Actuators and Sensors

Prof. S.K. Saha

Department of Mechanical Engineering
IIT Delhi
 Outline
• Actuators
– Electric
– Hydraulic
– Pneumatic
• Selection of motors
• Sensors
– Internal
– External
Actuation System
 Electric Actuators
• Electric motors
+
• Mechanical transmissions
• First commercial electric motor: 1974 by
ABB
Advantages vs. Disadvantages

• Advantages
– Widespread availability of power supply.
– Basic drive element is lighter than fluid
power.
– High power conversion efficiency.
– No pollution
– High accuracy + high repeatability
compared to cost.
– Quiet and clean
 – Easily maintained and repaired.
– Components are lightweight.
– Drive system is suitable to electronic
control.
• Disadvantages
– Requires mechanical transmission
system.
– Adds mass and unwanted movement.
– Requires additional power + cost.
– Not safe in explosive atmospheres.
 Stepper Motors
• Types
– Variable Reluctance
– Permanent Magnet
– Hybrid
• Small/Medium end of industrial range
• Digitally controlled  No feedback
• Incremental shaft rotation for each
pulse
Stepper Motor (Bipolar, 200 Steps/Rev, 20×30mm, 3.9V,
0.6 A/Phase)
[Courtesy: http://www.polulu.com]
Fig. (a) A 2-phase stepper motor
• Steps range from 1.8 – 90 deg.
• To know final position, count number of pulses
• Velocity = No. of pulses per unit time
• 500 pulses/sec  150 rpm (1.8o/pulse)
• Pulses cease, motor stops. No brake, etc.
• Max. torque at low pulse rate
• Many steppers from same source.
• Perfect synchronization
Fig. Torque-speed characteristics of a stepper motor
• Magnetic reluctance  Elec.
Resistance
• Magnetic flux only around
closed path
• Rotor + stator teeth aligned
with minimum reluctance 
rotor is at rest
• To rotate, AA’ is off BB’ is on
• Coil sets: A and B
• Rotor is PM
• Each pole is wound with
field winding
• Coil A is reversed  A’
Rotates 45o CCW; Coil B is
reversed  B’. Another 45o
 Hybrid Stepper
• Combines the features of Variable
Reluctance and Permanent Motor
• Permanent magnet with iron caps that
have teeth
• The rotor sets itself in minimum reluctance
position

Fig. Permanent-magnet stepper motor

Example: Sequence for Full-step Angle
Table Full-stepping for a two-phase motor

Fig. Stepping sequence

 DC Motors
• Direct Current: Used in toys etc.
• Electrically driven robots use DC
– Powerful versions available
– Control is simple
– Batteries are rarely used
– AC supply is rectified to DC
 • Magnetic Field 
Stator Field coils
wound on the stators
• Permanent magnet
Conductor
(Armature)  Rotor
Current via brushes
+ commutators
• Maximum torque for
 = 90o
f = Bial
 = 2frsin

Fig.
 Features of a DC Motor
• High voltage in stator coils  Fast
speed (simple speed control)
• Varying current in armature 
Controls torque
• Reversing polarity  Turns opposite
• Larger robots: Field control DC motor
– Current in field coils  Controls torque
– High power at high speed + High
power/wt.
Specifications and Characteristics
Table Specifications of a DC motor [Courtesy:
http://uk.rs-online.com]
Technical Specifications of DC Motors
Brand Parvalux
Manufacturer Part No. PM2 160W511109
Type Industrial DC Electric Motors
Shaft Size (S,M,L) M
Speed (rpm) 4000 rpm
Power Rating (W) 160 W
Voltage Rating (Vdc) 50 V(dc)
Input Current 3.8 A
Height × Width × Length 78 mm ×140 mm × 165 mm
Fig.
 Brushless PM DC Motor
• Problem with DC motors
– Commuter and brushes  Periodical
reversal of current through each armature
coil
– Brushes + Commutators  Sliding
contact  Sparks  Wear  Change
brushes + Resurface commutators
• Solution: Brushless motors
– Sequence of stator coils
– PM rotor
 Principles of Brushless PM
• Reverse principle than conventional DC
• Current carrying conductor (stator)
experience a force
• Magnet (rotor) will experience a reaction
(Newton’s 3rd law)
• Current to stator coils is electronically
switched by transistors (Expensive)
• Switching is controlled by rotor position
 Magnet (rotor) rotates same direction
 Advantages of Brushless PM
• Better heat dissipation
• Reduced rotor inertia
• Weigh less  Less expensive + Durable
• Smaller for comparable power
• Absence of brushes  Reduced
maintenance cost
• Quieter operation
• Lower mechanical loading
• Electric robots  Hazardous areas with
flammable atmospheres (Spray painting)
• Improved safety

