GRAPH THEORY

Introduction
Graphs are simple, however, they are extremely useful mathematical objects. They are
universal in the practical applications of Computer Science. For example:

I. In a computer network, we can use graphs to represent how computers are

connected to each other. We use the nodes to represent the individual computers
and the edges to represent the network connections. Such a graph can then be used
to route messages as quickly as possible.
II. In a digitalized map, nodes represent intersections (or cities), and edges
represent roads (or highways). We may use directed edges to capture one-way
traffic on streets, and weighted edges to capture distance. Such a graph can be
used for generation directions (e.g., in GPS units).
iii. On the internet, nodes represent web pages, and (directed) edges represent links
from one web page to another. Such a graph can be used to rank each web page
in the order of importance when displaying search results (e.g., the importance of
a web page can be determined by the amount of other web pages that are
referencing it or pointing to it, and recursively how important those web pages
are).
iv. In a social network, nodes represent people, and edges represent friendships. One
hot research topic currently is the understanding social networks. For example,
how does a network achieve “x-degrees of separation”, where everyone is
approximately x number of friendships away from anyway else?

Graphs

Graphs are made up of a collection of dots that are called vertices and lines connecting
those dots that are called edges. When two vertices are connected by an edge, we say that
they are adjacent.
Definition: A graph is an ordered pair G = (V, E) consisting of a nonempty set V (vertices)
and a set E (edges) of two-element subsets of V.

Definition: A directed graph G is a pair (V, E) where V is a set of vertices (or nodes), and
E V × V is a set of edges. The order of the two connected vertices is important.

Definition: An undirected graph additionally has the property that (u, v) E if and only if
(v, u) E.

Example 1

In a school social gathering, Abel, Bill, Clair, Dan, and Eve were assigned to a group. In
that group, all members are allowed to “discuss” with each other. However, it turns out that
the discussions were between Abel and Clair, Bill and Dan. While Eve discussed with
everyone. Represent this situation with a graph.

Solution

Each person will be represented by a vertex and each discussion will be represented by an
edge. That is, two vertices will be adjacent (there will be an edge between them) if and only
if the people represented by those vertices discussed.

AB
E

C D

From definition of a graph, a graph could be G = (V, E) = ({a, b, c, d}, {{a, b}, {a, c}, {b,
c}, {b, d}, {c, d}}). This graph has four vertices (a, b, c, d) and five edges (the pairs {a,
b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {b, d}, {c, d}).

Exercise 2

Draw the graph ({a, b, c, d}, {{a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {b, d}, {c, d}}).
In directed graphs, edge (u, v) (starting from node u, ending at node v) is not the same as
edge (v, u). We also allow “self-loops” or “recursive-loops”, i.e., edges of the form (v, v).
Since the edge (u, v) and (v, u) must both be present or missing, we often treat a non-self-
loop edge as an unordered set of two nodes (e.g., {u, v}). A common extension is a
weighted graph, where each edge additionally carries a weight (a real number). The weight
can have a variety of meanings in practice: distance, importance and capacity, to name a
few.

Example 3

Consider the graphs:

G1 = {V1, E1} where V1 = {a, b, c} and E1 = {{a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}};

G2 = {V2, E2} where V2 = {u, v, w} and E2 = {{u, v}, {u, w}, {v, w}}.

Are these graphs the same?

Solution

The two graphs are NOT equal. It is enough to notice that V1, V2 since a V1 but a ∉
V2. However, both of these graphs consist of three vertices with edges connecting every
pair of vertices.

We can clearly see that these graphs are basically the same, so while they are not equal,
they will be isomorphic. This means the renaming of the vertices of one of the graphs and
results in the second graph.

Isomorphic Graphs

An isomorphism between two graphs G1 and G2 is a bisection, f: V1 → V2 between the

vertices of the graphs such that {a, b} is an edge in G1 if and only if {f(a), f(b)} is an edge

we write G1 ≌ G2.
in G2. Two graphs are isomorphic if there is an isomorphism between them. In this case

Example
Decide whether the graphs G1 = {V1, E1} and G2 = {V2, E2} are equal or isomorphic.
V1 = {a, b, c, d}, E1 = {{a, b}, {a, c}, {a, d}, {c, d}} and V2 = {a, b, c, d}, E2 = {{a, b},
{a, c}, {b, c}, {c, d}}.

