NUMBER SYSTEMS 1

CHAPTER 1

NUMBER SYSTEMS

1.1 Introduction
In your earlier classes, you have learnt about the number line and how to represent
various types of numbers on it (see Fig. 1.1).

Fig. 1.1 : The number line

Just imagine you start from zero and go on walking along this number line in the
positive direction. As far as your eyes can see, there are numbers, numbers and
numbers!

Fig. 1.2
Now suppose you start walking along the number line, and collecting some of the
numbers. Get a bag ready to store them!

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2 MATHEMATICS

You might begin with picking up only natural

numbers like 1, 2, 3, and so on. You know that this list 58 1 N
goes on for ever. (Why is this true?) So, now your 16
0 5
71 31 652
bag contains infinitely many natural numbers! Recall 10 9 4 2
601 7 40
that we denote this collection by the symbol N. 4

Now turn and walk all the way back, pick up

zero and put it into the bag. You now have the
collection of whole numbers which is denoted by
the symbol W.
0
16 3 W
57440 2
9
601582

Now, stretching in front of you are many, many negative integers. Put all the
negative integers into your bag. What is your new collection? Recall that it is the
collection of all integers, and it is denoted by the symbol Z.
0
-4
-7

Z comes from the

57

-66-21 Why Z ?
-3 German word
16 1 58
7 “zahlen”, which means
0 53
31 2 Z 0 “to count”.
42 2 166 3
6017 40 -75 2 -40
4
22 1 9

Are there some numbers still left on the line? Of course! There are numbers like
1, 3 , −2005
or even . If you put all such numbers also into the bag, it will now be the
2 4 2006
17
–
981
20 006
05
2

–12
13
9
5 19 6 Q
3 7 14 –6 –6620 –
7 7
1 7 2 19
20 006

9
58
58

16 2
05
2

12 -65 99 14
9 99 1 – 9
3 3 81 13–672 60
89 0 1
4 6625 16 1 –1 12
27 – –5 4 9
–860

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 3

collection of rational numbers. The collection of rational numbers is denoted by Q.

‘Rational’ comes from the word ‘ratio’, and Q comes from the word ‘quotient’.
You may recall the definition of rational numbers:
p
A number ‘r’ is called a rational number, if it can be written in the form ,
q
where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0. (Why do we insist that q ≠ 0?)
p
Notice that all the numbers now in the bag can be written in the form , where p
q

−25
and q are integers and q ≠ 0. For example, –25 can be written as ; here p = –25
1
and q = 1. Therefore, the rational numbers also include the natural numbers, whole
numbers and integers.
You also know that the rational numbers do not have a unique representation in
p 1 2 10 25
the form , where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0. For example, = = =
q 2 4 20 50

47
= , and so on. These are equivalent rational numbers (or fractions). However,
94
p p
when we say that is a rational number, or when we represent on the number
q q
line, we assume that q ≠ 0 and that p and q have no common factors other than 1
(that is, p and q are co-prime). So, on the number line, among the infinitely many
1 1
fractions equivalent to , we will choose to represent all of them.
2 2
Now, let us solve some examples about the different types of numbers, which you
have studied in earlier classes.

Example 1 : Are the following statements true or false? Give reasons for your answers.
(i) Every whole number is a natural number.
(ii) Every integer is a rational number.
(iii) Every rational number is an integer.
Solution : (i) False, because zero is a whole number but not a natural number.
m
(ii) True, because every integer m can be expressed in the form , and so it is a
1
rational number.