Disadvantages of Brushless PM
• Control system is relatively expensive.
Example: Stable and Unstable Operating Points of
a DC Motor

Fig.
 AC Motors

• Alternating Current: Domestic supply

• 50 Hz; 220 V (India)
• 60 Hz; 110 V (USA)
• Difficult to control speed  Not suitable for
robots
 Principle of an AC Motor

• External electromagnets (EM) around a

central rotor
• AC supply to EM  Polarity change
performs the task of mechanical switching
• Magnetic field of coils will appear to rotate
 Induces current in rotor (induction) or
makes rotor to rotate (synchronous)
 AC vs. DC Motors
• Cheaper
• Convenient power supply
• Safer- no electric spark due to
absence of commutator and brush
• Low power dissipation and low rotor
inertia
• High reliability, robustness, easy
maintenance, and long life.
AC vs. DC Motors (Contd.)
• Low starting torque.
• Need auxiliary devices to start.
• Speed control is more complex.
• Speed-controlled DC drive (stator
voltage) is cheaper than speed-
controlled AC drive (Variable
Frequency Drive)
• Price of VFD is steadily reducing
Specifications and Characteristics
Table Specifications of an AC motor [Courtesy: http://uk.rs-online.com]
Technical Specifications of AC Motor
Brand ABB
Manufacturer Part No. 1676687
Type Industrial 1-, 3-Phase Electric Motors
Supply Voltage 220 – 240 Vac 50 Hz
Output Power 180 W
Input Current 0.783 A
Shaft Diameter 14 mm
Shaft Length 30 mm
Speed 1370 rpm
Rated Torque 1.3 Nm
Torque Starting 1.3 Nm
Height × Length × Width 150 mm × 213 mm × 120 mm
Fig. Typical speed-torque characteristics for four different designs of an
AC induction motor
[Courtesy: www.electricmotors.machinedesign.com/guiEdits/Content/
bdeee11/bdeee11_7.aspx]
 Features of an AC Motor
• Higher the frequency  Fast speed
• Varying frequency to a number of robot
axes has been impractical till recently
• Electromagnetism is used for regenerative
braking (also for DC)  Reduces
deceleration time and overrun
• Motor speed cannot be predicted (same
for DC)  Extra arrangements required
 Classification of an AC Motor
• Single-phase [Low-power requirements]
– Induction
– Synchronous
• Poly-phase (typically 3-phase) [High-
power requirements]
– Induction
– Synchronous
• Induction motors are cheaper  Widely
used
 Linear Actuators
• Solenoid based linear actuators for on-
off operations of the gripper and other
devices.
• Solenoids are rugged and inexpensive.
• Electrically powered rotary motors
coupled with transmission
mechanisms (nut and ball-screw, cam-
follower, rack-and-pinion).
• Friction and backlash
 Hydraulic Actuators
• One of fluid power devices
• Uses high-pressure fluid [70 -170 bar]
• Four Components
1) Reservoir;
2) Pumps;
3) Valves;
4) Actuator.
Fig. (a) Hydraulic actuator components
Fig.
 Fig. (a) Hydraulic cylinder
[Courtesy: www.meritindustriesltd.com]
Advantages vs. Disadvantages

