Cerema

CLIMAT & TERRITOIRES DE DEMAIN

Road and Motorway Design

Review of Design Rules relating to Visibility and Radii of Crest
Curves in the Vertical Alignment

References | Series
 The | "References" series

Technical guide
Road and Motorway Design
Review of Design Rules relating to Visibility and Radii of Crest
Curves in the Vertical Alignment

Centre d’études et d’expertise sur les risques, l’environnement, la mobilité et l’aménagement

(Centre for Studies on Risks, the Environment, Mobility and Urban Planning)
Head office: Cité des mobilités - 25, avenue François Mitterrand - CS 92 803 - F-69674 Bron Cedex
 Foreword for publications translated into foreign languages
The purpose of translated documents and publications is to pass on to non-French speaking readers the French know-how set out
in the original publication, whether this concerns methodologies, tools or best practices. Original publications in French are subject
to a checking process, which leads to a Cerema commitment regarding their content. English versions do not undergo the same
process, and consequently carry no Cerema commitment. In the event of differences between the English and the original French
text, the French text serves as the reference.

This document was produced within the following organisational framework:

A steering committee, comprising:

• Marie-Thérèse GOUX (DGITM / DIT / MARRN)
• Daniel PENDARIAS (DGITM / DIT / MARRN)
• Martin DE WISSOCQ (DGITM / DIT / MARRN)
• Olivier GUICHOU (DGITM / DIT / ARN)
• Sophie DUPAS (DGITM / DIT / GCA)
• Matthieu HOLLAND (Cerema Transport Infrastructures and Materials)
• Olivier ANCELET (Cerema Territorial Development and Urban Planning)
• Lionel PATTE (Cerema Mediterranean)
• Éric PERTUS (Cerema Centre-East)

A project team tasked with producing the document, comprising:

• Lionel PATTE (Cerema Mediterranean)
• Matthieu HOLLAND (Cerema Transport Infrastructures and Materials)
• Olivier ANCELET (Cerema Territorial Development and Urban Planning)
• Éric PERTUS (Cerema Centre-East)
• Olivier CARDUSI (Cerema Mediterranean)
• Régis WILLIAMS (Cerema Île-de-France)
• Patrick LACROIX (Cerema Mediterranean)

Diagrams produced by Bernard DU VERGER (Cerema Territorial Development and Urban Planning)

How to cite this publication:

Cerema (2022). Road and Motorway Design - Review of Design Rules relating to Visibility and Radii of Crest Curves in
the Vertical Alignment. Bron: Cerema. ISBN: 978-2-37180-555-2.

2 Road and Motorway Design - Review of Design Rules relating to Visibility and Radii of Crest Curves in the Vertical Alignment
Contents
Contents 3
Part 1  6
Review of Visibility Rules 6
1 - Introduction 6
2 - General provisions 7
3 - Visibility of obstacles 10
4 - Visibility on bends 14
5 - Visibility at standard at-grade junctions 16
6 - Visibility at roundabouts 20
7 - Visibility at traffic light-controlled junctions 22
8 - Visibility of exits (at interchanges, rest and service areas) 23
9 - Visibility of entrances (at interchanges, rest and service areas) 26
10 - Visibility at slip roads and branches 27
11 - Visibility under structures 28
12 - Visibility of refuges 29
13 - Visibility of arrester beds 29
14 - Visibility of emergency accesses 30
15 - Overtaking visibility (on single-carriageway roads) 30
16 - Visibility for public transport lanes 31
17 - Visibility of pedestrian crossings 33

Review of Minimum Radii of Crest Curves in the Vertical Alignment 34

1 - Introduction 34
2 - Recommendations 34

Crest curve radii must be determined according to the visibility to be provided

(see Part 1 "Review of Visibility Guidelines"). 36
Bibliography 37
Glossary 38
Table of notes 40
Appendix 1 - Principal Sight Distances 42
Appendix 2 - Summary of Visibility Rule Verification Conditions 45
Appendix 3 - Visibility Calculations 46
Appendix 4 - Use of the "Stopwatch Method" to Measure Visibility Conditions at At-Grade Junctions 48
Appendix 5 - Conventional Speed on Branches and Slip roads 49

Contents 3
 FRENCH REPUBLIC
Ministry in charge of Transport
Directorate-General for Infrastructure, Transport and the Sea (DGITM)
Transport Infrastructure Branch (DIT)
Technical Memorandum of 1 October 2018
relating to the review of design rules relating to geometric design of roads and road
features, concerning visibility and radii of crest curves in the vertical alignment
NOR: TRAT1815980N
(Not published in the Journal Officiel)
The French Minister in charge of Transport
to

Assigned to:
• Prefects responsible for coordinating road itineraries
• Prefects of French regions
- Direction de l'environnement, de l'aménagement et du logement - DREAL (Regional directorate for the environment, land
use planning and housing)
- Direction Régionale et Interdépartementale de l’Équipement et de l’Aménagement d’Ile-de-France - DRIEAT (Ile-de-France
regional directorate for regional and inter-departmental planning and development)
- Direction interdépartementale des routes (Interdepartmental directorate for roads)
- Direction des routes d’Ile-de-France (Ile-de-France directorate for roads)
• Prefects of French Guiana and Mayotte
- Direction de l'environnement, de l'aménagement et du logement de Guyane et de Mayotte (Department of the environment,
land use planning and housing of French Guiana and Mayotte)
• Prefect of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon
- Direction des territoires, de l’alimentation et de la mer de Saint-Pierre et Miquelon (Department for Regional Development,
Agriculture, and Maritime Affairs of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon)
• Prefects of French departments
- Direction départementale des territoires et de la mer - DDTM (Departmental Directorate of Territories (and the Sea))
• CEOs of motorway concession companies
• Motorway concession companies

For information:
• General Secretariat of the French government
• General Secretariat of the Ministry of Ecological and Solidarity Transition (MTES) and Minstry for Territorial Cohesion (MCT)
• Conseil général de l’environnement et du développement durable - CGEDD (General council for the environment and
sustainable development ( Vice-presidency))
• Centre d’études et d’expertise sur les risques, l’environnement, la mobilité et l’aménagement - Cerema (Centre for Studies
on Risks, the Environment, Mobility and Urban Planning)
• Centre d’étude des tunnels - Cetu (Centre for Tunnel Studies)
• Institut français des sciences et technologies des transports, de l’aménagement et des réseaux - IFSTTAR (French Institute
of Science and Technology for Transport, Development and Networks)

Infrastructure development for the French national road network is governed by design rules defined in the applicable technical
guides and instructions. These design rules stipulate standardised geometric characteristics for road infrastructures, and ensure
that roads are easily 'readable' by the user, while offering uniform service levels and good safety conditions.

Several of the parameters on which these rules were based have changed since they were published. The Transport Infrastructure
Branch (DIT) therefore commissioned a review, for which Cerema provided technical assistance. Priority was given to design
rules with a major impact on the cost of infrastructures or on the ability to successfully integrate them into their environment.
• visibility rules;
• minimum radii of crest curves in the vertical alignment.

This report gives 'instruction' status to the Cerema technical guide entitled "Road and Motorway Design - Review of Design
Rules relating to Visibility and Radii of Crest Curves in the Vertical Alignment", with regard to the French national road network.

4 Road and Motorway Design - Review of Design Rules relating to Visibility and Radii of Crest Curves in the Vertical Alignment
I hereby ask you to apply the requirements set out in this guide, which supersede:
• the existing visibility-related design rules;
• the existing rules defining the minimum radii of crest curves in the vertical alignment;

in the following technical guides and instructions:

• ARP, August 1994;
• ICTAAL, May 2015 (including the supplement on motorway interchanges published in August 2013, as amended);
• VSA (Guides refs. VSA 90-110 of November 2014 and VSA AU70 of January 2013);
• 2X1 voie – route à chaussées séparées (Single-lane dual carriageways), September 2011;
• ACI, December 1998;
• VSA - Aménagement des voies réservées aux services réguliers de transports collectifs, (Design of reserved lanes for regular
public transport services), 2017;
• Dossier pilote des tunnels – Document n°2 Géométrie, (Tunnel Manual - Document 2 - Geometry) December 1990.

These new measures shall apply to in situ improvement projects, as well as new routes in the national road network for which
a detailed design approval decision has not yet been issued (i.e. project stage).

Furthermore, to ensure nationwide consistency of the road network, territorial authorities will be notified of these amended
rules, enabling said authorities to take them into account when developing projects for which they are the project owner.

A digital version of this document is available in the DTRF database of French road construction techniques, at the following
address: http://dtrf.setra.fr.

This technical memorandum will be published in the official journal of the French Ministry in charge of Transport, and on the website
http://circulaire.legifrance.gouv.fr/.

Executed on 1 October 2018

The Director of Transport Infrastructure,

Sandrine Chinzi

Introduction 5
 Part 1 

Review of Visibility Rules

1 - Introduction
1.1 - Purpose
This initial section of the guide defines visibility-related rules applicable when designing and developing road infrastructures.
These rules supersede those in reference guides and instructions relating to road design and development (see Appendix 6).

As such, this guide revises the principal technical baselines relating to visibility considerations (ICTAAL, VSA90/110, AU70,
ARP, Routes à 2x1 voies (single-lane dual carriageways), application guides for interchanges and junctions, Dossier pilote
des tunnels (Tunnel Manual)). The guide also includes the recently-introduced measures relating to reserved public transport
lanes on former hard shoulders:
• it reviews all visibility-related design rules, particularly those relating to visibility of obstacles, on bends and at road entrances;
• it incorporates new subject knowledge (cf. Bibliography) relating to vehicle performance, infrastructure specifications, driver
behaviour, and in particular, knowledge arising from the review of fundamental parameters such as conventional heights
and stopping distances;
• it provides the basis for harmonising the rules contained in the various technical baselines.

Visibility considerations are among the criteria used to assess the safety of a road. They influence the road user's level of safety,
and to a certain extent their comfort. While in no way diminishing their importance, it should be noted that visibility-related
recommendations can have significant consequences, often affecting the design basis and increasing project costs. The level
of requirements specified must therefore be carefully assessed.

Although the visibility rules defined in this document are based on a probabilistic approach (see Bibliography), their use and
verification by designers remain deterministic, for practical reasons, and they are presented in a similar way to the existing rules.

1.2 - Contents
Chapter 1 describes the subject, purpose and principles of the review of visibility rules. Chapter 2 presents the general principles
and measures relating to visibility, an provides some methodological guidance. The subsequent chapters describe the various
visibility-related rules applicable according to an infrastructure's location or constituent elements. Lastly, a series of appendices
provide additional information on specific aspects and calculations.

As this document is intended to serve as a standalone guide, it also includes the unamended design rules and provisions.

Icons are used to help the reader distinguish at a glance between:

Rules Practical information and tips

Conditions for verifying guidelines Clarifications

6 Road and Motorway Design - Review of Design Rules relating to Visibility and Radii of Crest Curves in the Vertical Alignment
2 - General provisions
2.1 - Introduction
Drivers need time to anticipate events on the road (such as bends, other road users, etc.). They must be able to perceive such
events, analyse them and where necessary, adapt their behaviour accordingly.

The necessary sight distance generally depends on vehicle speeds, the driver perception-reaction time, which varies according
to the type of action performed (e.g. steering or pedal inputs), the distance required for the manoeuvre (e.g. braking, changing
course, starting, etc.) and the type of road user.

2.2 - Conventional provisions

2.2.1 - Speeds
The necessary sight distances for the various components of a project can only be determined if the traffic speeds are known.

a) Single-carriageway roads and interurban major roads

For this type of road, actual driving speeds are, by convention and in accordance with international practice, reported in terms
of V85, which is the speed below which 85% of users drive, in free-flow traffic conditions (with vehicles said to be "free").
This speed can be estimated based on the principal geometric characteristics of the site, using the functions described below
(see Figure 1 and Figure 2), which translate the results of research into the relationship between geometry and speed (see
Bibliography).
Unless expressly stated otherwise (as is the case, for example, of the sight calculation for at-grade junctions and access points),
this 85th percentile speed, V85, is levelled off at the posted speed limit.

b) Other roads
As before, designers should keep the levelled off V85 speed, which in the absence of functions similar to the previous road
category, is in principle equal to the posted speed limit on the lane the observer is standing to observe.

c) Reserved public transport lanes created on former hard shoulders

T he speed to consider is the speed limit on the reserved lane, which may not be the same as the speed limit on the general
traffic lanes.

d) Interchange branches and slip roads

Designers should use the conventionally-assessed speed on curves, levelled off at the posted speed limit. This speed depends
on the curve's radius, crossfall and side-friction coefficient. The conventional speed is described in Appendix 5.

e) Special situations
Certain special conditions may lead to the adoption of a V85 value that is higher or lower than the speed determined using the
aforementioned criteria (for example, in the immediate vicinity of a built-up area, or upon exiting a roundabout). For instance,
with existing infrastructures, V85 can be estimated using in situ measurements (see Appendix 4 regarding at-grade junctions),
assuming that the planned developments do not substantially modify traffic speeds. As the chosen value can significantly
impact required sight distances, thorough justification must be provided for such decisions.

Part 1 - Review of Visibility Rules 7

 120 V 85=120/(1+346/R )
1,5

110
1,5
V 85=102/(1+346/R )
100
90 V 85=92 /(1+346/ R )
1,5

80
V85 (km/h)

70
60
50
40
30 2x2 voiescarriageway
2x2 dual
22 voies (6-à7 7m)m)orou
lanes (6 3 voies
3 lanes
20
22 voies (5m)
lanes (5 m)
10
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Rayon(m)
Radius (m)

Figure 1: V85 speed according to curve radius, on single-carriageway roads or interurban major roads

120
110
100
2
90 V 85=120 − 0,31 p

80 2
V 85=102 − 0,31 p
V85 (km/h)

70
2
60 V 85=92 − 0,31 p
50
40
30
20 2x2 voiescarriageway
2x2 dual
22 voies (6-à77m)
lanes (6 m)orou 3 voies
3 lanes
10
22 voies (5m)
lanes (5 m)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Pente p (%)
Gradient p (%)

Figure 2: V85 speed according to incline characteristics, on single-carriageway roads or interurban major roads

2.2.2 - Visibility rule verification conditions

The conditions for checking compliance with visibility rules are defined with reference to observation points and observed points.
Page 1
T he observation point represents the eyes of a driver in a vehicle positioned by default in the centre of its lane. Its exact position
will depend on the vehicle class (car, HGV bus/coach, etc.). In most cases, (i.e. unless otherwise indicated), a car driver's eyes
are used, as car traffic determines the design basis of most rules and conditions. By default, therefore, the observation point
is located at a height of 1.10 m.