Solution

The graphs are NOT equal, since {a, d} E1 but {a, d} ∉ E2. However, we can confirm
that both graphs contain the exact same number of vertices and edges. By this, they might
be isomorphic (this is a good start but in most cases, it is not enough).

Let’s try to build an isomorphism. From the definition, let’s try to build a bisection f: V1
→ V2, such that f(a) = b, f(b) = c, f(c) = d and f(d) = a. This is a bisection, but to make
sure that the function is an isomorphism, we must make sure it respects the edge relation.

In G1, the vertices a and b are connected by an edge. In G2, f(a) = b and f(b) = c are
connected by an edge. We are on the right track, however, we have to check the other
three edges. The edge {a, c} in G1 corresponds to {f(a), f(c)} = {b, d}, now we have a
problem here. There is no edge between b and d in G2. Thus f is NOT an isomorphism.

If f is not an isomorphism, it does not mean that there is no isomorphism between G1 and
G2. Let’s draw the graphs and then try to create some match ups (if possible).

It is noticeable in G1 that the vertex a is adjacent to every other vertex. In G2, there is also
a vertex with such property and that is c. Therefore, we can build the bisection g: V1 →
V2 by defining g(a) = c to start with. Next, which vertex should we match with b? In G1,
the vertex b is only adjacent to vertex a. There is exactly one vertex like this in G2, that is
d. Therefore, let g(b) = d. By looking at the last two, we can see that we are free to choose
the matches. Therefore, let go with g(c) = b and g(d) = a (switching these would still work
fine). Finally, let’s check that there is really is an isomorphism between G1 and G2 using
g. We have seen that g is definitely a bisection. Now we have to make sure that the edges
are respected. The four edges in G1 are {a, b}, {a, c}, {a, d}, {c, d}.

Under the proposed isomorphism these become {g(a), g(b)}, {g(a), g(c)}, {g(a), g(d)},
{g(c), g(d)}.

The bisection results in the edges: {c, d}, {c, b}, {c, a}, {b, a}.

These edges are precisely the edges in G2. Thus g is an isomorphism, hence G1 ≌ G2.
 Subgraphs

Definition: We say that G′ = (V′, E′) is a subgraph of G = (V, E), and write G′ G,
provided V′ V and E′ E.

Definition:We say that G′ = (V′, E′) is an induced subgraph of G = (V, E) provided V′ V

and every edge in E whose vertices are still in V′ is also an edge in E′.

Example

Considering the graph G1. Which of the graphs G2, G3 and G4 are subgraphs or induced
subgraphs of G1?

Solution By carefully applying the definitions of a subgraph and an induced subgraph, we

can see that:
i. The graphs G2 and G3 are both subgraphs of G1.
ii. Only the graph G2 is an induced subgraph. This is because every edge in G1 that
connects vertices in G2 is also an edge in G2. However, in G3, the edge {a, b} is in
E1 but not E3, even though vertices a and b are in V3.

iii. The graph G4 is NOT a subgraph of G1. It might seem like it is, however, if you
look closely, you will realize that vertex e does not exist in G4. Therefore, it is
enough to say that G4 is NOT a subgraph of G1, since {c, f} ∈ E4 but {c, f} ∉ E1
and that we don’t have the required E4 E1.

Bipartite Graphs

A graph is bipartite if the vertices can be divided into two sets, A and B, with no two
vertices in adjacent in A and B. The vertices in A can be adjacent to some or all of the
vertices in B. If each vertex in A is adjacent to all the vertices in B, then the graph is a
complete bipartite graph, and gets a special name: Km,n, where |A| = m and |B| = n.

Figure 3: Bipartition and complete bipartite graphs.

Union and Intersection of a Graph: These are two useful operations for combining
graphs. Let G1 = (V1, E1) and G2 = (V2, E2) be graphs.

i. The union of G1 and G2, denoted by G1 ⋃ G2, is the graph G3 defined as G3 =

(V1 ⋃ V2, E1 ⋃ E2).
ii. The intersection of G 1 and G2, denoted by G1 ∩ G2, is the graph G4 defined as
G4 = (V1 ∩ V2, EI ∩ E2).