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4 MATHEMATICS

3
(iii) False, because is not an integer.
5
Example 2 : Find five rational numbers between 1 and 2.
We can approach this problem in at least two ways.
Solution 1 : Recall that to find a rational number between r and s, you can add r and
r+s 3
s and divide the sum by 2, that is lies between r and s. So, is a number
2 2
between 1 and 2. You can proceed in this manner to find four more rational numbers
5 , 11 , 13 7
between 1 and 2. These four numbers are and .
4 8 8 4
Solution 2 : The other option is to find all the five rational numbers in one step. Since
we want five numbers, we write 1 and 2 as rational numbers with denominator 5 + 1,
6 12 7 8 9 10 11
i.e., 1 = and 2 = . Then you can check that , , , and are all rational
6 6 6 6 6 6 6
7 4, 3 5 11
numbers between 1 and 2. So, the five numbers are , , and .
6 3 2 3 6
Remark : Notice that in Example 2, you were asked to find five rational numbers
between 1 and 2. But, you must have realised that in fact there are infinitely many
rational numbers between 1 and 2. In general, there are infinitely many rational
numbers between any two given rational numbers.
Let us take a look at the number line again. Have you picked up all the numbers?
Not, yet. The fact is that there are infinitely many more numbers left on the number
line! There are gaps in between the places of the numbers you picked up, and not just
one or two but infinitely many. The amazing thing is that there are infinitely many
numbers lying between any two of these gaps too!
So we are left with the following questions:
1. What are the numbers, that are left on the number
line, called?
2. How do we recognise them? That is, how do we
distinguish them from the rationals (rational
numbers)?
These questions will be answered in the next section.

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 5

EXERCISE 1.1

p
1. Is zero a rational number? Can you write it in the form , where p and q are integers
q
and q ≠ 0?
2. Find six rational numbers between 3 and 4.
3 4
3. Find five rational numbers between and .
5 5
4. State whether the following statements are true or false. Give reasons for your answers.
(i) Every natural number is a whole number.
(ii) Every integer is a whole number.
(iii) Every rational number is a whole number.

1.2 Irrational Numbers

We saw, in the previous section, that there may be numbers on the number line that
are not rationals. In this section, we are going to investigate these numbers. So far, all
p
the numbers you have come across, are of the form , where p and q are integers
q
and q ≠ 0. So, you may ask: are there numbers which are not of this form? There are
indeed such numbers.
The Pythagoreans in Greece, followers of the famous
mathematician and philosopher Pythagoras, were the first
to discover the numbers which were not rationals, around
400 BC. These numbers are called irrational numbers
(irrationals), because they cannot be written in the form of
a ratio of integers. There are many myths surrounding the
discovery of irrational numbers by the Pythagorean,
Hippacus of Croton. In all the myths, Hippacus has an
unfortunate end, either for discovering that 2 is irrational
or for disclosing the secret about 2 to people outside the Pythagoras
secret Pythagorean sect! (569 BCE – 479 BCE)
Fig. 1.3

Let us formally define these numbers.

p
A number ‘s’ is called irrational, if it cannot be written in the form , where p
q
and q are integers and q ≠ 0.

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6 MATHEMATICS

You already know that there are infinitely many rationals. It turns out that there
are infinitely many irrational numbers too. Some examples are:

2, 3, 15,, π, 0.10110111011110...
Remark : Recall that when we use the symbol , we assume that it is the
positive square root of the number. So 4 = 2, though both 2 and –2 are square
roots of 4.
Some of the irrational numbers listed above are familiar to you. For example, you
have already come across many of the square roots listed above and the number π.
The Pythagoreans proved that 2 is irrational. Later in approximately 425 BC,
Theodorus of Cyrene showed that 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15
and 17 are also irrationals. Proofs of irrationality of 2 , 3 , 5 , etc., shall be
discussed in Class X. As to π, it was known to various cultures for thousands of
years, it was proved to be irrational by Lambert and Legendre only in the late 1700s.
In the next section, we will discuss why 0.10110111011110... and π are irrational.
Let us return to the questions raised at the end of
the previous section. Remember the bag of rational 17 9 R
numbers. If we now put all irrational numbers into 981
3 1471
20 006
05
2

the bag, will there be any number left on the number –12 36 0
58

16
-65 13 2 999
line? The answer is no! It turns out that the collection –66 89 3 0
of all rational numbers and irrational numbers together 19 26 27 4 –6625
-45 –6 8 60 –5
make up what we call the collection of real numbers, 7–

which is denoted by R. Therefore, a real number is either rational or irrational. So, we

can say that every real number is represented by a unique point on the number
line. Also, every point on the number line represents a unique real number.
This is why we call the number line, the real number line.