Value based on measurements (Cerema 2016), roughly corresponding to the first percentile in the distribution
(see bibliography)

T he observed point varies according to the safety issue being considered. It might be a vehicle or a particular part thereof, a
road sign, a road user, etc.

These two points are specified for each visibility rule in the corresponding sections. Appendix 2 contains an overview of the
principal conventional arrangements to be adopted for the purpose of verifying visibility rules.

8 Road and Motorway Design - Review of Design Rules relating to Visibility and Radii of Crest Curves in the Vertical Alignment

Page 1
2.3 - Visibility-related performance levels
 s visibility considerations are among the assessment criteria for road safety issues, a high level of performance in this area
A
should be sought. Particularly critical situations justify additional efforts to achieve higher performance. Conversely, experience
gained from past investment projects suggests that it is often hard to achieve a uniformly high performance level.

F rom a socioeconomic cost-benefit perspective, significantly yet rationally decreasing the requirement level is desirable whenever
compliance would otherwise require measures with particularly large and disproportionate environmental and/or economic
impacts. However, other considerations (such as special requirements relating to service levels, route coherence or prioritisation
of the road network) may prompt the project owner to maintain or even increase the requirement level recommended herein,
in which case it must assume any consequences of such requirements.

The reason for defining multiple requirement levels is to offer controlled, rationalised flexibility by allowing technical
recommendations to be modified according to the context. These visibility performance levels (annotated herein as NPV)
translate to significantly different failure risks (aka reliability levels) for the designed system.

T he performance level is not defined for the entirety of a project or infrastructure. It may vary along a particular section, or
according to the constituent elements of an improvement, if the associated issues and constraints also vary. The level structure
defined by the guide ensures that project characteristics and performance levels are relatively consistent.

 etween one and three performance levels may be defined, depending on the rules. Sometimes, a single performance level
B
may be adopted, where certain rules are not considered restrictive or have a limited impact on road user safety and comfort

2.4 - Verification of visibility conditions

 isibility conditions must be verified to ensure that a project is well designed with proper consideration for safety. The aim
V
must not be to minimise the number of formal nonconformities but to optimise the reliability of the as-built project; The main
methodological tools for achieving this goal are described below.

S ight distances are influenced by various project parameters, including the horizontal alignment, vertical alignment, cross
slope, junctions, facilities, embankments, etc. Ensuring a good level of visibility requires:
• p
 roper consideration during the project's various design phases, with a formal record of the method adopted and the results
obtained;
• a n integrated design approach, in order, for example, to ascertain at an early stage the nature of likely obstructions such
as sound screens, facilities or vegetation, and in the case of in situ development projects, to identify any existing features
liable to obstruct visibility;
• a n iterative approach (including within a particular design phase), in order to optimise the project for all the identified issues
and constraints; this approach should include an ongoing assessment process. The final independent verification procedure
alone does not provide sufficient assurance, potentially resulting in changes to the project's characteristics at a late stage.

The recommended approach is as follows:

 ) Target a specific performance level from the outset. A reasonably ambitious or high level should subsequently be defined
a
for each situation. This should be neither the "ideal" level nor a baseline level below which the situation would be deemed
unacceptable. It should generally be defined to be achievable in the vast majority of situations. The project owner may opt
to set a more ambitious performance level.

b) An initial definition of the project's technical characteristics should be established by the designer, taking this objective
into account alongside the other objectives, challenges and constraints that the project must address.
 t the preliminary design stage, it is useful to translate the target performance level into geometric consequences, such as
A
the necessary lateral visual clearances, curve radius ranges along the horizontal alignment based on the typical cross-section,
the minimum radius of crest curves, straight sections of at-grade junctions, etc. The purpose of this precaution is to avoid
configurations resulting in frequent or particularly significant nonconformities.

Part 1 - Review of Visibility Rules 9

 c) Assessment When the initial design has been defined, its performance must be more accurately assessed against the design
objectives, including the various visibility-related conditions:
• c1) Deduct the speeds to be considered at each point on the layout, as well as the related sight distance requirements;
• c 2) Compare these requirements with the actual sight distances (allowing for obstructions to the sides of curves, along the
vertical alignment, etc.) and detect any inadequacies;
• c 3) After detecting any nonconformities with regard to the target performance level, identify which project parameters
can be adjusted to reach the target, such as the road geometry, the position and types of facilities, entrance locations, etc.
In some cases, the target level may be hard to achieve. A good way to acknowledge this difficulty is to assess the consequences
of the necessary adaptations enabling compliance with the target level.

d) Flexibility If necessary, designers may avail of any permitted flexibility, subject to the conditions defined in the baseline.

The existence of such points of flexibility in technical recommendations should, however, never be construed as suggesting that
a target performance level is optional or merely indicative. Adopting an alternative level less demanding than the reference
level constitutes a concession, as permitted by the relevant regulations, for which the project owner must provide justification
and assume responsibility.
Availing of the flexibility introduced in technical recommendations is only acceptable if justified by an impact assessment,
and where appropriate, accompanied by supporting or palliative measures, potentially including sacrificing margins. Although
in some circumstances, visibility requirements may be loosened, they should never be the only variable adjusted when fine-
tuning a project.
F urthermore, frequent use of the permitted flexibility for a particular project should prompt designers to query the design
approach and reconsider the chosen options (for example, the approach to the cross profile and facilities, the range of curve
radii adopted, etc.), even if each deviation from the reference level appears justified when considered separately.

 ) Formal records The whole procedure must be recorded, to enable internal and independent controls and to facilitate
e
approval by the project owner.

3 - Visibility of obstacles
3.1 - Introduction
T he probability of encountering a thin, inert obstacle on the roadway representing a potential safety hazard is very low. Road
users are more likely to come across a stationary vehicle (owing to an accident or traffic jam, for example), a very slow-moving
vehicle (such as a bicycle or agricultural machinery), a pedestrian or even an animal. It is therefore important to ensure that at
all points along the route, drivers have sufficient sight distances to enable them to stop before colliding with such obstacles.
To this end, the sight distance must be equal to or greater than the stopping distance.

T he nature of obstacles representing a significant safety hazard potentially encountered varies according to the type of road,
and in particular, whether or not it is separated from its environment. Nevertheless, the most frequent obstacles tend to be
stationary or very slow-moving vehicles on the carriageway.

T his section adjusts the obstacle sight distance (and hence the related performance level) according to circumstances. For
example, it is increased by 10% for certain conditions entailing a greater risk of obstacles being present on the carriageway.

10 Road and Motorway Design - Review of Design Rules relating to Visibility and Radii of Crest Curves in the Vertical Alignment
T he obstacle visibility conditions that must be verified all along the route are generally restrictive and cannot always be
ensured using proportionate measures. Two limited flexibility options have therefore been introduced.

Required visibility
Visibilité requise

Stopping
Distancedistance
d’arrêt
Driver's
œil du Point point
Observed
eyes
conducteur observé (fixe)
(static)

Figure 3: Visibility of an obstacle at the stopping distance

3.2 - Defining the stopping distance and related performance levels

The stopping distance da comprises the distance travelled during the perception-reaction time, plus the distance travelled
during the braking manoeuvre (i.e. the transition from the vehicle's initial speed to a full stop).

Braking distances are longer on a curving road, for reasons relating partly to dynamics and partly to the greater difficulty of the
driving task. This increase, referred to as the 'additional braking distance on curve' (annotated mc) depends on the curve radius.

The stopping distance is expressed by the following formula:

where:
- da : stopping distance, in m;
- TPR : perception-reaction time, assumed to be 1.8 seconds;
- v : initial speed, in m/s;
- p : gradient, as an algebraic value (m/m);
- gv : average deceleration during the braking manoeuvre, stated as a fraction of g = 9.81 m/s².

Speed 30 km/h 50 km/h 70 km/h > 70 km/h

Average deceleration gv 0.46 0.44 0.41

• mc(R) : additional braking distance on curve. It is taken into account as follows(1) :

Curve radius: ≤ Rdn Rdn < R < 1.5 Rdn ≥ 1.5 Rdn
linear variation between Rdn and 1.5 Rdn:
mc (R) 0.2 0
mc(R) = 0.6 – 0.4.R/Rdn

• K(NPV ) : coefficient representing the performance level.

Performance level NPV A B C

K(NPV) 1.1 1 0.9

Numerical application: , where V stated in km/h and P stated in %

P

(1) : For single-carriageway and interurban major roads, the conditions taken into consideration for the purpose of defining the minimum radius with normal
crossfall in the 1994 ARP guide, which are significantly different to those adopted in the other guides, result in the following adjustment to the preceding
rule: calculate mc using the Rdn values stated in the "Routes à 2x1 voies (Single-lane dual carriageways)" guide (i.e. 400 m). For example, for a radius
of 500 m, mc = 0.1.

Part 1 - Review of Visibility Rules 11

 Verification conditions
 Observation point: Eyes of a car driver, positioned at a height of 1.10 m above ground and 0.25 m to the left of
the centreline of their lane (in the typical case of a 3.50 m wide lane, the observation point would be considered
to be located 2.00 m from the right-hand edge of the lane).
 Observed point:
For roads separated from their environment, the observed point for a vehicle is the least restrictive of the two
tail lights, positioned at a height of 0.70 m above ground, and 0.75 m to the left or right of the centreline of its lane.
For roads not separated from their environment (e.g. single-carriageway roads, interurban major roads, AU70
urban arteries, etc.), a height of 0.50 m is more appropriate, to reflect the potential presence of other categories
of road user (with the same lateral positioning as in the previous case).
In addition, on roads with separate carriageways, whether or not separated from their environment (e.g.
motorway-like roads, interurban major roads, dual carriageway urban arteries or overtaking sections on
single-lane dual carriageway roads), the height above ground of the observed point may be increased to 0.85 m(2).
In all cases, any special road use or operating conditions must be taken into consideration, as well as any situations
identified by the diagnostic surveys. Such factors may lead designers to adopt an alternative obstacle height, either
locally or globally. Specifically, on roads prone to frequent rockfalls, the obstacle height should be reduced to 0.15 m.

3.3 - Rules

The required performance level is generally NPV B.


Some circumstances justify achieving a higher level, NPV A. These typically relate to singularities that greatly increase
the risk of an "obstacle" being present on the carriageway, or surprise and/or require road users to change their
behaviour, in particular prompting them to slow down or stop. In such cases, the NPV A sight performance level
is required for all vehicles located in the conflict area or near the singularity, as well as in any related tailbacks.
The most common singularities are as follows:
• at-grade junctions (including roundabouts) where the user yields priority, including those at the end of slip roads;
• a t road exits, the portion of the main carriageway beginning at the distance travelled in 6 seconds preceding the
(D30 or Da30) pointed direction signs and ending at point S.5.00 m;
• at entrances, the portion of the main carriageway located near the entrance feature;
• level crossings;
• lane merges (including merged lanes and the end of overtaking sections), between the start of the merging feature
(indicated by the final C28 sign) and its end;
• areas where the cross-section changes significantly from the preceding section, resulting in a loss of functionality
(for example, the end of a hard shoulder or physical central reservation);
• funnels leading to toll barriers(3);
• all tunnels and assimilated cut-and-cover trenches, including entrance and exit heads;
• areas subject to known (on existing roads) or foreseeable (for new roads) chronic congestion.

When designing single-carriageway and interurban major roads, it is important to include a hard shoulder that strongly
encourages non-motor traffic to travel off the main carriageway, in order to limit the probability of encountering
pedestrians or stationary (or very slow-moving) vehicles on the carriageway, while also allowing other vehicles
to stop on it.

(2) :This position corresponds to the minimum height of the third brake light fitted on the vast majority of cars. It also renders a significant portion of vehicle
bodies visible in daytime conditions, as well as the main rear light units (i.e. red lights, hazard warning indicators, etc.) on most cars.
(3) : In such cases, designers should consider the most pessimistic positioning of a vehicle in the funnel; this position will vary according to the layout of the
approach section and the funnel configuration.

12 Road and Motorway Design - Review of Design Rules relating to Visibility and Radii of Crest Curves in the Vertical Alignment
 Curves with a radius between Rdn and 1.5 Rdn, offer poorer visibility over central reservation barriers(4). Conversely, more
moderate radii can result in lines of sight that pass over the central reservation barrier but run through traffic lanes
on the opposite carriageway, presenting the risk of mobile obstruction. The resulting inconvenience is significantly
exacerbated when the line of sight crosses multiple traffic lanes (e.g. the slow lane on a two-lane carriageway, the
middle lane on a three-lane carriageway, etc.); designers should therefore seek to limit such configurations.


As a matter of principle, avoid positioning non-essential items liable to obstruct visibility on the central reservation.
This applies in particular to shrubbery and other vegetation. Surfacing the central reservation is a precaution that
offers safety benefits as well as decreasing maintenance requirements.

3.4 - Flexibility
The general procedure for availing of the flexibility permitted by the technical recommendations is described in 2.4. The
flexibility described herein is subject to conditions.

Flexibility 1. relating to the performance level

In some circumstances, the project constraints may make compliance with the preceding rules either impossible or subject to
major economic or environmental impacts, despite making serious efforts to optimise the project.


In such circumstances, the target level may be downgraded by one class:
• NPV B instead of NPV A,
• NPV C instead of NPV B.

Flexibility 2. avoidance condition


In cases where providing the desired lateral visual clearances to enable stopping sight distances compliant with
performance level NPV C would require disproportionate works, and all measures for optimising visibility conditions
have been exhausted, the rule may be waived subject to satisfying all the following conditions:
a. do not locate on the approach to a singularity
b. provide the necessary lateral avoidance sight distance, enabling a road user to steer around an obstacle.