• Advantages
– High  + power-to-size ratio.
– Accurate control of speed/pos./dirn.
– Few backlash prob. Stiffness +
incompressibility of fluid
– Large forces can be applied at
locations.
 Backlash  Unwanted play in
transmission components
- Greater load carrying capacity
- No mechanical linkage  Mechanical
simplicity.
- Self lubricating  Low wear + non-corrosive
- Due to 'storage' sudden demands can be met.
- Capable of withstanding shock.
• Disadvantages
– Leakages occur  Loss in performance
– Higher fire risk.
– Power pack is (70 dBA)
– Temp. change alters viscosity.
– Viscosity at temp. causes sluggishness.
– Cost of hydraulic components do not decrease
in proportion to size.
– Servo-control is complex
70 dbA  Noise of heavy traffic
 Pneumatic Actuators
• One of fluid devices
• Uses compressed air [1-7 bar; ~.1 MPa/bar]
• Components
1) Compressor; 2) After-cooler; 3) Storage tank;
4) Desiccant driers; 5) Filters; 6) Pressure
regulators; 7) Lubricants; 8) Directional control
valves; 9) Actuators
Fig. (b) Pneumatic cylinder
[Courtesy: www.festo.com]
Fig. (a) Pneumatic actuator components
 Fig. (b) Pneumatic circuit
[Courtesy: Stadler (1995)]
 Advantages vs. Disadvantages
• Advantages
– Cheapest form of actuators.
– Components are readily available.
– Compressed air is available in factories.
– Compressed air can be stored, and
conveyed easily over long distances.
– Compressed air is clean, explosion-proof
and insensitive to temp. var. Many
applns.
– Few moving parts Reliable + low
maintenance costs
– Relevant personnel are familiar with the tech.
– Very quick Fast work cycles
– No mechanical transmission is required.
– Safe in explosive areas as no electrical
contact
– Systems are compact.
– Control is simple. Mechanical stops.
– Components are easy to connect.
• Disadvantages
– Air is compressible.
– Precise control of speed/position is not
easy.
– If no mechanical stops resetting is slow.
– Not suitable for heavy loads
– If moisture penetrates rusts occur.
Compressibility of the air can be
advantageous.
Prevents damage due to overload.
 Purpose of a Sensor
• Sensors are like
– Eyes, Skin, Nose, Ears, and Tongue
– Terms like vision, tactile, etc. have emerged
• Gather information  To function
effectively
– During pick-n-place, obstacles are to be
avoided
– Fragile objects not to be broken
• End-effector, sensor, controller work
together
 Capabilities
• Simple Touch
– Presence/absence of an object
• Traction or Complex Touch
– Presence of an object
– Size and shape
• Simple Force
– Force along a single axis
• Complex Force
– Along 2 or more axes
 Capabilities …
• Proximity
– Non-contact detection
• Simple Vision
– Detects edges, holes, corners, etc.
• Complex Vision
– Recognize shapes
Fig. Classification of sensors
 Internal Sensors
• Used to measure the internal state of a
robot
– Position
– Velocity
– Acceleration, etc
• Based on above info. control
command is decided by controller
 Position Sensors
• Measures position (angle) of each joint
• Joint angles  End-effector configuration
• Encoder
– Digital optical device
– Converts motion  Sequence of pulses
– Pulses can be converted to rel./abs. meas.
– Incremental or Absolute
– Linear and Rotary
 Incremental Rotary Encoder
• Gratings are on circular disc
• Common value of transparent, space width =
20 m
• Two sets of grating lines on two different
circles
– Detects the direction of motion
– Accuracy can be enhanced
 Absolute Rotary Encoder
• Circular disk
– Divided into a no. of circular strips
– Each strip has definite arc segment
• Directly provides digital output
• Mounted on motor shaft or with some
gearing (to enhance accuracy)
 Absolute Rotary Encoder …
• A gray scale is sometimes used
– To avoid noise
• Gray Code
– Unlike binary code, allows only one
binary bit of a code to change between
radial lines
– Prevents confusion in the changes of
binary output of absolute encoder
 Potentiometer
• Also referred as ‘pot’
• Variable resistance device
• Expresses linear/angular
displacements in terms of voltage
• Consists of a wiper  Makes contact
with resistive element
• When point of contact moves 
Resistance between wiper and end
leads change  disp.
 LVDT
• Linear Variable Differential Transformer
• Widely used displacement transducer
when high accuracy is required
• It generates AC signal. Magnitude is
related to the moving core displacement
• Ferrous core moving a magnetic field
• Field is created similar to transformer
 LVDT …
• Central core surrounded by two identical
secondary coils and a primary coil
• As core changes its position w.r.t. coils it
changes the magnetic field
• Voltage amplitude in secondary coil
changes as a function of core
displacement
• An RVDT uses same principle for rotation
– Available for range of ± 40o
 Velocity Sensors