In the 1870s two German mathematicians,

Cantor and Dedekind, showed that :
Corresponding to every real number, there is a
point on the real number line, and corresponding
to every point on the number line, there exists a
unique real number.

R. Dedekind (1831-1916) G. Cantor (1845-1918)

Fig. 1.4 Fig. 1.5

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 7

Let us see how we can locate some of the irrational numbers on the number line.

Example 3 : Locate 2 on the number line.

Solution : It is easy to see how the Greeks might have discovered
2 . Consider a square OABC, with each side 1 unit in length (see
Fig. 1.6). Then you can see by the Pythagoras theorem that
OB = 12 + 12 = 2 . How do we represent 2 on the number line? Fig. 1.6

This is easy. Transfer Fig. 1.6 onto the number line making sure that the vertex O
coincides with zero (see Fig. 1.7).

Fig. 1.7

We have just seen that OB = 2 . Using a compass with centre O and radius OB,
draw an arc intersecting the number line at the point P. Then P corresponds to 2 on
the number line.

Example 4 : Locate 3 on the number line.

Solution : Let us return to Fig. 1.7.

Fig. 1.8
Construct BD of unit length perpendicular to OB (as in Fig. 1.8). Then using the

( 2)
2
Pythagoras theorem, we see that OD = + 12 = 3 . Using a compass, with
centre O and radius OD, draw an arc which intersects the number line at the point Q.
Then Q corresponds to 3.

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8 MATHEMATICS

In the same way, you can locate n for any positive integer n, after n − 1 has been
located.

EXERCISE 1.2
1. State whether the following statements are true or false. Justify your answers.
(i) Every irrational number is a real number.

(ii) Every point on the number line is of the form m , where m is a natural number.
(iii) Every real number is an irrational number.
2. Are the square roots of all positive integers irrational? If not, give an example of the
square root of a number that is a rational number.

3. Show how 5 can be represented on the number line.

4. Classroom activity (Constructing the ‘square root
spiral’) : Take a large sheet of paper and construct
the ‘square root spiral’ in the following fashion. Start
with a point O and draw a line segment OP1 of unit
length. Draw a line segment P1P2 perpendicular to
OP1 of unit length (see Fig. 1.9). Now draw a line
segment P2P3 perpendicular to OP2. Then draw a line
segment P3P4 perpendicular to OP3. Continuing in Fig. 1.9 : Constructing
this manner, you can get the line segment Pn–1Pn by square root spiral
drawing a line segment of unit length perpendicular to OPn–1. In this manner, you will
have created the points P2, P3,...., Pn,... ., and joined them to create a beautiful spiral
depicting 2, 3, 4, ...

1.3 Real Numbers and their Decimal Expansions

In this section, we are going to study rational and irrational numbers from a different
point of view. We will look at the decimal expansions of real numbers and see if we
can use the expansions to distinguish between rationals and irrationals. We will also
explain how to visualise the representation of real numbers on the number line using
their decimal expansions. Since rationals are more familiar to us, let us start with
10 7 1
them. Let us take three examples : , , .
3 8 7
Pay special attention to the remainders and see if you can find any pattern.