Complement of a Graph: This operation is used with a single graph. To define this, we
need an analogue of a universal set. In this case, we use the complete graph on the vertex
set of the graph for which we would like to find the complement. Let G = (V, E) be a
subgraph of K|V|, the complete graph on |V| vertices. The complement of G¯ in K|V|, denoted
as G = (V1, El), is the subgraph of K|V| with V1 = V and E1 = K|V| (E) - E.

The Handshaking Problem

Theorem 1. (Handshaking Theorem) Let G be a graph with at least two vertices. At least
two vertices of G have the same degree.

{n ∈ N: any graph with n vertices has at least two vertices of the same degree}.
Proof: The proof is by induction on the number of vertices n in a graph. Let n o = 2 and T =

(Base step) For no, the only graphs to consider are the graph consisting of two isolated

graphs. Therefore, the base case no = 2 is true and no ∈ T.

vertices and the graph having a single edge. Clearly, the result holds for each of these

(Inductive step) Let n ≥ n0. Show that if n ∈ T, then n + 1 ∈ T.

Assuming that any graph on n vertices with n ≥ 2 has two vertices of the same degree, we
must prove that any graph on n + 1 vertices has two vertices of the same degree.

any v ∈ V.
Let G = (V, E) be a graph with n + 1 vertices where n + 1 ≥ 3. Clearly, 0 ≤ deg(v) ≤ n for

If there is an isolated vertex in G, then by the induction hypothesis, the subgraph of G

consisting of all the vertices but one isolated vertex must have two vertices with the same
degree. Adding an isolated vertex to the subgraph with at least two vertices having the same
degree gives the result for G.
If there is no isolated vertex in G, then all the degrees of vertices v ∈ V satisfy 1 ≤ deg(v) ≤
n.
In this case, we have at most n different values for the degrees of vertices in G. Since G has
n + 1 vertices, then by the Pigeon-Hole Principle (see reference material for more
explanation), at least two vertices of G have the same degree.
Therefore, n + 1 ∈ T. By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, T = {n ∈ N: n ≥ 2}.
The handshake theorem is sometimes called the degree sum formula, and can be written
symbolically as ∑v∈V d(v) = 2e.
Here we are using the notation d(v) for the degree of the vertex v. One use for the theorem
is to actually find the number of edges in a graph. To do this, you must be given the degree
sequence for the graph (or be able to find it from other information). This is a list of every
degree of every vertex in the graph, generally written in non-increasing order.
Example: How many vertices and edges must a graph have if its degree sequence is (4, 4,
3, 3, 3, 2, 1)?
Solution: The number of vertices is easy to find: it is the number of degrees in the
sequence: 7. To find the number of edges, we compute the sum of the degrees:
4 + 4 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 20.
Therefore, the number of edges is half of 20 (20/2) = 10.
Example: At a recent mathematics competition, 9 mathematicians greeted each other by
shaking hands. Is it possible that each mathematician shook hands with exactly 7 people at
the competition?
Solution: It looks like this should be possible. Each mathematician chooses one person to
not shake hands with. But this cannot happen. We are asking whether a graph with 9
vertices can have degree 7 for each vertex. If such a graph existed, the sum of the degrees
of the vertices would be 9 x 7 = 63. This would be twice the number of edges (handshakes)
resulting in a graph with 31.5 edges. That is impossible. Thus at least one (in fact an odd
number) of the mathematicians must have shaken hands with an even number of people at
the competition.

Euler Paths and Circuits

An Euler path, in a graph or multigraph can be defined as a walk through the graph which
uses every edge exactly once. While an Euler circuit is an Euler path which starts and stops
at the same vertex. The main goal here is to find a quick way to determine if a graph has an
Euler path or an Euler circuit.
In summary, we can conclude the followings:
i. A graph has an Euler circuit if and only if the degree of every vertex is even.
ii. A graph has an Euler path if and only if there are at most two vertices with odd
degree.
Adjacency Matrices
A graph can be represented in several different ways in a computer. It can be shown
diagrammatically when the number of vertices and edges are reasonably small. Though,
graphs can also be represented in the form of matrices. Thus, adjacency matrix is a square
matrix used to represent a finite graph in graph theory and computer science. The element
of the matrix shows whether pairs of vertices are adjacent or not in the graph. Also,
directed and undirected graphs can be represented using adjacency matrices. Let 𝐺 = (𝑉,
𝐸) be a graph with "𝑛" vertices, then the 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix , in which 𝑉 = {𝑣1, 𝑣2,. . . , 𝑣𝑛}
is the vertex set, is the edge set, 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 1 is the number of edges between the vertices 𝑣𝑖
and 𝑣𝑗 (if there exists a path from 𝑣𝑖 to 𝑣𝑗) and 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0 otherwise is called adjacency
matrix.