The lateral avoidance sight distance is:

• for an initial speed up to 90 km/h,
• for an initial speed above 90 km/h,
with, in both cases:
- dél : lateral avoidance distance, in m;
- v : initial speed, in m/s.

c. provide space in which to perform the avoidance manoeuvre:

• on roads with two or more lanes running in the direction in question (such as 2x2-lane dual carriageways,
overtaking sections, two-lane branches, etc.), this space is provided by the lane(s) adjacent to the obstructed lane.
No additional measures are necessary;
• on roads with a single lane running in the direction in question (e.g. two-lane single carriageways, single-lane
dual carriageways other than in overtaking sections, single-lane branches and slip roads, etc.), a 3 m lateral visual
clearance must be provided, contiguous to the obstructed lane and surfaced in the same way.
In such situations, even if the stopping distance specified for NPVC cannot reasonably be achieved, designers should
wherever possible seek to obtain a sight distance greater than the absolute minimum represented by the avoidance
distance. This might be achieved by significantly widening the lateral visual clearance (thereby pushing back the
obstruction), if the technical, environmental, financial and other repercussions are proportionate.

(4): The crossfall of curves with a radius smaller than Rdn significantly raises the relative height of the observer and the target with respect to the central barrier,
all else being equal.

Part 1 - Review of Visibility Rules 13

 In cases where compliance with obstacle visibility rules is not possible even after availing of the permitted flexibility, designers
should consider locally reducing the speed limit. Such reductions must nevertheless appear credible to users.

3.5 - Temporary visibility breaks

The obstacle visibility rule intended to provide drivers with the necessary time to adapt their behaviour assumes that the
driver is able to see the observed element at all times as they travel towards it. In certain situations, however, it may be
acceptable for the driver to temporarily lose sight of the observed element, if the corresponding impact on their situational
analysis is deemed acceptable.


Where an observable item has been detected at a sight distance consistent with the rules defined in this section
of the guide, a temporary break in visibility by the observer as they travel towards it is considered acceptable. This
type of break is generally caused by an isolated roadside obstacle such as bridge pier or road sign. Such breaks that
occur after the observer has been able to see the target for a period of two seconds, must not persist uninterrupted
for more than two seconds.

sibility
which vi is lode st
Zone in elem ention
dervpe
obse edrte de vis intatw oe
of ne
Zo
ce
ob tr
seav el ddis nc
rvé le
<
dist
l’é<lém enan
t nd es
ity t dura nd2s seco
cont
isibnildan parcourue se
ovrd ingitvé pe ds
n e adff isibil2 seeccoonndes
Zo e st s
Zoner amt oleinas 2
fo
au

Required
Visibilitévisibility
requise
Masque
Potential
œil du potentiel
obstruction
Driver's
conducteur
eyes Point point
Observed
observé (fixe)
(static)

Figure 4: Temporary visibility breaks

4 - Visibility on bends
 driver approaching a bend must have the necessary visibility to perceive the bend and adjust their driving behaviour in
A
good time.

4.1 - Definition of sight distances

Two sight distances are defined for the purpose of verifying visibility on bends, the second of which is used only for single-
carriageway and interurban major roads:

• Marking sight distance:

where:
- dvm : marking sight distance, in m;
-v : approach speed, in m/s.

• speed adaptation distance(5):

(5): The V85 speed in the curve (V85’) is shown in Figures 1 and 2.
The V85 approach may be estimated in situ, in the case of an existing road, or else using Figures 1 and 2.
Certain conditions (such as proximity to a built-up area or roundabout) may prompt designers to adopt different speeds, in which case thorough supporting
arguments must be provided.

14 Road and Motorway Design - Review of Design Rules relating to Visibility and Radii of Crest Curves in the Vertical Alignment
 where(6):
- dav : speed adaptation distance, in m;
- V85 : speed approaching the bend, in m/s;
- V'85 : speed in the bend (in m/s).(7)

Verification conditions
 Observation point: Eyes of a car driver, positioned at a height of 1.10 m above ground and 0.25 m to the left
of the centreline of their lane.
 Observed point:
For a single-carriageway road: centreline of the lane, at the start of the circular arc, at ground level
For a one-way road: least restrictive of the two traffic lane edges, at the start of the circular arc, at ground level

4.2 - Rules

The bend sight distance must be greater than the aforementioned marking sight distance.


In a straight section of a single-carriageway road or interurban major road, the adaptation sight distance must also
be checked when approaching a curve with a radius smaller than 120 m.


In a straight section of a rural motorway or 90/110 km/h urban structuring road, the bend sight distance is in principle
ensured by the minimum values specified for the horizontal and vertical alignment radii. It only needs to be checked
for projects that significantly deviate from the geometric design guidelines or pass through difficult terrain.

T he situations for which these visibility rules are not satisfied mainly concern curves that lie immediately after or
along the length of a crest curve. Designers should therefore seek a good fit between the horizontal alignment and
the vertical alignment.

Straight
Alignement Raccordement Courbe
Transition curve Curve
section
droit progressif
Distance Bend sight distance
de visibilité sur un virage

Driver's
œil du Visibilité requise
Pointpoint
Observed
Required visibility
eyes
conducteur observé
(static)(fixe)

Figure 5: Visibility at bends

(6): Owing to the safety issues associated with this calculation, the speed adopted must not be levelled off at the speed limit.
(7): The change in speed prompted by a curve is a reliable predictor of the risk of accident in a bend, and the risk tends to be lower in bends where the curve
is particularly easy to read (see Bibliography)

Part 1 - Review of Visibility Rules 15

 5 - Visibility at standard at-grade junctions
T o ensure adequate safety at junctions, designers must provide non-priority road users with the necessary visibility to cross
the junction in good conditions (see 5.1.), as well as ensuring visibility while approaching the junction from the priority road
and the minor branches (see 5.2.). These visibility requirements are the basis for the general layout recommendations and
safety precautions described in 5.3.

5.1 - Crossing visibility

5.1.1 - Rules

For safety reasons, users on the non-priority road or entrance must have sufficient crossing time (tf) in which to check
for other users on the priority road, decide to proceed with their crossing manoeuvre, then initiate and perform it
(for example, to pass through a crossroads or to join the traffic flow on the priority road) before an initially masked
priority vehicle arrives.


For users turning left onto the minor road, an equivalent time must be available, in which to assess oncoming traffic
on the priority road.

5.1.1 - Defining crossing visibility performance levels

The crossing sight distance (df) corresponds to the distance travelled by priority vehicles during the time required for a non-
priority vehicle to cross the junction (hereinafter the 'crossing time' tf). The speed taken into account for the purpose of
calculating df should be the V85 speed (see ), which must not be levelled off at the speed limit.

The requirement level for crossing visibility is high overall, due to the relatively poor intrinsic safety of standard at-grade
junctions. Two performance levels are used:
• NPV A - This level must be sought for all junctions. The related times provide a greater safety margin and are more suitable
for vehicles that accelerate slowly (such as HGVs and many two-wheeled vehicles).
• NPV B - This performance level represents the bare minimum, which may be acceptable for junctions between very minor
roads and entrances without significant HGV or non-motorised two-wheeled vehicle traffic performing the movement.

The crossing time tf, which depends on the width of the priority road, is given in Table 1.

2 lanes + Right merging lane

Cross-section of the priority road 2 lanes
left-turn lane in half-junctions
NPVA 8s 9s 8s
Stop
NPVB 6s 7s 6s
NPVA 10 s 11 s 9s
Give way
NPVB 8s 9s 7s
NPVA 8s Not applicable
Left turn onto minor road
NPVB 6s
Where access from the minor road slopes upward (gradient > 2%), which should be avoided where possible,
these times must be increased by 1 second.
Table 1: Crossing time according the width of the crossed road and the priority scheme

16 Road and Motorway Design - Review of Design Rules relating to Visibility and Radii of Crest Curves in the Vertical Alignment
 Verification conditions (visibility clearance)
For movements from the non-priority road, the crossing time condition is translated into the design by clearing
a sight triangle for each conflict between two traffic flows: nothing must obstruct line of sight inside the triangle.
The triangle sits above a plane that passes through the centreline of the two roads. Its vertices are defined by:
(i) the point of conflict between the two studied flows, (ii) a bounding observation point on the non-priority road
from which a driver must be able to see a vehicle travelling on the priority road, and (iii) and observed point on
the priority road. These construction parameters will depend on the priority scheme (see Figure 6 and Figure 7).
 Observation point: Eyes of a car driver, positioned at a height of 1.10 m above ground. This point is located
2 m from the right edge of the carriageway on the non-priority road, set back 4 m from the stop line in the Stop
scenario (with a Stop sign), or set back 15 m from the give-way line in the Give Way scenario.
 Observed point:
Located at a height of 0.70 m above ground, on the centreline of the lane (or lanes) along which priority traffic
travels, at the crossing distance (df). If the priority road is a single-carriageway road on which overtaking is
permitted, this situation must also be taken into account.
In practice, sight triangles (four for crossroads, two for tee-junctions, and one for half-junctions) are constructed
naturally using the aforementioned data points, arranged according to the intended priority schemes. The next step
is to check the visibility condition for left-turn manoeuvres on the priority road (see Figure 8), which is generally
less restrictive than for traffic flows on the minor road.
Point of conflict: Located at a height of 1.10 m above ground, on the centreline of the lane (or lanes) along
which priority traffic travels, level with the observation point.
For movements from the priority road, the sight condition is determined directly based on an observation point
and an observed point.
 Observation point: Eyes of a car driver, positioned at a height of 1.10 m above ground. The point is located 2
m from the right edge of the traffic lane (or storage lane, where applicable), set back 15 m from the centreline
of the minor branch into which the vehicle intends to move.
 Observed point: As in the previous case.

Distance Crossing
de visibilitésight distance (10s (to
de franchissement 10s8s, at,Vpris
à 8s 85) à V85 )

Point d’observation
Observation avec
point with
2m un CÉDEZ
Give LE PASSAGE
Way sign

Observed pointà to
Point observé left
gauche

15 m
Observed pointà to
Point observé right
droite
overtaking allowed
dépassement on
autorisé sur
l’axe principal
main road
2m

Figure 6: Construction of sight triangles for minor road users - Give-way situation

Part 1 - Review of Visibility Rules 17

 DistanceCrossing sight
de visibilité de distance (10s to(8s8s,à at
franchissement 6s,Vpris
85) à V85 )

Observation point with

Point d’observation
2m
Stop
avecsign
un STOP
Observed point àtogauche
Point observé left

4m

2m Observed point àtodroite

Point observé right
dépassement
overtaking autorisé on
allowed sur
l’axe principal
main road

Figure 7: Construction of sight triangles for minor road users - Stop situation

DistanceCrossing sight
de visibilité distance (10s
de franchissement to
(8s8s, at,Vpris
à 6s 85) à V85 )

15 m

Observed
Pointpoint
(static)(fixe)
observé

Required
Visibilitévisibility
requise

œil du
Driver's
conducteur
eyes

Figure 8: Sight condition for a left turn onto the minor road

5.2 - Junction approach visibility


For users travelling on the priority road, designers must ensure adequate visibility over protruding island noses,
referred to in terms of "approach sight distance". The approach sight distance must be equal to or greater than the
stopping distance (defined in 3.2) for the approach speed (V85) on the road in question, levelled off at the speed
limit. This condition is generally less restrictive than the crossing condition defined in 5.1.

The same condition must be verified for the minor branches.

Verification conditions
 Observation point: Eyes of a car driver, positioned at a height of 1.10 m above ground and 0.25 m to the left
of the centreline of their lane.
 Observed point:
This point is the island nose, represented by the J5 marker, at a height of 0.70 cm.

18 Road and Motorway Design - Review of Design Rules relating to Visibility and Radii of Crest Curves in the Vertical Alignment
5.3 - General layout guidelines and precautions
The visibility conditions defined in the previous sections result in certain precautions relating to geometric design and
management of the road environment.

5.3.1 - Precautions relating to the horizontal alignment and vertical alignment


New roads must not be designed with curving junctions or entrances(8). Locating a tee-junction or entrance on the
outer (convex) edge of a curve having a radius greater than or equal to the minimum radius with normal crossfall
may be tolerated, however, subject to fulfilling the various crossing visibility conditions. Where applicable, ensure
that right-turn movements from the priority road are not overly tangential.


Locating a junction in an area with crest curves is not recommended. On new roads, such developments must be
ruled out if the vertical alignment is not compatible with the required visibility conditions.

For existing roads, any necessary remedial measures for poorly situated junctions and entrances may be defined based on the
visibility checks and an accident analysis.

5.3.2 - Road environment management precautions

Objects near a junction can obstruct visibility; examples include signs, equipment(9), earth slopes, trees, crops, other vegetation,
buildings, walls or other structures, parked vehicles, etc. Therefore, the visibility conditions specified above require an area free
from lateral obstruction. This area must be large enough to ensure that it remains durably clear of such obstructions. Isolated
obstructions may be tolerated on an exceptional basis, provided that they do not compromise information gathering by road
users. In particular, road signs must be sited with care.

5.4 - Existing roads

5.4.1 - Measuring visibility conditions at an existing junction

When designing a project in a safety-oriented approach, it is important to verify the approach visibility conditions
(see 5.2), as well as the crossing conditions for minor road users (see 5.1). Of the two, the crossing visibility verification is
generally the more restrictive. It translates to a sight distance or a crossing time. Several methods may be used to ensure
satisfactory visibility conditions.

a) Direct ("stopwatch") method

This method, applicable to existing junctions, consists in making in situ measurements of the crossing time actually available.
It offers the advantage of conveniently factoring in the speeds and sight distance involved in the visibility problem. Appendix
4 contains a procedure for using this method.

b) Indirect method
This method can only be used if the traffic speeds (V85) on the approach to the junction are known (see 2.2.1). The necessary
sight distances are based on this data, and can subsequently be compared against the sight distances actually available after
allowing for any lateral obstructions, the layout, etc. On existing roads, visibility conditions are measured in situ. Otherwise,
they are estimated on the basis of the project data.

5.4.2 - Existing roads that do not comply with required sight distances
On an existing road, where it is not possible to remediate an obstruction to visibility at a junction, alternative measures must
be considered; Any of several solutions can be used to address the aforementioned visibility requirements, including:
• modify the layout of the minor roads. In some cases involving a tight crest curve radius, it can be better to redesign the
centreline of the minor (non-priority) road level with the blind summit of the curve;

(8): In addition to their adverse effects on visibility, speeds are harder to assess and, when the non-priority branch joins the concave side of the main road,
users may experience difficulty gathering information.
(9): Safety barriers can also obstruct visibility, particularly where the main vertical alignment is convex.