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 9

10 7 1
Example 5 : Find the decimal expansions of , and .
3 8 7
Solution :
3.333... 0.875 0.142857...
3 10 8 7.0 7 1.0
9 64 7
10 60 30
9 56 28
10 40 20
9 40 14
10 0 60
9 56
1 40
35
50
49
1

Remainders : 1, 1, 1, 1, 1... Remainders : 6, 4, 0 Remainders : 3, 2, 6, 4, 5, 1,

Divisor : 3 Divisor : 8 3, 2, 6, 4, 5, 1,...
Divisor : 7

What have you noticed? You should have noticed at least three things:
(i) The remainders either become 0 after a certain stage, or start repeating themselves.
(ii) The number of entries in the repeating string of remainders is less than the divisor
10 1
(in one number repeats itself and the divisor is 3, in there are six entries
3 7
326451 in the repeating string of remainders and 7 is the divisor).
(iii) If the remainders repeat, then we get a repeating block of digits in the quotient
10 1
(for , 3 repeats in the quotient and for , we get the repeating block 142857
3 7
in the quotient).

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10 MATHEMATICS

Although we have noticed this pattern using only the examples above, it is true for all
p
rationals of the form (q ≠ 0). On division of p by q, two main things happen – either
q
the remainder becomes zero or never becomes zero and we get a repeating string of
remainders. Let us look at each case separately.

Case (i) : The remainder becomes zero

7
In the example of , we found that the remainder becomes zero after some steps and
8
7 1 639
the decimal expansion of = 0.875. Other examples are = 0.5, = 2.556. In all
8 2 250
these cases, the decimal expansion terminates or ends after a finite number of steps.
We call the decimal expansion of such numbers terminating.
Case (ii) : The remainder never becomes zero

10 1
In the examples of and , we notice that the remainders repeat after a certain
3 7
stage forcing the decimal expansion to go on for ever. In other words, we have a
repeating block of digits in the quotient. We say that this expansion is non-terminating
10 1
recurring. For example, = 3.3333... and = 0.142857142857142857...
3 7
10
The usual way of showing that 3 repeats in the quotient of is to write it as 3.3 .
3
1 1
Similarly, since the block of digits 142857 repeats in the quotient of , we write as
7 7
0.142857 , where the bar above the digits indicates the block of digits that repeats.
Also 3.57272... can be written as 3.572 . So, all these examples give us non-terminating
recurring (repeating) decimal expansions.
Thus, we see that the decimal expansion of rational numbers have only two choices:
either they are terminating or non-terminating recurring.
Now suppose, on the other hand, on your walk on the number line, you come across a
number like 3.142678 whose decimal expansion is terminating or a number like
1.272727... that is, 1.27 , whose decimal expansion is non-terminating recurring, can
you conclude that it is a rational number? The answer is yes!

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 11

We will not prove it but illustrate this fact with a few examples. The terminating cases
are easy.

Example 6 : Show that 3.142678 is a rational number. In other words, express 3.142678
p
in the form , where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0.
q

3142678 ,
Solution : We have 3.142678 = and hence is a rational number.
1000000
Now, let us consider the case when the decimal expansion is non-terminating recurring.

p
Example 7 : Show that 0.3333... = 0.3 can be expressed in the form , where p and
q
q are integers and q ≠ 0.

Solution : Since we do not know what 0.3 is , let us call it ‘x’ and so
x = 0.3333...
Now here is where the trick comes in. Look at
10 x = 10 × (0.333...) = 3.333...
Now, 3.3333... = 3 + x, since x = 0.3333...
Therefore, 10 x = 3 + x
Solving for x, we get

1
9x = 3, i.e., x =
3

p
Example 8 : Show that 1.272727... = 1.27 can be expressed in the form , where p
q
and q are integers and q ≠ 0.
Solution : Let x = 1.272727... Since two digits are repeating, we multiply x by 100 to
get
100 x = 127.2727...
So, 100 x = 126 + 1.272727... = 126 + x
Therefore, 100 x – x = 126, i.e., 99 x = 126