Example 3.4.1: The adjacency matrix 𝐴𝐺1 of the directed graph 𝐺1 is given in Figure 1.
 MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

Introduction
In many analysis, variables are assumed to be related by sets of linear equations. Matrix
algebra provides a clear and concise notation for the formulation and solution of such
problems, many of which would be complicated in conventional algebraic notation. The
concept of determinant is based on that of matrix.

MATRIX

Definition: A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers. A matrix with m rows and n

columns is said to have dimension m × n.

Definition: A set of mn numbers (real or complex), arranged in a rectangular formation

(array or table) having m rows and n columns and enclosed by a square bracket

[ ] is called m × n matrix (read “m by n matrix”) .

A matrix may be represented as follows

The letters aij stand for real numbers. Note that aij is the element in the ith row and jth
column of the matrix. Thus, the matrix A is sometimes denoted by simplified form as (a ij) or
by {aij} i.e., A = (aij). Matrices are usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C etc. and its
elements by corresponding small letters a, b, c etc.

Order of a Matrix: The order or dimension of a matrix is the ordered pair having as first
component the number of rows and as second component the number of columns in the
matrix. If there are 3 rows and 2 columns in a matrix, then its order is written as (3 × 2) or
(3, 2) which is read as three by two. In general, if m are rows and n are columns of a matrix,
then its order is (m × n).
 Example

A= and C .

The order of the matrices, A, B and C are (2 × 2), (3 × 1) and (2 × 3) respectively.

Definition: Matrices A and B are equal, A = B, if A and B have the same dimensions and
each entry of A is equal to the corresponding entry of B.

Types of Matrices
i. Row Matrix and Column Matrix: A matrix consisting of a single row is called
a row matrix or a row vector, whereas a matrix having single column is called a
column matrix or a column vector.

ii. Null or Zero Matrix: A matrix in which each element is „0‟ is called a Null or
Zero matrix. Zero matrices are generally denoted by the symbol O. This
distinguishes zero matrix from the real number 0.

For example O is a zero matrix of order 2 x 3.

The matrix Omxn has the property that for every matrix A mxn, A + O = O + A =
A

iii. Square matrix: A matrix A having same numbers of rows and columns is called
a square matrix. A matrix A of order m  n can be written as A mn. If m = n,
then the matrix is said to be a square matrix. A square matrix of order n  n, is
simply written as An. A = and C =.

Thus are square matrix of order 2 and 3.

Main or Principal Diagonal: The principal (leading) diagonal of a square matrix is the
ordered set of elements aij, where i = j, extending from the upper lefthand corner to the
lower right-hand corner of the matrix. Thus, the principal diagonal contains elements a 11,
a22, a33 etc. For example, the principal diagonal of

consists of a, e and i, in that order.

Particular cases of a square matrix

1. Diagonal matrix: A square matrix in which all elements are zero except those in the
main or principal diagonal is called a diagonal matrix. Some elements of the principal
diagonal may be zero but not all.

For example, are diagonal matrices.

In general,
is a diagonal matrix if and only if
aij = 0 for i ≠ j, and
for at least one i
aij ≠ 0 =j

2. Scalar Matrix: A diagonal matrix in which all the diagonal elements are same, is
called a scalar matrix i.e.

Thus, are scalar matrices.

3. Identity Matrix or Unit Matrix: A scalar matrix in which each diagonal element is
1 (unity) is called a unit matrix. An identity matrix of order n is denoted by In.

Thus, and are identity matrices of the order 2 and 3

respectively.

In general,
Is an identity matrix if and only if
aij = 0 for i ≠ j, and
aij ≠ 1 for i = j.