Part 1 - Review of Visibility Rules 19

 • transfer traffic to a nearby well-designed junction;
• in exceptional cases, modify the layout (i.e. the horizontal and/or vertical alignment) of the main road;
• create or maintain a slip lane, in the specific case of half junctions on 2x2 lane dual-carriageways;
• redevelop as a roundabout, particularly if the minor road carries significant traffic volumes.

If the required sight distances still cannot be achieved, an extremely demanding approach must be adopted regarding the
development's readability. This may result in the installation of alert systems associated with the development, in particular to
help regulate driving speeds on the main road. To be effective, however, such solutions must remain the exception to the rule.

6 - Visibility at roundabouts
Because they oblige traffic to greatly slow down and in some cases stop, roundabouts must:
• be correctly perceived(10) by approaching users. Consequently, we have issued recommendations regarding approach visibility
(see );
• enable users entering the roundabout to perceive priority vehicles in time to give way and if necessary stop. We have
therefore issued recommendations for crossing roundabouts (see 6.2).

6.1 - Visibility approaching roundabouts

6.1.1 - Visibility of direction signs and markings

A roundabout must be rapidly identified as such, well ahead of the limits arising from the stopping distance calculation. To
this end, designers must provide road users with a clear perception as they approach the roundabout, via suitable geometric
arrangements, as well as prominently visible, easily readable advance signs indicating the type of upcoming development
as clearly as possible.


The D42b diagrammatic advance sign plays a fundamental role in the junction identification process. Although not
mandatory under the relevant regulations, we recommend systematically using such signs, except on very minor
branch roads. The sign must be perfectly visible at the reading distance:

where:
- lc : reading distance, in m/s;
- v : speed, in m/s.

6.1.2 - Visibility approaching a roundabout

The slowing distance dr comprises the distance travelled during the reaction time plus the braking distance (i.e. the distance
travelled during the braking manoeuvre that reduces the vehicle's initial speed v to the speed at which it enters the roundabout).
It differs from the stopping distance (see 3.2) in that the deceleration manoeuvre is less marked, offering a degree of comfort
(whereas the stopping distance is based on safety conditions); it is expressed by the following formula:

where(11):
- dr : slowing distance, in m;
- TPR : perception-reaction time, assumed to be 1.8 seconds;
- v : approach speed, in m/s;
- gr : deceleration resulting from the slowing manoeuvre, assumed to be 1.5 m/s².

(10): This document only covers visibility-related measures. The necessary readability-related measures are as described in the applicable technical guides.
(11) : The gradient is not included in this formula, as the deceleration is influenced by comfort considerations rather than a dynamic capacity of the system.

20 Road and Motorway Design - Review of Design Rules relating to Visibility and Radii of Crest Curves in the Vertical Alignment
 Numerical application: , where V in km/h

Verification conditions
 Observation point: Eyes of a car driver, positioned at a height of 1.10 m above ground and 0.25 m to the left
of the centreline of their lane.
 Observed point: Several elements on the studied branch must be sighted:
• the splitter island, represented by a J5 marker located at a height of 0.70 m. Branches do not always have
a splitter island, particularly on roads with divided carriageways, such as interurban major roads and certain
urban arteries. In such cases, the observed point should be the Give Way sign(s) positioned at a height of 1 m;
• the central island, represented by the B21 sign, at a height of 1.00 m.


The roundabout features to be observed should ideally be visible at the aforementioned slowing distance. This
condition is particularly important in unfavourable approach configurations, such as, for example, an upstream section
conducive to high speeds, an isolated roundabout in an otherwise continuous route, or a roundabout liable to surprise
drivers.

Observed
Point point
(static)
observé (fixe)
œil du
Driver's
conducteur
eyes

Visibilitévisibility
Required requise
B21-1

J5

Distance
Slowing du ralentissement
distance

Figure 9: Visibility checks on the approach to a roundabout (sight of the J5 marker)

F lexibility: The foregoing condition may appear restrictive, particularly on existing roads. At a minimum, it is important
to ensure the stopping sight distance (as defined in Section 3) to vehicles in foreseeable queues(12).

œil du
Driver's Observed
Pointpoint
conducteur
eyes observé (fixe)
(static)

Required
Visibilitévisibility
requise

Stoppingd’arrêt
Distance distance
sur to
le rearmost queuingenvehicle
dernier véhicule attente

Figure 10: Visibility on the approach to a roundabout: compliance with the stopping distance to the rearmost entering vehicle

In cases where it is absolutely impossible to provide an adequate sight distance, the island noses may be extended
as a palliative solution.

(12): The queues thus considered may be assessed using the GIRABASE software application. The considered queue must not contain fewer than two vehicles
(with a queue length of 7 m per vehicle).

Part 1 - Review of Visibility Rules 21

 6.2 - Roundabout crossing visibility

Users entering a roundabout must be able to see priority vehicles in time to give way and if necessary stop. A large
sight distance is not always necessary, however; a clear view of the left quadrant of the roundabout carriageway
from approximately 15 m from the entrance may suffice.

Excessive visibility to the left can sometimes even be detrimental to the roundabout's safety. This is because drivers
approaching the roundabout may focus their attention on the free slots at the entrance immediately to their left,
neglecting other less visible traffic movements (such as movements heavily obstructed by the central island).

Verification conditions
 Observation point: Eyes of a car driver, positioned at a height of 1.10 m above ground, 2 m from the centreline
of their lane, between 4 and 15 m from the roundabout carriageway.
 Observed point: A priority vehicle travelling on the roundabout carriageway, or moving from an entrance in
the left quadrant of the roundabout carriageway, observed at a height of 0.70 m.
The roundabout crossing condition is reflected in the design by ensuring clear (trapezoidal) sight zones, as defined
in Figure 11, inside which there must be no obstacles to the line of sight.


Furthermore, it is important to ensure that the central island has no tall plants or other objects liable to obstruct users'
view located within 2 m of its perimeter kerb (or, if there is no kerb, within 2.50 m of the edge markings around the
central island).

Zone observée
Observed area
« Quart gauche
“Left quadrant” of the » de l’anneau
roundabout
pour un usager en approche
for an approaching user

Dégagement
Additional clearance
complémentaire

m
,.5500
m
o22
22 tà

2m
Driver's
œil du
eyes
conducteur
15 m 4m

Figure 11: Verifying the crossing visibility on the "left quadrant" of a roundabout

7 - Visibility at traffic light-controlled junctions

The recommendations issued for traffic light-controlled junctions concern urban arteries with a 70 km/h speed limit. Other
than in urban areas, controlled junctions are not recommended for other types of road.

7.1 - Approach visibility


Road users travelling on a urban thoroughfare must be able to see vehicles waiting to enter the junction from a
distance equivalent to the stopping distance (as defined in 3.2), for performance level NPV A, at the junction approach
speed.

22 Road and Motorway Design - Review of Design Rules relating to Visibility and Radii of Crest Curves in the Vertical Alignment
 Verification conditions
 Observation point: Eyes of a car driver, positioned at a height of 1.10 m above ground and 0.25 m to the left
of the centreline of their lane.
 Observed point: This point is the rear of a vehicle observed at a height of 0.70 m (specifically, the least
restrictive of the two tail lights, at a distance of 0.75 m to the left or right of the centreline of the lane in question).

7.2 - Visibility of amber lights

T raffic lights must be visible from a distance enabling users travelling on the urban artery to see the light change to amber
and stop.


The traffic light sight distance (assuming an amber light time of 5 s) for each traffic lane on the approach to the light
must be at least:

where:
- dfeu : approach sight distance to the controlled junction, in m;
-v : speed, in m/s.

resulting in a distance of 100 m at a speed of 70 km/h

Verification conditions
 Observation point: Eyes of a car driver, positioned at a height of 1.10 m above ground and 0.25 m to the left
of the centreline of their lane.
 Observed point: Amber traffic light.

7.3 - Required visibility in the event of a traffic light malfunction


To address the risk of a traffic light malfunction, designers of controlled junctions should ideally provide similar
visibility to standard (stop and give-way) at-grade junctions.

8 - Visibility of exits (at interchanges, rest and service areas)

A road user approaching an exit must have sufficient time to ascertain which direction to follow, plan their manoeuvre (allowing
for the trajectories of other users), and then execute it safely.

The basic principle consists in providing adequate visibility to enable drivers to read each direction sign relating to the exit
(see 8.1.), while also ensuring simultaneous visibility of pointed direction signs and markings as well as the actual exit system
(see 8.2.).

8.1 - Visibility of direction signs and markings

Visibility of direction signs and markings must enable road users to follow their intended route. Specifically, this visibility must
enable motorists to read and understand their content, and decide on a manoeuvre.

The corresponding reading distance is:

where:
- lc : reading distance, in m;
- v : speed, in m/s.

Part 1 - Review of Visibility Rules 23

 Verification conditions
 Observation point: Eyes of a car driver, positioned at a height of 1.10 m above ground , and 0.25 m to the
left of the centreline of their lane.
 Observed point: Full surface of the direction sign.


The sight distance to direction signage must be no less than the reading distance lc to the hazard warning (D50 or
Da50), advance (D40 or Da40) and pointed direction (D30 or Da30) signs. This condition must be verified from each
lane on the carriageway from which the exit leads.

8.2 - Defining exit manoeuvre distances and related performance levels

Merely being able to see pointed direction signs is not enough to ensure that exits are easily readable by road users; other
characteristic features also contribute to readability, including markings, roadside equipment, etc.

8.2.1 - Defining performance levels

The exit manoeuvre distance dms is:
• as a general rule, the distance travelled in 6 seconds:

• in the specific case of the right-hand lane approaching an exit taper, the distance travelled in 3 seconds:

where, in both case, v is the speed, in m/s.

Two performance levels must be defined, associated with two elements of the exit system:
• Level NPV A: sight of the physical splitter nose and the (D30 or) pointed direction sign by an observer located at a distance
dms upstream of the pointed direction sign;
• Level NPV B: sight of the exit taper and the (D30) pointed direction sign by an observer located at a distance dms upstream
of the pointed direction sign.
Performance level NPV A ensures a better, more global perception of the exit system than NPV B, but will in many cases be more
restrictive to implement.

Verification conditions
 Observation point: Eyes of a car driver,(13), positioned at a height of 1.10 m above ground and 0.25 m to the
left of the centreline of their lane on the carriageway from which the exit leads.
 Observed points:
NPV A: Firstly, the totality of the (D30 or Da30) pointed direction sign, and secondly, the physical splitter nose,
represented by the portion of the splitter marker located at the theoretical point S.5.00 m, of which all parts above
the following heights must be visible:
 height of 1.00 m for a 2 m diameter J14a marker;
 height of 0.80 m for a 1 m diameter J14a marker (when exiting at an exit or from a collector road);
 height of 1.85 m / 1.35 m for a J14b marker (normal or compact "blade" model).
NPV B: Firstly, the totality of the (D30) pointed direction sign, and secondly, the tip of the exit taper, represented
by the "triangle"(13) (at ground level) defined by the dividing line between the carriageway from which the exit
leads and the exit taper and the line along the taper edge, from the start of the taper to point S.1.50 m. In practice,
the check is based on the three apexes of this triangle.

(13): Where an overhead obstruction (such as an overhead engineering structure) is liable to impair visibility of the pointed direction sign, designers must also
consider an observation point corresponding to the eyes of an HGV driver, positioned at a height of 2.50 m above ground and 0.60 m from the centreline
of their lane (see 11.1).
(14): In the specific case of a curving exit, this figure will not be a triangle, from a geometric perspective.

24 Road and Motorway Design - Review of Design Rules relating to Visibility and Radii of Crest Curves in the Vertical Alignment
8.2.2 - Rules
The sight distance corresponding to level NPV A must be ensured

• for an exit handled by assignment of a lane(15); this visibility must be ensured from both lanes of the carriageway
from which the exit leads, which diverge at the road split.

Exit manoeuvre
Distance distance
de manœuvre 6v 6v
en sortie
J14 nose
Balise marker
de musoir J14

Visibilité
Required visibili
requty ise

Type
TypeDa30
S.S.5.00 m
5,00m
Driver's

Da 30
œil du
eyes
conducteur Pointpoint
Observed
observé (fixe)
(static)

Figure 12: Visibility at an exit handled by assignment of a lane (NPV A)

• for an exit taper, this visibility must be ensured from the two rightmost lanes on the carriageway from which the
exit leads.

Exit manoeuvre
Distance distance
de manœuvre 6v 6v
en sortie
J14 nose
Balise demarker
musoir J14

Required
Visibilitévisibility
requise
Type
TypeD30

S.
S.1.50 m
1,50m
Exit manoeuvre
Distance de manœuvre
S.
S.5.00 m
D 30

distance
en sortie 3v 3v 5,00m
Driver's
œil du
eyes
conducteur Observed
Point point
(static)
observé (fixe)

Figure 13: Exit taper visibility (NPV A)


Flexibility: In some circumstances, the necessary measures to ensure level NPV A visibility of the approaches to an
exit assembly may result in disproportionate design provisions. In such cases, ensuring level NPV B visibility may be
considered a reasonable objective for an exit taper.

Exit manoeuvre
Distance distance
de manœuvre en6vsortie 6v
d ms = 6
6v
Balise de musoir
J14 nose markerJ14

Re
Visquibi
ire
lité
d vis
reqibiuis
litye
Type D 30

S. 1,50m
Observed
Pointpoint
Type
Type D30

3v (static)
d ms =observé (fixe) S.S.1,50m
1.50 m S.S.5.00 m
5,00m
Distance de manœuvre
D 30

Driver's
œil du
Exitsortie
en 3v distance 3v
manoeuvre
eyes
conducteur

Figure 14: Exit taper visibility (NPV B)

(15): Including exits handled by pseudo-assignment of a lane from an auxiliary crossover lane.

Part 1 - Review of Visibility Rules 25

 9 - Visibility of entrances (at interchanges, rest and service areas)
Good visibility of entering vehicles from the right-hand lane of the receiving carriageway facilitates merging manoeuvres. It
enhances safety and road capacity by allowing drivers to mutually adjust their speeds, which is essential for merging manoeuvres,
and where applicable, enables users on the receiving carriageway to cooperate by changing lanes.

