Study Material: Process Dynamics and Control  Real-Time Monitoring & SCADA:

1. Overview Continuous data acquisition for

 Purpose: immediate feedback.
 Understand how control systems regulate  Advanced Techniques: Integration of soft
chemical processes for optimal safety, sensors, machine learning, multivariable
efficiency, and product quality. control, and data analytics.
 Learn the evolution of control techniques  Future Trends: Increasing use of AI, IIoT,
from manual and simple systems to and autonomous systems aiming for
advanced digital and predictive methods. sustainability and green chemistry.

2. Historical Development of Control Systems 3. Types of Control Systems

 Early Beginnings (Pre-20th Century)  Open-Loop Control Systems
 Manual/Mechanical Controls: Early  Definition: The output is not measured or
processes relied on human intervention or fed back to modify the input.
rudimentary devices.  Key Characteristics: Simplicity and low
 Industrial Revolution: Demand for better cost; suitable for predictable processes.
control in large-scale chemical  Examples: Timed heating systems, preset
manufacturing (e.g., sulfuric acid, flow rate controllers.
saltpeter).
 Steam Engine Regulation: Introduction of  Closed-Loop Control Systems (Feedback
feedback mechanisms (e.g., centrifugal Control)
governor by James Watt) applied to  Definition: The system continuously
chemical process equipment. measures its output and adjusts the input
to correct any deviation from the
 Emergence of Process Control (Early to Mid- setpoint.
20th Century)
 Instrumentation Development (1910s–  Key Components:
1930s): Key measurements (temperature,  Setpoint: Desired target value.
pressure, flow) became possible.  Controller: Processes sensor data
 PID Controllers (1920s–1940s): Adoption and calculates adjustments.
of proportional-integral-derivative (PID)  Actuator: Implements the
control to automatically adjust process controller’s decisions (e.g., valves,
parameters. pumps).
 Manual Adjustments to Structured  Sensor: Monitors process variables
Methods (1930s–1950s): Transition from (e.g., temperature, pressure).
operator-based control to more  Feedback Path: Returns measured
systematic approaches. output to the controller.
 Example: Temperature regulation in a
 Rise of Automation (1950s–1970s) chemical reactor.
 Digital Computers: Shift from analog to
computerized control systems enabled 4. Key Characteristics of Control Systems
real-time adjustments.  Stability: The system’s ability to return to
 Distributed Control Systems (DCS): equilibrium after a disturbance.
Multiple control loops integrated via a  Responsiveness: How quickly does the system
central supervisory system. reacts to changes in input or disturbances.
 Optimization Algorithms: Early use of  Accuracy: Maintaining output close to the
model predictive control (MPC) and other setpoint.
optimization techniques.  Robustness: Ability to operate effectively under
varying conditions and disturbances.
 Modern Control Theory (1980s–2000s and
Beyond) 5. Objectives and Benefits of Process Control
 Objectives:
 Model Predictive Control (MPC): Uses  Efficiency: Optimizes energy use,
process models to forecast system minimizes waste, and enhances
behavior and optimize inputs. production throughput.
  Safety: Prevents dangerous fluctuations,  Environmental Factors: Power
maintains optimal reaction conditions, fluctuations, extreme weather, or
and protects equipment. cybersecurity breaches.
 Quality: Ensures consistent product
composition and minimizes defects.  Consequences:
 Regulatory Compliance: Meets  Process instability and oscillations.
environmental and safety standards.  Safety hazards such as overheating, over-
pressurization, or chemical releases.
 Economic Benefits:  Product quality issues and increased
 Reduced operational costs through production costs.
optimized energy use and minimized
downtime.  Prevention Strategies:
 Increased productivity by automating  Regular maintenance and calibration.
repetitive tasks.  Redundant systems and backup power
 Enhanced product quality leading to supplies.
reduced waste and rework.  Advanced fault detection and diagnosis
(FDD) methods.
6. Control Strategies  Comprehensive operator training and
 Feedback Control: robust process design.
 Most common method; uses sensors to
adjust process conditions in real time. 8. Mathematical Modeling in Process Control
 Example: PID control in chemical reactors.  Purpose:
 To understand and predict system
 Feedforward Control: behavior.
 Anticipates disturbances by measuring  Used in research and development,
them directly and adjusting the process process design, and plant operation.
before the disturbance affects the system.
 Example: Adjusting reflux ratio in a  Common Models:
distillation column.  Series of Isothermal, Constant-Holdup
CSTRs: Used to analyze reactions in a
 Cascade Control: series of continuously stirred tanks.
 Uses multiple control loops (inner loop for
quick disturbances, outer loop for overall  Heated Tanks: Energy balance models for
process variable). systems with heating elements.
 Example: Temperature control in heat
exchangers.  Gas-Phase Pressurized CSTR: Models for
reversible reactions in a pressurized
 Advanced Control Techniques: reactor.
 Model Predictive Control (MPC): Predicts
future behavior and optimizes inputs.  Non-isothermal CSTR: Includes energy
 Robust/Adaptive Control: Adjusts to equations for reactions where
changes in system dynamics or external temperature varies.
disturbances.
 Multivariable Control: Manages multiple  Single-Component Vaporizer: Models for
interacting variables simultaneously. boiling systems and phase change
processes.
7. Failures in Process Control
 Common Failures:  Multi-component Flash Drum: Analyzes
 Sensor Failures: Incorrect data due to vapor-liquid equilibrium in separation
calibration errors, aging, or fouling. processes.
 Controller Failures: Software bugs,
improper tuning, or communication  Reactor with Mass Transfer: Combines
issues. chemical reaction rates with mass transfer
 Actuator Malfunctions: Mechanical or limitations.
electrical failures in valves and pumps.
 Human Error: Incorrect setup, bypassing  Ideal Binary Distillation Column: Simplified
alarms, or misinterpretation of data. models for separating binary mixtures.
  Critical in processes with complex
 Tools: interactions (e.g., chemical reactors,
 Laplace transforms are often used to distillation columns, heat
convert differential equations into exchangers).
algebraic ones for easier analysis.
 Control Strategies:
9. Control Elements  Relative Gain Array (RGA): Assesses
 Definition: interaction strength between loops
 Devices that execute control actions to to determine optimal input-output
regulate a process. pairing.
 Model Predictive Control (MPC):
 Categories: Optimizes control actions by
 Primitive Control Systems: Early systems forecasting future system behavior
relying on manual or mechanical while handling constraints.
adjustments.  Decoupling Control: Designs
 Computer-Based Control Systems: controllers to minimize cross-
Modern systems that integrate digital interactions, effectively treating a
computing for complex control tasks. MIMO system as separate SISO
systems.
 Key Components:  Nonlinear Control Methods:
 Sensors, controllers, actuators, and Techniques like feedback
communication systems work together to linearization, adaptive control, fuzzy
maintain desired process conditions. logic, and neural network control
address nonlinearity and time-
10. Advance Modelling: Input-Output Models, varying behavior.
MIMO Systems, and Logical Modelling
 Input-Output Models  Logical Modelling
 Definition:  Definition:
 Describe how changes in control  A rule-based, qualitative approach
inputs affect process outputs. for modelling systems with discrete
events.
 Representations:
 Transfer Functions: Represent the  Techniques:
output/input ratio in the Laplace  Utilizes Boolean logic, finite state
domain, machines, decision trees, and expert
useful for analyzing stability and systems.
transient behavior.
 State Space Models: Time-domain  Applications:
representation using state variables.  Process Automation: Automates
sequences using Programmable Logic
 Step and Impulse Responses: Show Controllers (PLCs).
system response to sudden inputs  Safety Systems: Develops systems
(unit impulse or step). (e.g., Emergency Shutdown Systems)
 Empirical/Data-Driven Models: that trigger protective actions based
Constructed via statistical and on logical rules.
machine learning techniques when  Fault Detection: Monitors process
analytical models are difficult to data to identify malfunctions before
derive. they lead to failures.
 Operational Decision-Making:
 MIMO Systems (Multiple-Input Multiple- Supports real-time adjustments in
Output) production, resource allocation, and
 Definition: process control.
 Systems where multiple inputs
interact with multiple outputs.  Real-World Applications in Advanced Modelling
 Wastewater Treatment (pH Control):
 Importance: Input-output models are used to adjust
 acid/base dosing, maintaining compliance
and environmental safety.

 Heat Exchangers: Predictive models help

regulate outlet temperatures for optimal
energy transfer.

 Distillation Columns: MIMO control

strategies manage multiple interacting
variables to ensure product purity.

 Emergency Shutdown Systems (ESD):

Logical models underpin ESD systems in
refineries, processing multiple sensor
inputs to safely shut down operations
under hazardous conditions.