CHAPTER: TUNNELS AND TUNNELING

1.0 INTRODUCTION
A tunnel is an underground passage through a mountain, under roadway, beneath a city or under
a waterway. It may be for pedestrians and/or cyclists, general road traffic, motor vehicles, rail
traffic, or for a canal. Some tunnels are constructed purely for carrying water (for consumption,
hydroelectric purposes or as sewers); others carry services such as telecommunications cables.

As underground structures experience constant movements, they develop strains due to earth
loads, stress redistribution and tectonic and seismic influences, cracks may develop in the
structure. If not waterproofed, they develop fatigue, cracks develop on them allowing water to
pass into the structure and possibly damage utilities, interior finishes and even the structure itself.
Therefore, a waterproofing system/penetrons must be able to bridge the cracks to keep the
structure dry.
There are two types of waterproofing systems: an “open” and a “closed” system. The “open”
system utilizes the waterproofing materials to channel the water to sidewall drains that must be
cleaned and maintained on a regular basis. For structures below groundwater level, the entire
structure is wrapped with the waterproofing system creating a “closed system”. At construction,
water proofing cement must be used all through at ration of 1:1. The walls of the tunnel must be
lined and well rendered for structural finish/aesthetic finish

2.0 Methods of Tunnel Construction

There are various types of construction techniques developed for construction of tunnels which
are discussed below:
 Cut and cover method
 Bored tunnel method
 Clay kicking method
 Shaft method
 Pipe jacking method
 Box jacking method
 Underwater tunnels

2.1 Cut and Cover Method of Tunnel Construction

Cut and cover method of tunnel construction is generally used to build shallow tunnels. In this
method, a trench is cut in the soil and it is covered by some support which can be capable of
bearing load on it. The cutting can be done by two methods. One is bottom -up method in which
a tunnel is excavated under the surface using ground support.

Another method is top-down method in which side support walls are constructed first by slurry
walling method or contiguous bored piling. Then roof is located on the top of the walls and
excavation is carried out. Finally, base slab is constructed.

N.B Blasting is also a cut and cover method. It’s done on hard/impervious rock tunneling by
remotely controlled fireworks. Rock bolts and shotcrete are then applied immediately after
blasting. Concrete cast in-situ does lining using formwork and top cover done to the now tunnel.
2.2 Bored Tunnel Method
Modern technology method in which, Tunnel Boring Machines (TBM) are used which
automatically work and makes the entire tunneling process easier. As the TBM moves forward,
the round cutter heads cut into the tunnel face and splits off large chunks of rock. The cutter head
carves a smooth round hole through the rock giving shape to tunnel. Conveyor belts carry the
rock shavings/cuttings through the TBM and out the back of the machine to a dumpster for
carting away. It is also quicker process and good method to build tunnel in high traffic areas.
This method is convenient in working below the water table etc. The only difficulty with this
TBM is its heavy weight. So, transportation is difficult and costlier. Below is diagram of a TBM.

Fig 1.0 A diagram of a TBM

2.3 Clay Kicking Method of Tunnel Construction

This method is used for strong clayey soil conditions. This is an old method and used for small
works like sewage pipes installations etc. In this method, a hole is excavated into the ground and
after some depth tunnel is excavated which is done by the clay kicker lying on a plank at
45o angle. An excavating tool is provided under clay kicker foot. The excavated using that tool is
collected by other workers.

Fig 2.0 A section through clay kicking process of construction

2.4 Shaft Method of Tunnel Construction

In this method, tunnel is constructed at greater depth from the ground surface. A shaft is built up
to the depth where tunnel is required. Shaft is a permanent structure which is like well with
concrete walls. At required depth, lateral tunnels are excavated using TBM’s. Intermediate
shafts are also provided if tunnel is too long. After the construction process, these shafts can also
be used for ventilation purpose as well as emergency exits.

Fig 3.0 A section through shaft process of construction

2.5 Pipe Jacking Method of Tunnel Construction

Pipe jacking method is used to construct tunnels under existing structures like road ways,
railways etc. In this method, specially- made- hard -pipes are driven into underground using
hydraulic jacks. Maximum size of 3.2-meter diameter is allowed for tunnels. The installed
hollow pipe provided the through way by its annulus.

Fig 4.0 A section through pipe jacking process of construction

2.6 Box Jacking Method of Tunnel Construction

Box jacking method is similar to pipe jacking, but in this case instead of pipes, specially made
boxes are driven into the soil. A cutting edge is provided at the front side of the box. Excavated
matter is collected within the box and the box type can make larger tunnels up to 20 meters.
Fig 5.0 A section through box jacking process of construction

2.7 Underwater Tunnel Construction

An underwater tunnel is a structure which is built under water to make a way through it in the
event the construction of bridge is not possible. The boring has to involve penetrating the crust
below the water using TBM or constructing dykes first then removing them after construction.
This method is costly process but have advantages over bridge or ferry links. Immersed tubes or
bored tunnel are two most common methods which are used to construct under water tunnels.