9.1 - Defining sight distances and related performance levels

The entrance sight distance dve is defined with two performance levels:
• Level NPV A: Sufficient visibility of entering vehicles (at point E.1.00 m in the entry arrangement) to enable a vehicle travelling
on the right-hand lane of the receiving carriageway to adjust its speed with an acceptable level of comfort (in terms of
deceleration and time headway), with no need to change lanes.
• Level NPV B: visibility of entering vehicles enabling a car on the right-hand lane of the receiving carriageway to change lane
(if a satisfactory gap in traffic is available), and to adjust its speed safely (which may entail uncomfortable deceleration)
with no need to change lane.

The values corresponding to these two performance levels, estimated using kinematic modelling (see bibliography) for various
approach speeds, are shown in the table below.

Performance level NPV NPV A NPV B

130 km/h 285 m 250 m
110 km/h 195 m 175 m
90 km/h 140 m 125 m
70 km/h 85 m 75 m
Table 2: Entrance sight distance (dve)

Verification conditions
 Observation point: Eyes of a car driver travelling in the right-hand lane of the receiving carriageway, positioned
at a height of 1.10 m above ground, and 2.00 m from the edge of the receiving carriageway.
 Observed point: Vehicle tail light, positioned at point E.1.00 m of the entry arrangement, at a height of 0.70 m
above ground, 0.75 m to the left of the centreline of the lane in question.

Distance de visibilité
Entrance sur entrée
sight distance

Re
Visquibi
irelité
d visreq
ibility
uise

Driver's
œil du E.1,00 m
E. 1.00 m
eyes
conducteur Observed
Pointpoint
(static)(fixe)
observé

Figure 15: Visibility at a merging entrance (to be adapted for entrance with an additional lane)

9.2 - Rules
The entrance sight distance corresponding to performance level NPV A must be ensured.

26 Road and Motorway Design - Review of Design Rules relating to Visibility and Radii of Crest Curves in the Vertical Alignment
 
Flexibility: If faced with severe design constraints that persist after optimising the project, designers may relax the
foregoing rule by conforming only to performance level NPV B, provided none of the following situations apply:
• only one queuing lane;
• dense entering HGV traffic (>600 HGVs/day);
• entrance geometry that forces HGVs to merge at a low speed (below the recommended conventional speed at
the earliest point of entry);
• steeply inclined link section >3% gradient at the earliest point of entry);
• heavy traffic (> 25,000 v/day) on the link section, limiting the ability of vehicles to change lanes;
• entrance located in a tunnel (or assimilated cut-and-cover trench).


In the specific case of a merging lane entering a link section with no hard shoulder, an entering user located at the
earliest point of entry must have sight of the whole merging taper.

Driver's
œil du
eyes
conducteur

E.E.1,00m
1.00 m Biseau de
Manoeuvre
Zone zone
de manœuvre Merging taper
rabattement

Figure 16: Visibility of the merging taper (if there is no hard shoulder)

Verification conditions
 Observation point: Eyes of a car driver positioned at a height of 1.10 m above ground, 2.00 m from the right
edge of the slip lane, level with point E. 1.00 m.
 Observed point: Totality of the line defining the merging taper (at ground level) after the manoeuvring area
(i.e. beginning 200 m after point E. 1.00 m in the case of a normal slip lane onto a motorway-like road).

10 - Visibility at slip roads and branches

Slip roadsand branches are subject to similar visibility requirements to link sections. Visibility criteria should, however, be
adjusted to allow for the operating conditions, in particular the driving speeds on the slip road or branch.

The speeds taken into consideration must be determined based on the conventional speeds(16) defined in Appendix 5, levelled
off at the speed limit. Certain situations may lead designers to adopt a different speed (see 2.2.1).
On a slip road or branch, the following visibility conditions must be ensured:
• visibility of obstacles, as defined in Section 3. In principle, the slip road should not itself be treated as a singularity,
but it may include singularities (for example, a connecting junction or toll station);
• visibility of bends, as defined in Section (marking sight distance only);
• approach visibility for junctions at the end of a slip road. Furthermore, the visibility requirements for junctions
with the ordinary road network are the same as described in Sections 5 and 6 for at-grade junctions on link sections.
For urban junctions, refer to the relevant recommendations;
• visibility of entrances and exits from the slip road or branch, which should be treated as the carriageway receiving
the entrance or from which the exit leads (see Sections 8 and 9).

(16): It is more a case of selecting safe driving speeds rather than actual speeds.

Part 1 - Review of Visibility Rules 27

 11 - Visibility under structures
The requirements relating to visibility in underground structures and underpasses (including tunnels and cut-and-cover
trenches) are broadly the same as for the rest of the network, all else being equal. The characteristics of such structures should
nevertheless prompt designers to adopt a few special visibility-related precautions.

This applies in particular to reduced-height underpasses, which can have far smaller clearances and longitudinal curve radii
than typically encountered on the road network. In some configurations, visibility for HGV drivers may be more restricted.

11.1 - Visibility under structures


For all visibility rules, visibility must be assessed by verifying that line of sight is not obstructed by the structure of
the tunnel, covered engineering structure or restoration structure. In practice, this mainly concerns:
• visibility of obstacles;
• perception of direction signs.

Driver's
œil du
eyes
conducteur
Observed
Point point
(static)
observé (fixe)

ye
isibqiluitis
edtévre
quibirili
RVeis

Partie
Underpass approach
Trémie Covered part
couverte Underpass approach
Trémie

Figure 17: Visibility under structures

Verification conditions (approaching and under a structure)

 Observation point: Eyes of a vehicle driver, positioned 0.60 m to the left of the centreline of their lane, at a
height of:
• 1.80 m above ground, in reduced-height underpasses with a clearance of 2.60 m;
• 2.50 m above ground, in reduced-height underpasses with a clearance of 3.50 m and other structures with
equivalent or greater clearance.
 Observed point: This point may vary according to the rule considered, and is as defined in other sections herein.

T unnels and other structures reserved exclusively for light vehicles are not subject to this verification, which concerns
observations from an HGV. Instead, the impact on visibility of such structures should be assessed exclusively from
a light vehicle, with the driver's eyes positioned at a height of 1.10 m above ground.

11.2 - Lateral visibility


No different or additional conditions apply to lateral visibility; however, as the cross-section is often determined by
constraints relating to the road's construction (resulting in limited clearance to the side), the range of horizontal curve
radii is restricted in order to ensure satisfactory visibility.

For example, for 3.50 m wide traffic lanes, a 0.30 m right hard strip and a 0.50 m service pavement, the level curve
radius should in principle exceed 300 m in order to provide a stopping distance at a speed of 70 km/h that conforms
to level NPV B (see Appendix 3: Visibility Calculations).

28 Road and Motorway Design - Review of Design Rules relating to Visibility and Radii of Crest Curves in the Vertical Alignment
12 - Visibility of refuges
Ensuring good visibility around refuges creates the conditions for mutual perception by a vehicle travelling on the main
carriageway and a vehicle that is either slowing down to enter the refuge, stationary in it or leaving it to rejoin traffic.


Refuges are located in such a way that an approaching user in the right-hand lane on the main carriageway has an
entrance sight distance dve (see Section 9) equal to or greater than the sight distance to the rear of a vehicle located
in the middle of the refuge.

Verification conditions
 Observation point: Eyes of a car driver travelling in the right-hand lane, positioned at a height of 1.10 m
above ground , and 0.25 m to the left of the centreline of their lane.
 Observed point: Vehicle located in the centre of the parallel section of the refuge, positioned at a height of
0.70 m above ground, and 2.50 m from the right edge of the refuge.

Distance
Entrance sight distance
de visibilité sur entrée

Vi
Resib
quire
ilitdé vis
requ
ibility
ise

Driver's
œil du
eyes
conducteur Observed
Pointpoint
(static)(fixe)
observé

Figure 18: Visibility at refuges

13 - Visibility of arrester beds

An HGV driver approaching an arrester bed must have adequate time to perceive the start of the escape lane, plan their
manoeuvre and execute it.


The HGV driver must see the location signage and the start of the checkerboard markings, at the arrester bed sight
distance (dlu = 170 m), as measured from the start of the markings.

Verification conditions
 Observation point: Eyes of an HGV driver positioned 0.60 m to the left of the centreline of the right-hand lane
(or crawler lane, where applicable), at a height of 2.50 m above ground.
 Observed points:
• all points in the first 50 metres of the checkerboard markings (at ground level);
• the C26 location sign.

Distance de visibilité
Arrester bed sight
sur lit d’arrêt distance
d’urgence
(170 m) 50 m

Re qubi
Visi irelitdévisibi
lity
requ ise
Type C 26

Driver's
œil du
eyes
conducteur
Observed
Point point Biseau de
(static)
observé (fixe) rabattement

Figure 19: Visibility of arrester beds

Part 1 - Review of Visibility Rules 29

 14 - Visibility of emergency accesses
Emergency accesses are found mainly on motorway-like roads. Ensuring good visibility of an emergency access creates the
conditions for mutual perception by users travelling on the main carriageway and service vehicles that are either slowing down
to enter the access lane, stationary in it or leaving it to rejoin traffic.

T he required sight distance to a service vehicle level with the access lane must equal or exceed the entrance sight
distance dve (see Section 9), at performance level NPV A.

Verification conditions
 Observation point: Eyes of a car driver travelling in the right-hand lane, positioned at a height of 1.10 m
above ground and 0.25 m to the left of the centreline of their lane.
 Observed point: Service vehicle observed at a height of 1.00 m above ground, set back 4.00 m from the edge
line level with the emergency access.

In addition, the connection between the emergency access and the local road network must comply with the visibility
requirements defined for at-grade junctions or local residents' entrances in that network.

ReVis
quire d té
ibili visreq
ibility
uise
4m

da : distance d’arrêt Driver's

œil du Observed
Pointpoint
Distance
Entrance de visibilité
sight distance sur entrée (static)
eyes
conducteur observé (fixe)

Figure 20: Visibility of emergency accesses

15 - Overtaking visibility (on single-carriageway roads)

This section concerns two-lane single-carriageway roads(17).

In practice, only sight distances of around 500 m or more allow safe overtaking in an appreciable percentage (i.e. 30-50%) of
situations (depending on the relative speeds of the vehicles present, etc.).


It is reasonable to seek to provide such sight distances (>500 m) along sections representing at least 25% of the
length of the project (if possible, avoiding concentrating the 25% in the same portion of the layout). Outside such
areas, no overtaking visibility constraints need to be taken into account.

Verification conditions
 Observation point: Eyes of a car driver, positioned at a height of 1.10 m above ground and located on the
carriageway centreline.
 Observed point: Vehicle travelling in the opposite direction, positioned on the centreline of its lane, at a height
of 0.70 m above ground (see Appendix 2).

This goal of providing >500 m visibility along 25 % of the route generally requires a much higher percentage of straight
sections, as straight sections sometimes have restricted visibility due to the vertical alignment, or include junctions with a
central development that prevents overtaking. Where the proportion of 25 % is not achieved, overtaking sections can be built
to offer additional scope for overtaking.

When considering the overtaking visibility requirements for very short projects, designers may extend the section of route
symmetrically upstream and downstream (to obtain a section of route with a total length of up to 5 km).

(17): Three-lane roads on which the central lane is not assigned to a particular direction of travel are not recommended, for safety reasons. Such roads are
prohibited on the French national road network.

30 Road and Motorway Design - Review of Design Rules relating to Visibility and Radii of Crest Curves in the Vertical Alignment
16 - Visibility for public transport lanes
Particular attention must be paid to verifying visibility conditions when developing public transport lanes on VSA90/110 roads.

Due to the specificities of public transport lanes, designers are encouraged to adapt some of the foregoing recommendations
relating to conventional arrangements, required sight distances or visibility verification procedures.

Where a public transport lane is liable to carry multiple categories of public transport, the corresponding visibility requirements
must be verified for the most restrictive category.

16.1 - Visibility of obstacles on public transport lanes

Creating a public transport involves removing the hard shoulder. The probability of encountering a stationary vehicle on a
public transport lane is increased by lack of alternatives for users who need to stop. However, the limited traffic density on
public transport lanes (100 bus/h) allows users to stop safely on a public transport lane in an emergency. This only applies if
adequate visibility is ensured at all points along the route, to enable public transport drivers using the reserved lane to stop
before colliding with such obstacles. The sight distance must therefore be at least equal to the stopping distance.

16.1.1 - Sight distances for different types of vehicle on public transport lanes
Two types of vehicle travel on public transport lanes:
• coaches with no standing passengers, which can carry seated passengers safely and comfortably with no need to adjust
stopping distances. The corresponding obstacle visibility performance levels are defined as in 3.2.
• buses and coaches carrying standing passengers, who can generally withstand deceleration rates up to 2 m/s²; more severe
braking manoeuvres pose a risk of passengers falling and potentially being injured. To reflect this constraint, the stopping
distance must therefore be defined differently, using the following formula:

(18)

where:
- daPD : stopping distance with standing passengers, in m;
- TPR : perception-reaction time, assumed to be 1.8 seconds;
- v : approach speed, in m/s;
- gPD : m ean deceleration during the stopping manoeuvre with standing passengers, stated as a fraction of
g = 9.81 m/s², assumed to be 0.205.

Verification conditions
 Observation point: Eyes of a bus/coach driver, positioned at a height of 1.80 m above ground and 0.60 m to
the left of the centreline of the public transport lane.
 Observed point: For a vehicle, the observed point is the least restrictive of the two tail lights, positioned at a
height of 0.70 m above ground and 0.75 m to the left or right of the centreline of its lane.

(18) : The stopping distance is unaffected by gradient and curve radius, inasmuch as the deceleration limit of 2 m/s² does not depend on the road configuration,
vehicle performance or driver ability.

Part 1 - Review of Visibility Rules 31

 16.1.2 - Rules

On a public transport lane carrying coaches with no standing passengers, the stopping sight distance corresponding
to performance level NPV B, as defined in 3.2, must be ensured.

Certain circumstances warrant a higher performance level, NPV A. This applies in particular to traffic crossing interchange
points, which are especially sensitive due to the high risk of encountering stationary traffic in the public transport
lane (as a result of cars experiencing difficulty merging into the traffic on a congested link section, tailbacks on an
exit slip road, etc.).