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12 MATHEMATICS

126 14
i.e., x= =
99 11

14
You can check the reverse that = 1.27 .
11

p
Example 9 : Show that 0.2353535... = 0.235 can be expressed in the form ,
q
where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0.
Solution : Let x = 0.235 . Over here, note that 2 does not repeat, but the block 35
repeats. Since two digits are repeating, we multiply x by 100 to get
100 x = 23.53535...
So, 100 x = 23.3 + 0.23535... = 23.3 + x
Therefore, 99 x = 23.3

233 233
i.e., 99 x = , which gives x =
10 990

233
You can also check the reverse that = 0.235 .
990
So, every number with a non-terminating recurring decimal expansion can be expressed
p
in the form (q ≠ 0), where p and q are integers. Let us summarise our results in the
q
following form :
The decimal expansion of a rational number is either terminating or non-
terminating recurring. Moreover, a number whose decimal expansion is
terminating or non-terminating recurring is rational.
So, now we know what the decimal expansion of a rational number can be. What
about the decimal expansion of irrational numbers? Because of the property above,
we can conclude that their decimal expansions are non-terminating non-recurring.
So, the property for irrational numbers, similar to the property stated above for rational
numbers, is
The decimal expansion of an irrational number is non-terminating non-recurring.
Moreover, a number whose decimal expansion is non-terminating non-recurring
is irrational.

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 13

Recall s = 0.10110111011110... from the previous section. Notice that it is non-

terminating and non-recurring. Therefore, from the property above, it is irrational.
Moreover, notice that you can generate infinitely many irrationals similar to s.
What about the famous irrationals 2 and π? Here are their decimal expansions up
to a certain stage.
2 = 1.4142135623730950488016887242096...
π = 3.14159265358979323846264338327950...

22 22
(Note that, we often take as an approximate value for π, but π ≠ .)
7 7
Over the years, mathematicians have developed various techniques to produce more
and more digits in the decimal expansions of irrational numbers. For example, you
might have learnt to find digits in the decimal expansion of 2 by the division method.
Interestingly, in the Sulbasutras (rules of chord), a mathematical treatise of the Vedic
period (800 BC - 500 BC), you find an approximation of 2 as follows:
1  1 1  1 1 1
2 = 1+ +  ×  −  × ×  = 1.4142156
3  4 3   34 4 3 
Notice that it is the same as the one given above for the first five decimal places. The
history of the hunt for digits in the decimal expansion of π is very interesting.

The Greek genius Archimedes was the first to compute

digits in the decimal expansion of π. He showed 3.140845
< π < 3.142857. Aryabhatta (476 – 550 C.E.), the great
Indian mathematician and astronomer, found the value
of π correct to four decimal places (3.1416). Using high
speed computers and advanced algorithms, π has been
computed to over 1.24 trillion decimal places!
Archimedes (287 BCE – 212 BCE)
Fig. 1.10
Now, let us see how to obtain irrational numbers.
1 2
Example 10 : Find an irrational number between and .
7 7
1 2
Solution : We saw that = 0142857
. . So, you can easily calculate = 0.285714 .
7 7
1 2
To find an irrational number between and , we find a number which is
7 7

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14 MATHEMATICS

non-terminating non-recurring lying between them. Of course, you can find infinitely
many such numbers.
An example of such a number is 0.150150015000150000...

EXERCISE 1.3
1. Write the following in decimal form and say what kind of decimal expansion each
has :
36 1 1
(i) (ii) (iii) 4
100 11 8
3 2 329
(iv) (v) (vi)
13 11 400
1 2 3
2. You know that = 0142857
. . Can you predict what the decimal expansions of , ,
7 7 7
4 5 6
, , are, without actually doing the long division? If so, how?
7 7 7
1
[Hint : Study the remainders while finding the value of carefully.]
7
p
3. Express the following in the form , where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0.
q
(i) 0.6 (ii) 0.47 (iii) 0.001
p
4. Express 0.99999 .... in the form . Are you surprised by your answer? With your
q
teacher and classmates discuss why the answer makes sense.
5. What can the maximum number of digits be in the repeating block of digits in the
1
decimal expansion of ? Perform the division to check your answer.
17
p
6. Look at several examples of rational numbers in the form(q ≠ 0), where p and q are
q
integers with no common factors other than 1 and having terminating decimal
representations (expansions). Can you guess what property q must satisfy?
7. Write three numbers whose decimal expansions are non-terminating non-recurring.