Note: If a matrix A and identity matrix I are conformable for multiplication,

then I has the property that AI = IA = A i.e., I is the identity matrix for
multiplication.
4. Equal Matrices: Two matrices A and B are said to be equal if and only if they have
the same order and each element of matrix A is equal to the corresponding element of
matrix B. this implies that for each i, j, aij = bij.

Thus,
Then A = B because the order of matrices A and B is same and a ij = bij for
every i, j.

Example
Find the values of x, y, z and a which satisfy the matrix equation

Solution
By the definition of equality of matrices, we have:
x + 3 = 0 ……………………………(1)
2y + x = -7 ………………………….(2)
 z – 1 = 3 …………………………….(3)
4a – 6 = 2a ………………………….(4)
i. From (1) x = -3,
ii. Put the value of x in (2), we get y = -2,
iii. From (3) z = 4,
iv. From (4) a = 3

5. The Negative of a Matrix

The negative of the matrix Amxn, denoted by -Amxn, is the matrix formed by replacing each
element in the matrix Amxn with its additive inverse. For example,

If Then
for every matrix Amxn, the matrix -Amxn has the property that A + (-A) = (-A) + A = 0 i.e.,
(-A) is the additive inverse of A. The sum B m-n + (-Amxn) is called the difference of Bmxn
and Amxn and is denoted by Bmxn – Amxn.

Operations on Matrices
Multiplication of a Matrix by a Scalar: If A is a matrix and k is a scalar (constant),
then kA is a matrix whose elements are the elements of A, each multiplied by k.

For example, if , then for a scalar k,

Example From A given, determine 3A.

Addition and subtraction of Matrices: If A and B are two matrices of same order m
x n then their sum A + B is defined as C, m x n matrix such that each element of C is
the sum of the corresponding elements of A and B. For example,

Let .

Then, C = A + B =

Similarly, the difference A – B of the two matrices A and B is a matrix each element
of which is obtained by subtracting the elements of B from the corresponding
elements of A.

Then, D = A -

If A, B and C are the matrices of the same order m x n then,

A + B = B + A and (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) i.e., the addition of matrices is

commutative and associative respectively.

Note: The sum or difference of two matrices of different order is not defined. For example,
the sum or difference of a matrices with orders (3 x 2) and (2 x 2) is not defined.

Product of Matrices: Two matrices A and B are said to be conformable for the product AB
if the number of columns of A is equal to the number of rows of B. Then the product matrix
AB has the same number of rows as A and the same number of columns as B.

Thus the product of the matrices Amxp and Bpxn is the matrix (AB)mxn. The elements of AB
are determined as follows:

The element Cij in the ith row and jth column of (AB) mxn is found by cij = ai1b1j + ai2b2j +
ai3b3j + ……….+ ainbnj
For example, let’s consider the matrices:

Since the number of columns of A is equal to the number of rows of B, the product AB is
defined and is given as

𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑏11 𝑏12 𝑎11𝑏11 + 𝑎12𝑏21 𝑎12 𝑏12 + 𝑎12𝑏22

𝐴 = [𝑎 ][ ]= [ ]
21 𝑎22 𝑏21 𝑏22 𝑎21𝑏11+ 𝑎22𝑏21 𝑎21𝑏12 + 𝑎22𝑏22
𝐵
Thus c11 is obtained by multiplying the elements of the first row of A i.e., a 11, a12 by the
corresponding elements of the first column of B i.e., b 11, b21 and adding the product.
Similarly, c12 is obtained by multiplying the elements of the first row of A i.e., a 11, a12
by the corresponding elements of the second column of B i.e., b 12, b22 and adding the
product.

Similarly, for c21, c22.

Note:
i. Multiplication of matrices is not commutative i.e., AB x BA in general.
ii. For matrices A and B if AB = BA then A and B commute to each other.
iii. A matrix A can be multiplied by itself if and only if it is a square matrix. The
product A x A, in such cases is written as A 2. Similarly, we may define higher
powers of a square matrix i.e., A x A2 = A3, A2 x A2 = A4.
iv. In the product AB, A is said to be pre multiple of B and B is said to be post
multiple of A.

Example

, find AB and BA.