Consequently, in addition to the singularities identified in 3.3, designers must consider:

• at exits, the section of public transport lane between the Da40 advance assignment sign and the S. 5.00 m point;
• at entrances, the section of public transport lane between point E.1.00 m and the end of the entry arrangement.

 n a public transport lane carrying buses or coaches with standing passengers, the stopping sight distance defined
O
in 16.1.1 must be ensured (with no distinction between performance levels).
In some circumstances, the constraints applicable to the public transport lane may make compliance with the
preceding rules either impossible or subject to major economic or environmental impacts. In such cases, designers
should consider locally reducing the speed limit on the public transport lane.

16.1.3 - Public transport lanes on left-hand bends

There is a risk of mobile obstruction on left-hand bends. Public transport lanes are created on often congested infrastructures
that can have stationary HGVs in the slow lane, potentially masking objects located in front of a moving public transport vehicle.
Designers must ensure that areas subject to chronic congestion are free from such potential visibility barriers.


To this end, the following condition must be verified:

where:
- d : desired sight distance (da or daPD), in m;
- RVRTC : curve radius along the centreline of the public transport lane, in m;
- LVRTC : width of the public transport lane, in m;
- LVD : width of the right-hand lane, in m;

Distance de visibilité
Sight distance (d or (dadou )daPD)
a aPD
BUS

Required visibility
Visibilité requise

Driver's
œil du Observed
Pointpoint
eyes
conducteur (static)
observé (fixe)

Figure 21: Visibility on a left-hand bend in a public transport lane

16.2 - Visibility at entrances crossed by a public transport lane

The requirement relating to visibility of entering vehicles from a public transport lane must facilitate merging manoeuvres by
allowing vehicles to mutually adjust their speeds accordingly. It must also allow drivers of public transport vehicles to perform
an emergency stop upon seeing queues on the slip road caused by congestion on the link section.

32 Road and Motorway Design - Review of Design Rules relating to Visibility and Radii of Crest Curves in the Vertical Alignment
 
The entrance sight distance must therefore equal or exceed the stopping distance corresponding to performance level NPV A.
The speed limit on the public transport lane must be reduced if this condition is not met.

Verification conditions
 Observation point: Eyes of a bus/coach driver, positioned at a height of 1.80 m above ground and 0.60 m to
the left of the centreline of the public transport lane.
 Observed point: Vehicle tail light, positioned at point E.1.00 m of the merging arrangement, at a height of
0.70 m above ground, 0.75 m to the left of the centreline of the lane in question.

Distance de visibilité
Entrance sur entrée
sight distance
BUS

BUS
BUS

Vis
Requ
ibiired
lité req
visibuis
ility
e

E. 1.00 m
E.1,00 m

Driver's
œil du
eyes
conducteur Observed
Pointpoint
observé (fixe)
(static)

Figure 22: Visibility of an entrance intercepted by a public transport lane

16.3 - Visibility of exits crossed by public transport lanes


The visibility rules for an exit as defined in Section 8 must also be applied for an observer standing in a public transport
lane, adapting the observation point accordingly (i.e. eyes of a bus/coach driver, positioned at a height of 1.80 m
above ground, 0.60 m to the left of the centreline of the public transport lane).

It should also be noted that the public transport lane configuration, at exits where the public transport lane becomes
a pseudo-lane assignment, can pose safety issues, especially when the general traffic lanes are congested. In such
situations, there must be adequate visibility to enable mutual adaptation by a bus/coach driver travelling along their
lane and a user moving at low speed from the general traffic into the pseudo-assigned lane in order to use the exit.
While approaching interchange points and on lanes that run alongside congested traffic, bus/coach drivers must take
suitable precautions to reduce the risk of conflicts between users.

17 - Visibility of pedestrian crossings

Designers must provide excellent conditions in terms of mutual perception by drivers and pedestrians at pedestrian crossings,
enabling pedestrians to initiate and complete their crossing before an approaching vehicle reaches them.


The minimum required sight distance for each traffic lane is:

where:
- dtp : pedestrian crossing sight distance, in m;
- v : vehicle speed, in m/s;
- ltp : pedestrian crossing width, in m, with pedestrians assumed to move at a speed of 1 m/s.

Verification Conditions
 Observation point: Eyes of a car driver, positioned at a height of 1.10 m above ground and 0.25 m to the left
of the centreline of their lane.
 Observed point: Pedestrian level with the crossing, standing on the verge (or in a refuge island), 1 m from
the carriageway edge, observed at any height between 0.60 m and 2 m above ground.

Part 1 - Review of Visibility Rules 33

 Part 2 

Review of Minimum Radii of Crest

Curves in the Vertical Alignment
1 - Introduction
This second part of the guide reviews the recommendations relating to the minimum radii of crest curves in the vertical
alignment, for the purpose of designing and developing road infrastructures.

These new recommendations supersede those issued in the ARP, ICTAAL (and interchange supplement), VSA 90/110, VSA AU70
and single-lane dual carriageway development and design guides and instructions. They include visibility-related changes
(including to stopping distances and conventional heights) and provide a basis for harmonising the rules in the various technical
baselines.

2 - Recommendations
2.1 - General principles
Design basis rules for the horizontal alignment and vertical alignment serve two purposes. Firstly, they ensure a relatively
uniform level of comfort along the length of a road infrastructure, appropriate to the type and category of road, in particular
by stipulating minimum characteristics. Secondly, they aim to ensure good safety conditions, in particular by establishing road
feature sequencing principles and visibility-related principles.

The geometry (including the horizontal and vertical alignment) of a road cannot be approved without examining these
sequencing and visibility conditions in accordance with the applicable recommendations.

The vertical alignment consists of straight sections (aka tangents) characterised by their gradient, connected by parabolic
sections characterised by their radius. A distinction is made between crest curve radii and sag curve radii (see glossary). This
document only addresses crest curve radii.

The rules for crest curve radii primarily relate to their minimum acceptable value, which determines the entire parabolic
connection.

An appropriate minimum value provides assurances in terms of ride comfort and visual comfort. In practice, on straight, level
sections it is defined so as to ensure an obstacle sight distance (or stopping distance), calculated for performance level NPV A
using the conventional arrangements defined in the applicable recommendations (see Part 1 "Review of Visibility Guidelines").

34 Road and Motorway Design - Review of Design Rules relating to Visibility and Radii of Crest Curves in the Vertical Alignment
2.2 - Rules for link sections

Crest curve radii must comply with the limits stated in the following table:

Baseline Category Minimum Rvs value

L1 9,200 m
ICTAAL L2 5,200 m
L2 - in challenging relief 2,700 m
VSA 110 5,200 m
VSA 90/110
VSA 90 2,700 m
AU70 - 1,300 m
- 2,700 m
Single-lane dual carriageway
Overtaking section 5,200 m
R80 3,100 m
ARP
R60 1,300 m


These limit values do not always enable compliance with the visibility conditions specified in Part 1 "Review
of Visibility Guidelines", which depend on factors such as traffic speeds. These conditions may prompt designers to
adopt crest curve radii greater than those indicated above.

This notably applies:

• where the configuration leads designers to consider a higher speed (non levelled-off V85 speed higher than the
posted speed limit);
• on a curve resulting in an increased stopping distance (curved-road stopping distance on a moderately tight bend);
• on a downward slope resulting in an increased stopping distance (sloping stopping distance in a steep descent);
• where certain specific visibility conditions are required near singularities, such as approaches to bends, approaches
to exits, overtaking sections, etc. (see Part 1 "Review of Visibility Guidelines");
• in general, on a road designed using the ARP baseline, wherever the considered speed is greater than 90 km/h
on an R80 category road, or 70 km/h on an R60 road.


On motorway-like roads, the minimum radii should only be used in configurations with financial implications. Using
larger radii is recommended wherever doing so does not generate significant additional costs.

A single, long crest or sag curve is sometimes a better option than a series of shorter curves and straight sections.

On curves in the horizontal alignment, where lateral visibility is obstructed (for example, by a barrier on the verge
or central reservation of a road with divided carriageways), the use of salient curves that comply with these minimum
values regularly proves unsuitable with regard to visibility conditions. Increasing the salient radius generally yields
little improvement in visibility, with any gains more likely to be the result of relocating the lateral obstruction or
reconfiguring the vertical alignment (by seeking a non-salient vertical alignment).

Part 2 - Review of Minimum Radii of Crest Curves in the Vertical Alignment 35

 2.3 - Rules for branches and interchange slip roads

The crest curve radii for branches and interchange slip roads must comply with the limits stated in the following
table:

Baseline Category Minimum Rvs value

110 km/h branch 5,200 m
90 km/h branch/slip road 2,700 m
ICTAAL
70 km/h branch/slip road 1,200 m
70 km/h or slower slip road 1,100 m
Category A branch or slip road 1,100 m
VSA 90/110 Category B branch or slip road 400 m
Category C slip road 400 m


These values do not always result in the required visibility conditions, which depend in particular on the conventional
speed determined according to the horizontal alignment (see related recommendations). These conditions may
prompt designers to adopt crest curve radii greater than those indicated above.

2.4 - Special rules

2.4.1 - Underground structures

The requirements applicable to tunnels are the same as for link sections. In particular, adequate visibility must be ensured
(see Part 1 "Review of Visibility Guidelines").

The same applies to reduced-height underpasses (such as AU70).

2.4.2 - Scope for overtaking on single-carriageway roads

On two-lane, single-carriageway roads, creating overtaking sections requires designers to combine straight horizontal alignments
and straight or concave(19) vertical alignments over a distance of 800 m or more on some sections (to ensure that the 500 m
overtaking sight distance is available for at least a few hundred metres).

2.4.3 - Overtaking sections on single-lane dual carriageway roads

Designers should avoid coincident overtaking sections with geometric characteristics incompatible with a 110 km/h speed
limit. From a vertical alignment perspective, this implies avoiding crest curve radii below 5,200 m.

2.4.4 - Roads in challenging relief

Crest curve radii must be determined according to the visibility to be provided (see Part 1 "Review of Visibility Guidelines").

(19): The necessary salient (convex) angle radius should be approximately 30,000 m, if it applies to a long curve.

36 Road and Motorway Design - Review of Design Rules relating to Visibility and Radii of Crest Curves in the Vertical Alignment
Bibliography
Study Reports, Research Publications and Technical Reports
• Gambard J.M., Louah G., Vitesses pratiquées et géométrie de la route (Traffic speeds and road geometry), Sétra, study
report, 1986.
• Gambard J.M., Louah G., Vitesse pratiquée et géométrie de la route (Traffic speeds and road geometry), information note
(Traffic, Safety & Operation series) No. 10, Sétra, April 1986.
• Fluteaux L., Étude de la base Virage (Bend database study); technical report. Cete Normandie-Centre, 1997.
• Labaye Y., Modélisation de l’insécurité routière en virage: mise en place d’une méthodologie opérationnelle d’application
du modèle linéaire généralisé (Modelling safety hazards on bends: an operational method for applying the general linear
model); ENSAI Master's degree internship report, 1997.
• Patte L., Le livre du maître - Justifications de l’ICTAAL – Chap. 2 Visibilité (Master Guide - ICTAAL Justifications - Chap. 2
Visibility); technical Memorandum, Sétra, 2002.
• Louah G., Menacer O., La vitesse pratiquée ou V85 – Formules de calcul (Actual traffic speeds or V85 - Calculation formulas),
Information note no. 127, CETE de l’Ouest, Sétra, 2008.
• Patte, L., Évaluation du risque en relation avec la visibilité - Proposition d’indicateurs de risque pour la visibilité (Visibility-
related risk assessment - Proposed visibility risk indicators), CETE Méditerranée, 2009.
• Louah G., Dupré G., Violette E. Actualisation des formules françaises de vitesse V85 pratiquée en virage sur route à deux
voies (Updated French V85 formulas for bends on dual carriageways), CETE de l’Ouest, CETE Normandie-Centre, id. PRAC
Minutes, Paris, 2010.
• Patte L., Nouvelles modalités de définition des recommandations pour plus de flexibilité et de cohérence (New
recommendation definition procedure for greater flexibility and consistency), Cerema, 2015.
• Patte L., Fondamentaux de la conception routière - Révision des règles de visibilité et de calcul de la distance d’arrêt (Basic
road design - Review of visibility and stopping distance calculation rules), Cerema Méditerranée, May 2015.
• Recommandations en matière de visibilité : note sur la révision des hauteurs conventionnelles. Données et analyses (Visibility-
related recommendations - Note on revised conventional heights. Data and analyses). Cerema Méditerranée, August 2017.
• Révision des recommandations en matière de visibilité : note sur l’impact et l’applicabilité des propositions (Review of
visibility-related recommendations - Note on the impact and applicability of proposals), Cerema Méditerranée, May 2017.
• Recommandations en matière de visibilité et de rayons en angle saillants. Note d’accompagnement du guide et principales
justifications (Recommendations on visibility and crest curves. Companion to the guide, with key justifications), Cerema,
December 2017 (provisional version).

Instructions, guides and technical recommendations

• Inter-ministerial directive for road signs and markings. Order of 24 November 1967 (amended) on road and motorway signs
and markings.
• Aménagement des routes principales (Design of main roads), Sétra, May 1994.
• Dossier pilote des tunnels (Tunnel Manual) , CETU, July 1998.
• Aménagement des carrefours interurbains sur les routes principales - carrefours plans (Design of interurban junctions on
main roads - At-grade junctions), Setra, December 1998.
• Conception des accès sur voies rapides urbaines de type A (VRU A) (Design of entrances onto type A urban expressways
(VRU A), Certu, 2003.
• 2x1 voies - Route à chaussées séparées (Single-lane dual carriageways), Sétra, July 2011.
• Voies Structurantes d’Agglomération - Conception des artères urbaines à 70 km/h (Urban structuring roads - Design of 70
km/h urban arteries), Certu, February 2013.
• Les échangeurs sur routes de type "Autoroute" (Motorway interchanges), Sétra, August 2013, revised in May 2015.
• Voies structurantes d’agglomération - Conception des voies à 90 et 110 km/h (Urban structuring roads (VSA) - Design of 90
and 110 km/h roads), Cerema, November 2014.
• ICTAAL. Instruction sur les Conditions Techniques d’Aménagement des Autoroutes de Liaison (National instruction on technical
design requirements for rural motorways), Cerema, 2015.
• Voies Structurantes d’Agglomération. Aménagement des voies réservées aux transports collectifs (Urban structuring roads.
Planning lanes reserved for regular public transport services), Cerema, 2017.

