Reactive Power Compensation:
o Filters reduce harmonics, and capacitor banks provide reactive power support to maintain
voltage stability.
4. Control & Protection System:
o Monitors voltage, current, and system stability.
o Protects against faults by isolating faulty sections.
5. Ground Electrodes & Neutral Systems:
o Provides a path for fault currents and stabilizes the system during unbalanced conditions.

7. Comparison of AC & DC Transmission and Limitations of HVDC

Feature AC Transmission DC Transmission

Transmission Higher due to inductive & capacitive

Lower over long distances
Losses effects

Power Flow Complex, depends on frequency &

Direct & precise control
Control phase

Higher initial cost, but cheaper for long

Cost Lower for short distances
distances

Converter Stations Not required Needed at both ends

Fault Isolation More difficult Easier, as power flow can be controlled

Limitations of HVDC Transmission:

• High Initial Cost: Converter stations and transformers are expensive.
• Complex Control System: Requires advanced control techniques.
• Maintenance Challenges: Requires skilled personnel for maintenance.
 8. Reliability of an HVDC System
HVDC (High Voltage Direct Current) systems are highly reliable for long-distance power transmission and
interconnecting power grids. Here’s why:
1. Stable Power Transfer:
o Unlike AC transmission, HVDC does not suffer from reactive power issues, making it stable even
over very long distances.
2. Lower Transmission Losses:
o HVDC has lower energy losses compared to AC, especially for distances over 500 km.
3. Fault Isolation Capability:
o In case of a fault, an HVDC link can quickly isolate the affected section, preventing blackouts in
connected grids.
4. Better Grid Stability:
o HVDC can interconnect asynchronous grids (grids with different frequencies), improving overall
power system reliability.

9. Difference Between Overlap Angle and Firing Angle

Firing Angle (α):
• It is the angle at which the thyristor (or SCR) in a converter is triggered (turned ON).
• The firing angle controls the amount of DC voltage generated in the rectifier operation.
• A higher firing angle results in lower DC output voltage, and at 90°, the output voltage becomes zero.
Overlap Angle (μ):
• It is the duration when both incoming and outgoing thyristors conduct simultaneously during the
commutation process.
• It occurs due to the inductance in the AC supply network, which slows down the switching process.
• A larger overlap angle reduces the efficiency of the HVDC system, as it increases losses and voltage
drop.