Fig 6.0 Underwater tunneling process

3.0 Causes of Failure in Tunnel Structures/Quality Deterioration

1. Moisture ingress into the tunnel structure. Excess water evaporation during hardening
of concrete leaves pores and capillaries in concrete making it porous. Water attacks steel
reinforcement causing undue rusting and deterioration in quality.
2. Chemical attach to concrete: Sulphates attack increases with dampness. Corrosion of
concrete occurs due to chemicals dissolved in water i.e. concrete neutralization
(carbonization). There can also be alkali-aggregate reaction which weakens concrete.

3. Fatigue and Creep: Fatigue is the failure of steel structure due to cracking from
repeated/cyclic loading while Creep is the variation of imposed strain of constant load
 stress and fire Where the top cover is subject to repeated traffic loads, design of the
reinforcement has to factor fatigue and creep.
4.0 Tunnel Surveying -Methods and Procedures of Tunnel Surveying
Tunnel surveying is a type of underground surveying for the construction of tunnels. The basic
procedure of tunnel surveying is to align the center line in the ground and transfer that to the
tunnel. This also involves leveling the surface on the ground and the internal of the tunnel.

Fig 7.0 Locating the center line of a tunnel

4.1 Steps of Tunnel Surveying

1. The initial procedure is to carry out a preliminary survey and align the center line in the
ground and transfer that to the tunnel.
2. Establish a centerline that is already marked. When a new area of excavation is
commenced, the center line of the before finished work has to be carried forward over the
new face. No shifting of the center line in vertical or horizontal direction is accepted,
when the opposite faces meet with adjacent headings.
3. The procedure of leveling is carried out in a normal way. But areas with steep slopes are
measured with utmost care. This is ensured by having equal values for backsight and
foresight. This would reduce the errors that are caused by the human, like improper or
mal -adjustments of the instruments.
Alignment of Curve Line in Tunnel Surveying

4.2 How is Transferring of Center Line into the Tunnel Carried Out?
Through the shaft constructed, the plumb bob weighing 22 lbs are taken down through the shaft,
thus transferring the two center line points to the bottom as shown. It is carried out vertically
downwards. The plumb bobs are suspended with the help of piano wires that are passing through
the grooves, that is connected to a shaft for easily leveled movement of the plumb bob. When the
plumb bob reaches the bottom, they are replaced by heavy iron so that the weight will keep the
wire straight. Once level, the line joining the two plumb bobs are extended with the help of a
theodolite that is placed on the shaft floor, that is designated with respect to one point of the shaft
roof, as shown in the figure. A similar reference point is made to the opposite side of the roof,
initially noted. Hence the center line is marked on the shaft floor and continued for further tunnel
extension.

Fig.2: Arrangement in Transferring the Center Line Points to the Tunnel

4.3 How to Transfer the Tunnel Grade?
The same piano wire and the plumb bob combination can be used to transfer the tunnel grade to
the shaft bottom. Here at 5 feet below the springing level of the roof, two points are marked on
the wire. Initially, the reduced level of the top mark is determined, with respect to a benchmark
i.e. a point near to the mouth of the shaft. And later the reduced level of the second mark is also
determined. With all the above measurements, a benchmark is determined at a point on the
tunnel side wall. Based on this benchmark the floor levels are transferred and continued
measurement.

4.4Decision of Shape and Size of the Tunnel

The shape of the tunnel is decided based on the nature and the type of the soil or the ground that
is penetrated during the surveying and the excavation procedure. After surveying and related
construction works, a choice of shape can be made. Circular cross sections are found to be the
best shape to bring huge resistance towards the internal and external pressures because the
circular circumference has zero moments at every one point.

Fig 7.0 Shapes for Tunnels’ cross-section

4.5 Ventilation in Tunnels -

The main objectives of providing ventilation systems in tunnel are:

1. To provide fresh air to the labourforce and their environment around them
2. To exhaust out fumes and gasses, that is injurious to health and explosive in nature.
3. To remove the drilling, mucking and blasting gasses emitted.
4. To allow changes in temperature and humidity levels as are very high inside the tunnel.
.
4.6 Dust Control Methods during Tunneling
The methods used to control dust accumulation are:
1. Wet drilling. Modern TBM that make use of water to drill. Here the area that is to be
bored is made wet, resulting in a reduction of dust emission.
2. Use of vacuum hood. A hood is fitted to a drill face/rock face. This is connected to an
exhaust pipe. The exhaust pipe takes in the dust formed by the drilling process and that is
taken safely out of the tunnel. This reduces flying of dust to outside.
3. Use of respirators. Another common and efficient method to prevent dust inhalation is
using respirators. These are well designed units that are worn by the miners and workers,
who are highly exposed to the dusty tunneling environment.

END OF CHAPTER