Bibliography 37
 Glossary
Additional lane  A method of configuring a motorway entrance, whereby the lane(s) downstream
of the convergent nose become(s) additional lane(s) on the main carriageway.

Hard shoulder  Part of the verge, adjacent to the carriageway, free of obstructions and with a
surface coating, designed to allow vehicles to make an emergency stop off the
carriageway. The hard shoulder includes the structural extended portion of the
carriageway.

Branch Any ramification of a motorway node.

Slip road Lane transitioning between a motorway road and another road.

Connecting junction At-grade junction in an interchange, where one or more slip roads leading from
the motorway connect to the ordinary road network.

Originating carriageway Carriageway from which an exit branch or slip road leads.

Receiving carriageway Carriageway into which an entrance branch or slip road merges.

Half-junction At-grade junction that allows only right-turn manoeuvres (generally on roads
with divided carriageways, such as interurban major roads and certain single-
lane, dual carriageway roads).

Lateral visual clearance (e) On a curving layout, this is the distance between the user's trajectory (which
defines the observation point) and the lateral obstruction.

Stopping distance (da) Conventional theoretical distance required for a vehicle to come to a complete
standstill, depending on its speed, calculated as the sum of the braking distance
and the distance travelled during the perception-reaction time.

Exit manoeuvre distance (dms) Conventional distance required when approaching an exit, to enable drivers to
change direction and perform the necessary manoeuvres.

D30 Da30 Pointed direction signs.

D40 Da40 Advance signs.

D50 Da50 Hazard warning signs.

Interchange  Junction at which traffic transfers are separated from one another and made
to take place outside the main arterial roads – Generic term covering grade-
separated interchanges between motorways, and between motorways and
ordinary roads.

E.1.00 m  Earliest point of entry: the part of the cross-section where the convergent nose
reaches a width of 1.00 m.

Lc or lc Reading distance: sum of the distance travelled by the user while reading the
sign and the distance at which the indications on the sign fall outside the user’s
field of view.

Additional braking distance on curve (mc) Increase in braking distance on a curving road, for reasons relating partly to
dynamics and partly to the greater difficulty of the driving task.

Nose End point where two (convergent or divergent) road lanes in the same direction
of travel separate.

38 Road and Motorway Design - Review of Design Rules relating to Visibility and Radii of Crest Curves in the Vertical Alignment
Lane merge Development whereby a traffic lane on one side of the carriageway
gradually disappears.

Sag curve radius Arc radius of a concave curve connecting two straight sections of the
vertical alignment.

Crest curve radius Arc radius of a convex curve connecting two straight sections of the vertical
alignment.

Rdn Minimum radius with normal crossfall: radius below which the carriageway
is banked towards the inside of the bend and above which the crossfall
is normal (i.e. 2.5 % toward the right side of the carriageway).

Road separated from its environment (Urban or rural) road accessible only via grade-separated interchanges.
This type of road has no at-grade junctions or local residents' entrances.
By extension, for the purpose of this guide, this category also includes
all motorways and expressways from which certain categories of users
and vehicles are prohibited.

Road not separated from its environment (Urban or rural) road accessible via at-grade junctions, and in some cases
local residents' entrances, that is open to all categories of users and
vehicles.

Link section  Section of the main motorway free from singularities.

S.1.00 m  Point where the divergent nose reaches a width of 1.00 m.

S.1.50 m  Earliest exit point: part of the cross-section where the exit taper reaches
a theoretical width of 1.50 m.

S. 5.00 m  Theoretical point of divergence, where the J14a or J14b markers are
located.

Central reservation Strip separating two carriageways located on the same platform, The
central reservation comprises a central hard strip accommodating the
barrier and two left hard strips.

V85 Conventional speed below which 85% of vehicles drive in free-flowing

traffic conditions ("free" vehicles).

Public transport lane Lane developed on a former hard shoulder on VSA 90/110 infrastructures,
whether or not originally designed using this baseline. Public transport
lanes are reserved exclusively for regular public transport services, subject
to sections L 3111-1 to L 3111-25 of the French Transport Code.

Glossary 39
 Table of notes
d required sight distance (in general)
da stopping distance
daPD stopping distance for coaches and buses carrying standing passengers
Darc sight distance along the length of a crest or sag curve
dav speed adaptation distance (on a curve)
ddép overtaking sight distance
Dpente-arc-pente sight distance on a crest or sag curve and its connecting slopes
dvp overtaking sight distance
dél Lateral avoidance distance
df crossing sight distance
dfeu approach sight distance to a controlled junction
dlu arrester bed sight distance
dms exit manoeuvre distance
dtp pedestrian crossing sight distance
dve entrance sight distance
dvm marking sight distance
dr slowing distance
e lateral visual clearance on a curve
hc height above ground of observed point
ho height above ground of observation point
K coefficient representing the performance level.
larc crest or sag curve length
lc reading distance
ltp pedestrian crossing width
LVD width of right-hand lane adjacent to a public transport lane
LVRTC width of public transport lane
mc additional braking distance on curve
NPV visibility performance level (NPV A, NPV B, NPV C)
P, p, p1 or p2 gradient
R trajectory radius
Rarc crest or sag curve radius
Rdn minimum radius with normal crossfall
RVRTC public transport lane centreline radius
tf crossing time
TPR perception-reaction time

40 Road and Motorway Design - Review of Design Rules relating to Visibility and Radii of Crest Curves in the Vertical Alignment
v or V speed
V85 speed below which 85% of users travel in free-flowing traffic
gPD mean rate of deceleration during a stopping manoeuvre with standing passengers
gr mean rate of deceleration during a slowing manoeuvre
gv mean rate of deceleration during a stopping manoeuvre

Appendices 41
 Appendices
Appendix 1 - P rincipal Sight Distances
This appendix lists values corresponding to the sight distances defined in the guide for a number of characteristic situations
and speeds.

Link section / main carriageway

Stopping distance on level straight sections and curves with a radius ≥ 1.5 Rdn

Speed 50 km/h 70 km/h 80 km/h 90 km/h 110 km/h 130 km/h

Deceleration gv 0.46 0.44 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41
da (NPV A) 51 m 87 m 112 m 135 m 188 m 250 m
da (NPV B) 46 m 79 m 101 m 123 m 171 m 227 m
da (NPV C) 42 m 71 m 91 m 110 m 154 m 205 m

Stopping distance on level curves with a radius < Rdn

Speed 50 km/h 70 km/h 80 km/h 90 km/h 110 km/h 130 km/h

Deceleration gv 0.46 0.44 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41
Additional braking 0.20
distance on curve mc
da (NPV A) 56 m 96 m 125 m 152 m 214 m 286 m
da (NPV B) 51 m 88 m 114 m 138 m 194 m 260 m
da (NPV C) 46 m 79 m 102 m 124 m 175 m 234 m

Stopping distance on a public transport lane for coaches and buses carrying standing passengers

Public transport lane operating speed 50 km/h 70 km/h 90 km/h 110 km/h 130 km/h
daPD 73 m 129 m -

bend sight distances

Speed 50 km/h 70 km/h 80 km/h 90 km/h 110 km/h 130 km/h

dvm 40 m 58 m 67 m 75 m 92 m 108 m
dav Depends on the non levelled-off V85 speeds on the curve and approach

Refuge and emergency access sight distance

Speed 50 km/h 70 km/h 80 km/h 90 km/h 110 km/h 130 km/h

dve (NPV A) - 85 m 113 m 140 m 195 m 285 m

42 Road and Motorway Design - Review of Design Rules relating to Visibility and Radii of Crest Curves in the Vertical Alignment
 Arrester bed sight distance

Speed 50 km/h 70 km/h 80 km/h 90 km/h 110 km/h 130 km/h

dlu 170 m

Overtaking sight distance

Speed 50 km/h 70 km/h 80 km/h 90 km/h 110 km/h 130 km/h

ddép Unspecified 500 m Not applicable

Interchanges
Entrance sight distance

Speed 50 km/h 70 km/h 90 km/h 110 km/h 130 km/h

dve (NPV A) - 85 m 140 m 195 m 285 m
dve (NPV B) - 75 m 125 m 175 m 250 m

Exit manoeuvre distance

Speed 50 km/h 70 km/h 90 km/h 110 km/h 130 km/h

dms (in general) 83 m 117 m 150 m 183 m 217 m
dms (exit taper – right-hand lane) 42 m 58 m 75 m 92 m 108 m

Reading distance

Speed 70 km/h 80 km/h 90 km/h 110 km/h 130 km/h

lc 109 m 120 m 130 m 151 m 172 m

At-grade junctions and roundabouts

Crossing sight distance (df  ) for a standard at-grade junction

Non levelled-off V85 speed 50 km/h 70 km/h 80 km/h 90 km/h 110 km/h 130 km/h
df (NPV A) – 2 lanes 111 156 m 178 m 200 m 244 m -
df (NPV B) – 2 lanes 83 117 m 133 m 150 m 183 m -

Approach sight distance for a standard at-grade junction

See stopping distance.

Slowing distance for a roundabout (values rounded to nearest multiple of 10 m)

Speed 50 km/h 70 km/h 80 km/h 90 km/h 110 km/h 130 km/h

dr 90 m 160 m 200 m 250 m 370 m -

Appendices 43
 Roundabout crossing distance

Speed 50 km/h 70 km/h 80 km/h 90 km/h 110 km/h 130 km/h

df Left quadrant - -

Approach sight distance for a controlled junction

Speed 50 km/h 70 km/h 90 km/h 110 km/h 130 km/h

da (NPV A) 51 m 87 m - - -

Amber light sight distance

Speed 50 km/h 70 km/h 90 km/h 110 km/h 130 km/h

dfeu 70 m 100 m - - -

44 Road and Motorway Design - Review of Design Rules relating to Visibility and Radii of Crest Curves in the Vertical Alignment
Appendix 2 - S ummary of Visibility Rule Verification Conditions
This appendix lists the principal conditions conventionally used for verifying compliance with visibility rules. These conditions
apply in conjunction with the various rules, and are stated more precisely in the body of the applicable reference document.

 Observation point  Observed point

Purpose Rule Speed(19)
height position height position
Roads separated from their
environment:
0.70 m(20) 0.75 m to left
0.25 m left of centre
Levelled-off or right of
Visibility of obstacles of their lane Type R and AU70 roads: 0.50
V85 centre of lane
Link section (centred car) m(21)
*Left-hand lane on roads with
separate carriageways. 0.85 m
Overtaking 0.70 m
- carriageway centreline centreline of opposite lane
visibility (oncoming car/motorbike)
Visibility of bends Levelled-off
(markings) V85 single-carriageway, lane centreline
0.25 m left of centre
Bend 0.00 m one-way carriageway: least
Non levelled- of their lane
Adaptation distance restrictive of the two lane edges
off V85
2 m from right edge of
minor road
Non levelled- 0.70 m
Crossing visibility 4 m back from centreline of opposite lane
At-grade off V85 (oncoming car/motorbike)
stop line or 15 m from
junction give-way line
Levelled-off 1.10 m 0.25 m left of centre of 0.70 m
Approach visibility island nose ( J5)
V85 (car) their lane (base of J5 marker)
2 m from right edge
0.70 m
Crossing visibility - 15 m back from give-way "left quadrant"
(oncoming car/motorbike)
Roundabout line
Levelled-off 0.25 m left of centre of
Approach visibility depending on sign: J5, B21
V85 their lane
Levelled-off 0.25 m left of centre of 0.75 m to left or right of centre
Light- Approach visibility 0.70 m
V85 their lane of lane
controlled
junction Visibility of amber Levelled-off 0.25 m left of centre of
Amber light
lights V85 their lane
Visibility of Levelled-off
variable D30/D40/D50
directional signage V85
Exit
Visibility of exit Levelled-off 0.25 m left of centre of 1.00/0.80/1.85/1.35 m J14a/J14a red./J14b/J14b red.
systems V85 their lane 0.00 m taper markings
Levelled-off E. 1.00 m, merging lane
Entrance Visibility of entrances 0.70 m
V85 0.75 m left of centre of lane
Levelled-off 0.25 m left of centre of 2.50 m from right edge of
Refuge Visibility of refuges 0.70 m
V85 their lane refuge
0.60 m from left edge start (first 50 m) of
Visibility of arrester 2.50 m 0.00 m (checkerboard)
Arrester bed - of road checkerboard markings
beds (HGV) 1.00 m (C26)
(centred HGV) C26 sign
Operational
Levelled-off 0.25 m left of centre of 1.00 m
service Visibility of entrances 1.10 m 4 m to right of carriageway
V85 their lane (service vehicle)
accesses
Speed limit 0.75 m to left or right of centre
Public Visibility of obstacles 1.80 m 0.70 m
0.60 m left of centre of of lane
transport (coach or
Speed limit public transport lane point E.1.00 m
lane Visibility of entrances bus) 0.70 m
0.75 m left of centre of lane
Table 3: Summary of principal visibility rule verification conditions

(20) : For slip roads, where appropriate, replace V85 by conventional speed.
(20) (21): Except on the left-hand lane on roads with separate carriageways.

Appendices 45
 Appendix 3 - Visibility Calculations
Sight Distances allowing for Lateral Obstructions
On a curve in the horizontal alignment, in a simple configuration with the observed point and the observation point located
on the same arc having a radius R, the following relationship applies:

where:
- R : trajectory radius;
- e : lateral visual clearance (i.e. the distance between the trajectory and the obstruction);
- d : sight distance.(23)

This formula is valid only:

• if the arc length is greater than the required sight distance: Larc ≥ d. The formula is not applicable where Larc< d
as it underestimates - sometimes significantly - the sight distance provided;
• i f the observed point and the observer are located on the same arc. Where this is not the case, the formula provides
a good initial assessment of the visibility conditions, provided the difference in radius between the respective arcs
on which the two points are positioned is small relative to e (i.e. the lateral visual clearance).