• All position sensors with certain time

bounds
• Velocity = No. of pulses for an
incremental encoder divided by time
consumed in doing so
• This scheme puts some computational
load on controller
 Tachometer
• Finds speed directly without any computational
load
• Based on Fleming’s rule: Voltage produced 
Rate of change of flux linkage
• Voltage produced  Speed of shaft rotation
• Information to be digitized using ADC before
passing it to the controller computer
Fig. 4.6
 Acceleration Sensors

• Time-rate of change of velocities or

double time-rate of change of positions
• Heavy computational load on the
computer  Not efficient
• Speed of robot operation will be
hampered
• Alternate way: Measure force (F) =
mass (m) x acceleration (a)
 Acceleration Sensors …
• Force can be measured using strain
gauges
F = R A E /(R C)
F: Force; R: Change in resistance of
strain gauge (SG); A: Area; E: Elastic
modulus of SG material; R: Original
resistance of SG; C: Deformation
constant of SG
Acceleration, a = F/m = R A E /(R C m)
Differentiation vs. Integration
• Velocity and acceleration using a
position sensor requires differentiation
 Not desired
• Any noise is amplified upon
differentiation
• Velocity and position from acceleration
require integration  Recommended
• Integrators tend to suppress noise
 Force Sensors

• A spring balance is a force sensor

• Force (weight) is applied on scale pan
 Displacement (spring stretches)
• Strain Gauge based, Piezoelectric, etc.
 Strain Gauge
• Principle: Elongation of a conductor
increases its resistance. Due to
– Increase in length
– Decrease in area
• Typical resistance 50-100 
• Made of electrical conductors (wire or foil
etched on base material
 Strain Gauge …
• Glued on surfaces where strains are
measured, R1 and R2
• Resistances are measured by attaching them
to the Wheatstone bridge circuit
• Cheap and accurate method
• Care should be taken for the temp. change
• To enhance output + temperature
compensation 2 SGs are used
Fig. 4.9
 Piezoelectric Sensor
• Based on Piezoelectric effect
– When asymmetrical, elastic crystals are
deformed by a force  Electrical potential will be
developed
– Reversible, i.e., if a potential is applied between
the surfaces of the crystal, it will change physical
dimension
– Magnitude and polarity of induced charges 
Magnitude and direction of applied force
 Piezoelectric Sensor … / Current-
based Sensing
• Materials: Quartz, Tourmaline, Rochalle salt,
and others
• 1 to 20 kN
• Used for instantaneous change in force
(dynamic force)
• Current-based sensing: Uses the principle of
electric motor, i.e., torque  current drawn
(motor characteristics are known)
External Sensors: Contact Type
Limit Switch
• Limit switch has on/off character.
• It has pressure sensitive mechanical arm.
• Can be normally open (NO) or normally close
(NC)
• Limitations
– Mechanical failure occurs
– Mean time between failure is low.
– Speed of operation is slow.
Fig. 4.11
External Sensors: Non Contact Type
Proximity Sensor (PS)
• Detects the presence and absence of an
object.
• Inductive PS: used for sensing metallic
objects.
• Capacitive PS: used for sensing metallic and
other objects as well.
Vision: Computer Vision or Machine Vision or Robot Vision
• Used for extracting information about the
external world from light rays imaged by
a camera or an eye.
• Task of vision systems used with robotics
– Inspection
– Identification
– Visual servoing and navigation control
Fig.
 Signal Conditioning
• Data acquired by sensors require
conditioning or processing to use it
quantitatively