5 9
8. Find three different irrational numbers between the rational numbers and .
7 11
9. Classify the following numbers as rational or irrational :
(i) 23 (ii) 225 (iii) 0.3796
(iv) 7.478478... (v) 1.101001000100001...

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 15

1.4 Operations on Real Numbers

You have learnt, in earlier classes, that rational numbers satisfy the commutative,
associative and distributive laws for addition and multiplication. Moreover, if we add,
subtract, multiply or divide (except by zero) two rational numbers, we still get a rational
number (that is, rational numbers are ‘closed’ with respect to addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division). It turns out that irrational numbers also satisfy the
commutative, associative and distributive laws for addition and multiplication. However,
the sum, difference, quotients and products of irrational numbers are not always
17
irrational. For example, ( 6 ) + ( − 6 ) , ( 2 ) − ( 2 ) , ( 3 ) ⋅( 3 ) and
17
are

rationals.
Let us look at what happens when we add and multiply a rational number with an
irrational number. For example, 3 is irrational. What about 2 + 3 and 2 3 ? Since
3 has a non-terminating non-recurring decimal expansion, the same is true for
2 + 3 and 2 3 . Therefore, both 2 + 3 and 2 3 are also irrational numbers.
7 ,
Example 11 : Check whether 7 5 , 2 + 21 , π − 2 are irrational numbers or
5
not.
Solution : 5 = 2.236... , 2 = 1.4142..., π = 3.1415...
7 7 5 7 5
Then 7 5 = 15.652..., = = = 3.1304...
5 5 5 5

2 + 21 = 22.4142..., π – 2 = 1.1415...
All these are non-terminating non-recurring decimals. So, all these are irrational numbers.
Now, let us see what generally happens if we add, subtract, multiply, divide, take
square roots and even nth roots of these irrational numbers, where n is any natural
number. Let us look at some examples.

Example 12 : Add 2 2 + 5 3 and 2 – 3 3.

(
Solution : 2 2 + 5 3 + ) ( ) ( ) (
2 –3 3 = 2 2 + 2 + 5 3 –3 3 )
= (2 + 1) 2 + (5 − 3) 3 = 3 2 + 2 3

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16 MATHEMATICS

Example 13 : Multiply 6 5 by 2 5 .
Solution : 6 5 × 2 5 = 6 × 2 × 5 × 5 = 12 × 5 = 60

Example 14 : Divide 8 15 by 2 3 .

8 3× 5
Solution : 8 15 ÷ 2 3 = =4 5
2 3
These examples may lead you to expect the following facts, which are true:
(i) The sum or difference of a rational number and an irrational number is irrational.
(ii) The product or quotient of a non-zero rational number with an irrational number is
irrational.
(iii) If we add, subtract, multiply or divide two irrationals, the result may be rational or
irrational.
We now turn our attention to the operation of taking square roots of real numbers.
Recall that, if a is a natural number, then a = b means b2 = a and b > 0. The same
definition can be extended for positive real numbers.
Let a > 0 be a real number. Then a = b means b2 = a and b > 0.
In Section 1.2, we saw how to represent n for any positive integer n on the number
line. We now show how to find x for any given positive real number x geometrically.
For example, let us find it for x = 3.5, i.e., we find 3.5 geometrically.

Fig. 1.11
Mark the distance 3.5 units from a fixed point A on a given line to obtain a point B such
that AB = 3.5 units (see Fig. 1.11). From B, mark a distance of 1 unit and mark the
new point as C. Find the mid-point of AC and mark that point as O. Draw a semicircle
with centre O and radius OC. Draw a line perpendicular to AC passing through B and
intersecting the semicircle at D. Then, BD = 3.5 .