Solution 3.1.2.
Example 3.1. , find AB
Solution 3.1.3. Since A is a (2 x 3) matrix and B is a (3 x 2) matrix, they are conformable
for multiplication. We have

Remarks:
If A, B and C are the matrices of order (m x p), (p x q) and (q x n) respectively,
then,

i. Associative law: (AB)C = A(BC).

ii. Distributive law: C (A + B) = CA + CB and (A + B) C = AC + BC.

Determinant
The determinant of a matrix is a scalar (number), obtained from the elements of a matrix by
specified, operations, which is characteristic of the matrix. The determinants are defined
only for square matrices. Determinant is denoted by det (A) or |A| for a square matrix A.

Determinant of a 2  2 matrix: Given the matrix , then

|𝐴| = |𝑎𝑎 1121 𝑎𝑎1222|

= | 𝑎11𝑎22 − 𝑎21𝑎12

Example 3.2.1. , find |A|.

Solution 3.2.1.
 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
Determinant of a 3  3 matrix: Given the matrix �= [ 𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ], then
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
�

| �| = | 𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 |

𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎22
�
= 𝑎11 | 𝑎 | − 𝑎12 | 𝑎 | + 𝑎13 | 𝑎 |
32 𝑎33 31 𝑎33 31 𝑎32

= 𝑎11(𝑎22𝑎33−𝑎32𝑎23) − 𝑎12 (𝑎21𝑎33 − 𝑎31𝑎23) + 𝑎13 (𝑎21𝑎32 − 𝑎31𝑎22)

These determinants are called minors. We take the sign + or −, according to ( −1)i+j aij

Where i and j represent row and column.

3.2.1. Minor and Cofactor of Element

The minor Mij of the element aij in a given determinant is the determinant of
order (n – 1  n – 1) obtained by deleting the ith row and jth column of A nxn.
For example, in the determinant

𝑎11 𝑎12 13
|𝐴| = | 𝑎21 22 𝑎23 |
𝑎31 32 𝑎33 ………………………….. (1)

i.The minor of the element a11 is M ii.The

minor of the element a12 is M iii.The

minor of the element a13 is M and so on.

The scalars Cij = (-1)i+j Mij are called the cofactor of the element a ij of the
matrix A. The value of the determinant in equation (1) can also be found by its
minor elements or cofactors, as a11M11 – a12M12 + a13M13 Or a11C11 +
a12C12 + a13C13.
Hence, the |A| is the sum of the elements of any row or column multiplied by
their corresponding cofactors. The value of the determinant can be found by
expanding it from any row or column.

Example 3.2.3 find |A| by expansion about (a) the first row (b) the
first
column. Solution 3.2.3. (a) Using the first row
3 2 1
|=|0 1 2|
1 3 4
= 3 |1 2| − 2 | 0 2| + 1 |0 1|
3 4 1 4 1 3
= 3(1.4 – (-2).3) -2(0.4 – 1. -2) +1(0.3 – 1.1)
= 3(4+6) -2(0+2) +1(0-1)
= 30 – 4 – 1
= 25
Solution 3.2.3. (b) Using the first column
3 2 1
|=|0 1 2|
1 3 4
= 3 |1 2| − 0 | 2 1| + 1 |2 1|
3 4 3 4 1 2
= 3(1.4 – (-2).3) - 0(2.4 – 3.1) +1(2.-2 – 1.1)
= 3(4+6) - 0(8 - 2) +1(-4 - 1)
= 30 – 0 – 5
= 25
3.3. Special Matrices
1. Transpose of a Matrix
If A = [aij] is m  n matrix, then the matrix of order n  m obtained by
interchanging the rows and columns of A is called the transpose of A. It is denoted
At or A. For example,

if then,

2. Symmetric Matrix
A square matrix A is called symmetric if A = At. For example,

if then,

3. Skew Symmetric
A square matrix A is called skew symmetric if A = −At. For example,

If then,

Ct = −C. Thus matrix C is skew symmetric.

4. Singular and Non-singular Matrices

A square matrix A is called singular if |A| = 0 and is non-singular if |A|  0,
for example if t

then,

Then, |A| = 0, Hence A is singular.

 5. Adjoint of a Matrix
Let A = (aij) be a square matrix of order n  n and (cij) is a matrix obtained by
replacing each element aij by its corresponding cofactor cij then (cij)t is called
the adjoint of A. It is written as Adj (A).