• Commonly used devices used for signal
conditioning
– Amplifiers: Op-amp are most widely used
Fig.
 Sensor Selection
• Range
– Difference of output and input
• Sensitivity
– Ratio of the change of output to change in
input
• Linearity
– Linearity is a measure of the constancy of
the ratio of output to input
 Sensor Selection …
• Linearity
– Constancy of ratio of output to input
• Response time
– Time required for a change in input to be
observable as a stable change in output
– For initially oscillating signals, settled
value is considered
• Bandwidth
 Sensor Selection …
• Accuracy
– Measure of difference between measurement
and actual values
• Repeatability and Precision
– Measure of the difference in value between
two successive measurements under the
same conditions, and is a far less stringent
criterion than accuracy
Fig.
 Sensor Selection …
• Resolution and Threshold
– measure of the number of measurement within
a range from minimum to
• Hysteresis
– change in the input/output curve when the
direction of motion changes, as indicated

Fig.
 Sensor Selection …
• Type of output
– Mechanical movement, an electrical current or
voltage, a pressure, or liquid level, a light
intensity, or another form
• Some more consideration which sensor
selection
– Size and Weight, Environmental Conditions
– Reliability and Maintainability, Interfacing
 Summary
• Motors are explained
• How to choose a motor was explained
• Sensors were presented
 Robot Design

Prof. S.K. Saha

Department of Mechanical Engineering
IIT Delhi
 Outline

• Kinematic criteria
– Workspace
– Singularity
– Dexterity and Manipulability
• Kinetostatic criterion
• Structural aspects
• Actuator and Drive selections
• Dynamic and Control criterion
 Functional Requirements of a
Robot
• Payload
• Mobility
• Configuration

• Speed, Accuracy and Repeatability

• Actuators and Sensors
bmin  b  bmax, for 0o    360o
 Kinematic and Kinetostatic
Measures
• Workspace of a robot manipulator:
Space composed of all points which can
be reached by its end-effector.

Workspace

Dexterous Reachable
All orientations of the At least one orientation of
end-effector the end-effector
 Kinematic and Kinetostatic
Measures

Singularity det[J(θ)]  0

Workspace boundary Workspace interior

singularities singularities
Such singularities occur when the Such singularities occur away
manipulator is fully stretched out or from the workspace boundary
folded back on itself such that the and generally are caused by two
end-effector is near or at the
boundary of the workspace or more joint axes lining up
 Example: Singularity of 2-link RR Arm

 a1 s1  a 2 s12  a 2 s12 
J  2 = 0 or 
 a1 c1  a 2 c12 a 2 c12 
Dexterity and Manipulability

• Dexterity  wd  det(J)

• Manipulability  wm 
T
det(JJ )

• Non-redundant manipulator  square

Jacobian

wm  det(J ) wd  wm
 Velocity Ellipsoid
• Transformation characteristics of the
joint rates required to produce a unity
end-effector velocity in all possible
directions , i.e.,

t t 1
T
e e

θ J Jθ  1
T T

Ellipsoid in n-dimensional joint space

 Velocity Ellipsoid
• Shape and orientation of ellipsoid
changes
• If det(J)  1, ellipsoid is sphere (desired)
- Better transmission characteristics
- Called isotropic configuration
• If det(J)  0, ellipsoid is a cylinder
(dangerous)
- Mechanical advantage  
- Called singular configuration
Velocity Ellipsoid of a 2-DOF Arm
 Force Ellipsoid
• Characteristics/quality of force
transmission by a robot arm can be
given by the comparison of the end-
effector force/torque (wrench) produced
by a unit magnitude of joint torques, i.e.,