Driver's
œil du Observed
Pointpoint
eyes
conducteur (static)
observé (fixe)

sight distance
Distance required
de visibilité requise

Rayon de la trajectoire
Trajectory radius masque
obstruction

Figure 23: Visibility on a curve with a lateral obstruction

Sight distance allowing for obstructions on the vertical alignment (in simple
configurations)
The vertical alignment, especially crest curves, can impact visibility (of obstacles, bends, approaches to junctions or entrances,
or for overtaking manoeuvres, etc.).

The visibility conditions afforded by a crest curve vertical alignment can be assessed using the following general formula:

Driver's
Observed point
eyes

Available sight distance: Darc

Rarc: Arc radius

Larc

Figure 24: Crest curve visibility when Larc ≥ Darc

(23): In theory, the sight distance is measured along the vehicle's trajectory, and therefore the arc, rather than the chord. However, the distance between arc
and chord lengths is negligible (< 1 %) for sub-30 grad directional angle changes, and small (< 5 %) for changes in directional angle up to 70 grad. These
values are rarely exceeded in practice.

46 Road and Motorway Design - Review of Design Rules relating to Visibility and Radii of Crest Curves in the Vertical Alignment
Where:
- Darc : sight distance (in m) along the crest curve
- Larc : crest curve length (in m)
- Rarc : crest curve radius (in m)
- ho  
: height above ground of observation point (in m)
- hc  
: height above ground of observed point (target in m)
- d  
: required sight distance (in m)

This formula is valid when the crest curve is long enough to accommodate the observer and the observed point,
connected by a line of sight. The condition corresponding to this situation is:

Where this is not the case (ie Darc > Larc), the line of sight extends beyond the crest curve. As a result, the sight distance does
not correspond to the value Darc and cannot therefore be deduced from the preceding formula. When calculating it, certain
geometric elements around the crest curve must also be taken into consideration.

Therefore, in the specific case of a crest curve connected to two constant slopes, the sight distance afforded by the vertical
alignment is the distance Dpente-arc-pente (slope-arc-slope), which can be evaluated using the following formula.

Driver's Observed point

eyes

Available sight distance: Dpente-arc-pente

Rarc: Arc radius

Larc Gradient
Gradient P2
P1

Figure 25: Crest curve visibility where Larc < Darc

(distance D pente-arc-pente adjusted for the specific case of a crest curve connected to two constant slopes)

Where:
- Dpente-arc-pente : sight distance (in m)
- Larc : crest curve length (in m)
- Rarc : crest curve radius (in m)
- ho : height above ground of observation point (in m)
- hc : height above ground of observed point (target in m)
- d : required sight distance (in m)
- p1, p2 : algebraic values (in m/m) of the slopes connected by the crest curve

Appendices 47
 Appendix 4 - U
 se of the "Stopwatch Method" to Measure Visibility
Conditions at At-Grade Junctions
This very simple-to-use method, performed by a single operator equipped with a stopwatch, is also quick to implement,
requiring between 3 and 15 minutes per junction, rarely more, unless the traffic on the main road is particularly light.

General measurement principle

Visibility must be checked for each direction of travel along the main road and for each branch of the minor road(s), i.e. for
each sight triangle.
The operator, equipped with a stopwatch, places their eye level with the edge of the right-hand verge on the minor road
(reproducing the position of the driver of a vehicle parked on the verge, for example), at a height of 1.10 m and set back 4 m
from the stop line or 15 m from the give-way line.
Upon sighting a vehicle travelling on the main road, the operator starts the stopwatch and measures the time taken for the
vehicle to reach their position. The operator should repeat this procedure for 12 light vehicles unconstrained by traffic (i.e.
performing a direct movement).
The operator then sorts the times in ascending order, and compares the third time (t3) against the recommended crossing
time (t) for the corresponding configuration.

Practical arrangements
While in the observation position, the operator may dispense with the aforementioned timing operations if the required visibility
is either clearly satisfied (for example >300 m) or manifestly inadequate (<100 m, for example).
If t3 is less than t for any of the sight triangles, the junction can be deemed not to fulfil the visibility requirement; the operator
may therefore choose to measure only the most unfavourable triangle if they are able to identify it in advance. Furthermore, from
a practical perspective, the operator may stop measuring sight times as soon as three unsatisfactory times have been logged.
If visibility is satisfactory at the observation point (i.e. 4 m or 15 m from the stop or give-way line), the operator must check
that as they approach the line, no obstructions significantly disrupt the sight triangle thus formed.
Measurements should be made sufficiently discreetly to avoid materially influencing driver behaviour on the main road.

Measurement accuracy
This method yields measurements that are accurate to within approximately ± 2 seconds. This is another reason to opt for
recommended t values rather than absolute minimum values. Furthermore, in the event that the t3 result borders on the
threshold, additional measurements should be performed (for example, adopting the sixth-shortest time from a sample of
24 measurements), and if appropriate, using a more accurate method such as measuring the actual sight distance and using
a hand-held speed camera to measure the V85 speeds observed on the road.

48 Road and Motorway Design - Review of Design Rules relating to Visibility and Radii of Crest Curves in the Vertical Alignment
Appendix 5 - Conventional Speed on Branches and Slip roads
The conventionally accepted speed on curves on branches and slip roads depends on a combination of curve radius and crossfall.
It is determined using the following formula, which links the speed on the curve (v), the side-friction coefficient corresponding
to that speed at the safe limit (Cfts), and the radius (R) and crossfall (d).

Figure 26 shows the conventional speed domain according to curve radius, independently of the type of slip road or branch.
This speed domain factors in the various possible configurations for a particular radius (in particular, different crossfall values
depending on the type of slip road or branch, as well as different dynamic conditions in right-hand and left-hand curves with
no crossfall).

The companion Table 4 shows the value(24) representing the conventional speed on a curve (or lower limit thereof) according
to the curve radius and the branch or slip road type.
Feuille6_2

130

120

110

100

90

80
vitesse (km/h)

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500

rayon (m)

Figure 26: Conventional speed domain (in km/h) for curves, according to radius
Page 5

(24): Stated values allow for the possibility of increasing the crossfall to a maximum of 7%. Limiting the crossfall to 5% for technical reasons has only a marginal
effect in terms of decreasing the stated conventional speed (1-2 km/h).

Appendices 49
 ICTAAL slip road/branch open to traffic at VSA slip road/branch
Radius 70 km/h or Radius
110 km/h 90 km/h 70 km/h category A category B category C
(m) less (m)
20 34 20
Ø
30 40 30
Ø
40 45 45 40
50 49 49 50
54 50 50 54
60 52 51 60
70 Ø 56 Ø 53 70
75 57 75
80 59 80
90 62 > 50 90
100 64 100
110 67 110
120 69 120
Ø
125 70 70 125
130 71 71 130
140 72 72 140
> 60
150 74 73 150
160 75 74 160
170 77 75 170
180 78 76 180
185 79 185
Ø
190 79 190
200 81 200
210 82 210
220 83 > 70 220
230 84 230
240 90 85 240
250 91 86 250
260 92 88 260
270 93 89 270
280 94 90 280
290 94 91 290
300 95 300
310 96 310
> 80
320 96 320
330 97 > 80 330
340 98 340
350 98 350
360 99 360
370 370
380 380
390 390
> 90 > 90 > 90
400 110 400
410 111 410
420 112 420
Table 4: Conventional speed on curve (in km/h), according to radius and branch or slip road type

50 Road and Motorway Design - Review of Design Rules relating to Visibility and Radii of Crest Curves in the Vertical Alignment
 s
mp
Ra

ns
nd

ctio

s
e sa

Jun

ion
ch

ade

ndit
r
ran

Co
-
nB

t At

tion
so

n
ta
ya

s
eed

tion
le

rific

n
p

ctio
Dis
ibilit

t
S

pas
ula

h
Tab

jun

ctio
f Ve nces
al

Vis

ig

e
alc

es
der
es
gs

n
g

ed

jun
C
ion
tion

ry o

la

lan
y

al S

nch
t un

ns
ges
ssin

de
rt
urin

troll
h
ent

ip
titu

ilit

n
c
s

bra
efu

isio
o
ess
b

cro

d
in

spo
eas

-gra
onv

isib

t
-c
heig
g

ut
nd
at r

rov
a
acc

o
a
: Pr
:S
:M
:C
: Su

r be

y
rian

tion
kin
tran

d
b
ght
ed-
t

e
3: V
4
5

s
it
s

al p
c

ic

ste

da
nce
li
e
ix 1
ix 2
ix
ix
ix 6

a
v

dar
ic li

duc
ibil

a
mp
duc
erta

d
d

ner
t
is
rre
n
ndix umma

it

e
bst
oun

en
tan
x
n
end
e
e
end
end
end

raff
Ra
Re
V
A
Ser
Ov
Pub
Ped

ntro
p

O
R
.
.

.
.
5

1. I
2. G
3
4. B cle
5. S
6
7. T
8. E
9. E
10.
11.
12.
13
14.
1
16.
17.
App
App
Ap
App
App
App
Guide/Instruction Section/reference Title
Section 2 Visibility       
ICTAAL Annex 1 Principal sight distances 
Annex 2 Conventional speed on a slip road 
Section 2 Visibility         
Interchange
Appendix Conventional speeds on curves 
Single-lane dual
Section 2 Visibility            
carriageway roads
Section 4 (§ 4.1) Visibility – Speeds 
ARP Section 4 (§ 4.2) Visibility – Visibility requirements     
Appendix 3 Visibility 
Reference Documents

Section 1 (§ 1.2.4) Measuring visibility at an existing intersection 

Section 2 (§ 2.1.2.1) Standard at-grade intersections - Rules of placement - Visibility  
ACI/P
Section 3 (§ 3.1.3.1 and § 3.1.3.2) Roundabout - Rules of placement 
Appendix 5 Measurement of visibility conditions by the "stopwatch method" conditions 
Section 4 Visibility        
Section 5 ,(§ 5.2.1) and § 5.3.2) Cross-section - Left hard strip / hard shoulder 
VSA90/110
Section 6 (§ 6.4.2) Interchange design - Visibility  
Section 7 (§ 7.5.1) Specific provisions for confined sites 
Section 1 (§ 1.2) Introduction  
Section 2 (§ 2.4) Visibility on link sections   
Section 3 (§ 3.2.2, 3.3.2, § 3.4.2) Junctions - Visibility  
Section 3 (§ 3.5.2.) Light-controlled junctions– Visibility 
AU70
Section 3 (§ 3.6.1.2) Reduced-height underpass - Visibility 
Section 3 (§ 3.6.2.2) Grade-separated interchanges - Visibility   
Section 6 (§ 6.5.2.) Special design considerations - Visibility of type D and Da signs 
Section 6 (§ 6.7) Refuges 
(in Part 1 of the guide) that define the basis for the changes.

Section 4 (§ 4.1) General requirements  

Section 4 (§ 4.2) Visibility on link sections  
Public transport lanes Section 4 (§ 4.3.1) Visibility at interchange entry and exit points 
Section 4 (§ 4.4) Visibility clearance calculation
Section 4 (§ 4.5) Temporary visibility breaks 
Dossier pilote des tunnels
No. 2 Section 3 (§ 3.4.2.)  
in existing reference documents that are revised by this guide and the sections

Geometry
The following table shows the correspondence between the visibility rules
Appendix 6 - T able showing Substitution of Visibility Rules in Existing

Appendices
51
© 2022 - Cerema

Cerema: public expertise for regional development and coherence.

Cerema is a public agency providing scientific and technical input for the development, implementation and evaluation of public land use
and sustainable development policy. As a resource and expertise centre, its purpose is to produce scientific and technical knowledge and
innovative solutions around local projects that seek to enhance people’s living environment. A source of cross-disciplinary expertise, it provides
methodologies, tools and feedback to all local stakeholders, including local authorities, government services and scientific partners, non-profit
organisations, individuals, consulting firms and businesses.

No part of this document may be reproduced without prior permission from Cerema (cf. Act of 11 March 1957). Any such reproduction, carried
out by whatever means, will be considered as counterfeit and will be liable for prosecution under Art. 425 et seq of the French Penal Code.

French publishing coordination and monitoring › Cerema Transport Infrastructures and Materials, Valorisation Department, Multimedia Publishing
Unit: Pascale Varache
French Layout: Graph’Imprim: 9-11 rue Sinclair 94000 Créteil
Translation: Birdwell International - Lyon
Photo credits: © Cerema, DRIEA, APRR

Publication date : May 2022

Legal registration: May 2022
ISBN: 978-2-37180-555-2
ISSN: 2276-0164
Free to dowload PDF

Éditions du Cerema
Cité des mobilités
25 avenue François Mitterrand
CS 92803
69674 Bron Cedex

To order our publications › www.cerema.fr

or by email › bventes@cerema.fr
 Cerema’s “References” series
This series is a collection of existing, approved reference documents covering the latest practice and research
in Cerema’s areas of expertise (methodological recommendations, technical rules, expertise, etc.). It is
intended for specialists and non-specialists alike and is written in an educational, pragmatic manner to enable
professionals to adopt and apply the recommendations in practice.

Road and Motorway Design

Review of Design Rules relating to Visibility and Radii of Crest Curves in the Vertical Align-
ment
This guide revises the geometric design technical baselines with regard to visibility and crest curve radii in
the vertical alignment:
• Firstly, it revises all visibility rules to reflect the current state of the art, taking a performance-oriented
approach. This provides the basis for harmonising the rules contained in the various technical baselines;
• Secondly, it revises the design rules defining the minimum radii of crest curves in the vertical alignment.
For the French national road network, this document is considered to be an Instruction, as determined by
the Technical Memorandum issued on 01/10/2018. For other road networks, authorities may use this guide,
which is intended for use by all developers, when defining projects for which they are the project owner.

Country planning for regional cohesion - Town planning and urban strategies - Energy transition and climate - Environment and natural resources
- Risk mitigation and resilience - Well-being and pollution mitigation - Mobility and transport - Transport infrastructure - Sustainable buildings

ISSN: 2276-0164
ISBN: 978-2-37180-555-2

Centre d’études et d’expertise sur les risques, l’environnement, la mobilité et l’aménagement - www.cerema.fr
(Centre for Studies on Risks, the Environment, Mobility and Urban Planning)
Head office: Cité des Mobilités, 25 , Avenue François Mitterrand, CS 92803, 69674, Bron Cedex, France - Tel. +33 (0)4 72 14 30 30