Example 3.1.4 , find the cofactor matrix of A

Solution 3.1.4. The cofactors of A are:

C 5; C 2; C

C 2; C

C 2; C

The matrix of cofactors of A will be, C:

𝐶 = [−1 2 − 1 ]
5 −2 1

3 −2 3

𝐶 = [−2 2 − 2 ]
5 −1 3
𝑡

1 −1 3
Therefore, Adj (A) = Ct

Adjoint of a 22 Matrix

The adjoint of matrix is denoted by Adj (A) and is defined as:

6. Inverse of a Matrix

If A is a non-singular square matrix then,

 22 Matrix

Example 3.1.5 , find A-1.

Solution 3.1.5.

Adj (A) =

Alternately: For a non-singular matrix A of order (n  n) if there exist

another matrix B of order (n  n) such that their product is the identity
matrix I of order (n  n) i.e., AB = BA = I.

Then B is said to be the inverse (or reciprocal) of A and is written as B = A-1.

Example 3.1.6 . Show that AB = BA = I then, B =

𝐴−1.
Solution 3.1.6.

Example 3.1.7
Solution 3.1.7.
|A| = 0 +2 (–2 +3) – 3(–2 + 3) = 2 –
3 |A| = –1, Hence solution exists.
Cofactor of A are:

C11 = ; C12 = −1; C13 = 1

C21 = ; C22 = -3; C23 =
 C31 = 3; C32 = -3; C33 =
The matrix of cofactors of A is:

The transpose of C is:

So,

7. Solution of Linear Equations by Matrices

For a linear system:
a11x1 + a12x2 + ------ + a1nxn = b1
a21x1 + a22x2 + ------ + a2nxn = b2………………………….. (1)

an1x1 + an2x2 + ------ + annxn = bn

It can be written as the matrix equation:

Let .

The equation can be written as, AX = B.

If B  0, then (1) is called non-homogenous system of linear equations and if
B = 0, it is called a system of homogenous linear equations. If now B  0
and A is non-singular then A-1 exists.

Multiply both sides of AX = B on the left by A-1, we get

A-1(AX) = A-1B
(A-1A) X = A-1B
1X = A-1B
Or X = A-1B
Where A-1B is an n  1 column matrix. Since X and A -1B are equal, each
element in X is equal to the corresponding element in A -1B. These elements of
X constitute the solution of the given linear equations.

If A is a singular matrix, then of course it has no inverse, and either the system has
no solution or the solution is not unique.

Example 3.1.8. Use matrices to find the solution

set of x + y – 2z = 3 3x – y + z
=5
3x + 3y – 6z = 9
Solution 3.1.8.

|A| = 3 + 21 – 24 = 0
Since |A| = 0, the solution of the given linear equations does not exist.
Example 3.1.9. Use matrices to find the solution set of

4x + 8y + z = –6
2x – 3y + 2z = 0
x + 7y – 3z = –8
 Solution 3.1.9.

|A| = –32 + 48 + 17 = 61
Since |A|  0 then, A-1 exists.

Now since,
X = A-1B, we have

Hence solution set: {(x, y, z)} = {( 2, 0, 2)}.

Assignment
1. Write the following matrices in tabular form:
a. A = [aij], where i = 1, 2, 3 and j = 1, 2, 3, 4
b. B = [bij], where i = 1 and j = 1, 2, 3, 4
c. C = [cjk], where j = 1, 2, 3 and k = 1

2. Show that if then,

a. (A + B)(A + B)  A + 2AB + B2
2

b. (A + B)(A – B)  A2 – B2
3. Write each product as a single matrix

a.
 b.

c.

4. , find
a. CB + A2
b. B2 + AC
c. kABC, where k = 2.
5. Find K such that the following matrices are singular

a.

b.

c.
6. Find the solution set of the following system by means of matrices:
a. 2x – 3y = –1 x + 4y = 5
b. x+y=2
2x – z = 1
2y – 3z = –1
c. x – 2y + z = –1
3x + y – 2z = 4
y–z=1
d. –4x + 2y – 9z = 2 3x + 4y + z = 5 x – 3y + 2z = 8
e. x + y – 2z = 3 3x – y + z = 0
3x + 3y – 6z = 8