τ τ 1
T w JJ w e  1
T
e
T

Equation of an ellipsoid
(ellipse for a 2-link 2-DOF arm)
 Force Ellipsoid
• Shape of ellipse (2-link arm) changes
• If det(J)  1, ellipse is circle (desired)
- Better transmission characteristics
- Called isotropic configuration
• If det(J)  0, ellipse is a line (dangerous)
- Mechanical advantage  
- Called singular configuration
 Structural: Link Material

• Mild (low carbon) steel:

Sy = 350 Mpa; Su = 420 Mpa
• High alloyed steel
Sy = 1750-1900 Mpa; Su = 2000-2300
Mpa
• Aluminum
• Sy = 150-500 Mpa; Su = 165-580 Mpa
Manipulator Stiffness

1 1 1 ke  equivalent stiffness
 2 
ke  k1 k2   gear ratio
 Motor Selection
• For robot applications
– Positioning accuracy, reliability, speed of
operation, cost, etc.
• Electric is clean + Capable of high
precision
• Electronics is cheap but more heat
• Pneumatics are not for high precision
for continuous path
 Motor Selection (contd.)
• Hydraulics can generate more power
in compact volume
• Capable of high torque + Rapid
operations
• Power for electro-hydraulic valve is
small but expensive
• All power can be from one powerful
hydraulic pump located at distance
Thumb Rule for Motor Selection
• Rapid movement with high torques (>
3.5 kW): Hydraulic actuator
• < 1.5 kW (no fire hazard): Electric
motors
• 1-5 kW: Availability or cost will
determine the choice
 Sample Calculations
Example: Selection of a Motor
Two meter robot arm to lift 25 kg mass
at 10 rpm
• Force = 25 x 9.81 = 245.25 N
• Torque = 245.25 x 2 = 490.5 Nm
• Speed = 2 x 10/60 = 1.047 rad/sec
• Power = Torque x Speed = 0.513 kW
• Simple but sufficient for approximation
 Simple Calculation

2 m robot arm to lift 25 kg mass at 10

rpm
• Force = 25 x 9.81 = 245.25 N
• Torque = 245.25 x 2 = 490.5 Nm
• Speed = 2 x 10/60 = 1.047 rad/sec
• Power = Torque x Speed = 0.513 kW
• Simple but sufficient for approximation
 Practical Application

Trapezoidal
Trajectory

Subscript l for load; m for motor;

G = l/m (< 1); : Motor + Gear box efficiency
 Accelerations & Torques
Ang. accn. during t1:

Ang. accn. during t2: Zero (Const. Vel.)

Ang. accn. during t3:

Torque during t1: T1 =

Torque during t2: T2 =

Torque during t3: T3 =

RMS Value
Motor Performance
 Final Selection
• Peak speed and peak torque
requirements , where TPeak is max of
(magnitudes) T1, T2, and T3
• Use individual torque and RMS values
+ Performance curves provided by the
manufacturer.
• Check heat generation + natural
frequency of the drive.
 Driver Selection

• Driver of a DC motor: A hardware unit

which generates the necessary current
to energize the windings of the motor
• Commercial motors come with
matching drive systems
 Dynamics and Control
Measures
• Rule of Thumb
1
 n  r
2
n : closed-loop natural frequency

r : lowest structural resonant frequency

 Summary
• Kinematics and kinetostatic criteria
• Structural aspects
• Motor selection
• Dynamics and control point of view
 Thank you!

For any doubts, contact

saha@mech.iitd.ac.in
http://sksaha.com