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 17

More generally, to find x , for any positive real

number x, we mark B so that AB = x units, and, as in
Fig. 1.12, mark C so that BC = 1 unit. Then, as we
have done for the case x = 3.5, we find BD = x
(see Fig. 1.12). We can prove this result using the
Pythagoras Theorem. Fig. 1.12
Notice that, in Fig. 1.12, ∆ OBD is a right-angled triangle. Also, the radius of the circle
x +1
is units.
2
x +1
Therefore, OC = OD = OA = units.
2
 x + 1 x − 1
Now, OB = x −  = ⋅
 2  2
So, by the Pythagoras Theorem, we have
2 2
 x + 1  x − 1 4x
BD2 = OD2 – OB2 =   −  = = x.
 2   2  4

This shows that BD = x.

This construction gives us a visual, and geometric way of showing that x exists for
all real numbers x > 0. If you want to know the position of x on the number line,
then let us treat the line BC as the number line, with B as zero, C as 1, and so on.
Draw an arc with centre B and radius BD, which intersects the number line in E
(see Fig. 1.13). Then, E represents x.

Fig. 1.13

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18 MATHEMATICS

We would like to now extend the idea of square roots to cube roots, fourth roots,
and in general nth roots, where n is a positive integer. Recall your understanding of
square roots and cube roots from earlier classes.
What is 3
8 ? Well, we know it has to be some positive number whose cube is 8, and
you must have guessed 8 = 2. Let us try 5 243 . Do you know some number b such
3

that b5 = 243? The answer is 3. Therefore, 5 243 = 3.

From these examples, can you define n
a for a real number a > 0 and a positive
integer n?
Let a > 0 be a real number and n be a positive integer. Then n
a = b, if bn = a and
b > 0. Note that the symbol ‘ ’ used in 2, 3 8, n a , etc. is called the radical sign.
We now list some identities relating to square roots, which are useful in various
ways. You are already familiar with some of these from your earlier classes. The
remaining ones follow from the distributive law of multiplication over addition of real
numbers, and from the identity (x + y) (x – y) = x2 – y2, for any real numbers x and y.
Let a and b be positive real numbers. Then

a a
(i) ab = a b (ii) =
b b

(iii) ( a+ b )( a − b =a−b ) (
(iv) a + b ) (a − b ) = a 2
−b

(v) ( a+ b )( )
c + d = ac + ad + bc + bd

( )
2
(vi) a + b = a + 2 ab + b

Let us look at some particular cases of these identities.

Example 15 : Simplify the following expressions:

(i) (5 + 7 ) ( 2 + 5 ) (
(ii) 5 + 5 ) (5 − 5 )
(iii) ( 3 + 7 ) ( 11 − 7 ) ( 11 + 7 )
2
(iv)

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 19

Solution : (i) ( 5 + 7 ) ( 2 + 5 ) = 10 + 5 5 + 2 7 + 35
( 5 + 5 ) ( 5 − 5 ) = 5 − ( 5 ) = 25 – 5 = 20
2
2
(ii)

( 3 + 7 ) = ( 3 ) + 2 3 7 + ( 7 ) = 3 + 2 21 + 7 = 10 + 2
2 2 2
(iii) 21

( 11 − 7 ) ( 11 + 7 ) = ( 11 ) − ( 7 ) = 11 − 7 = 4
2 2
(iv)
Remark : Note that ‘simplify’ in the example above has been used to mean that the
expression should be written as the sum of a rational and an irrational number.
1
We end this section by considering the following problem. Look at ⋅ Can you tell
2
where it shows up on the number line? You know that it is irrational. May be it is easier
to handle if the denominator is a rational number. Let us see, if we can ‘rationalise’ the
denominator, that is, to make the denominator into a rational number. To do so, we
need the identities involving square roots. Let us see how.

1
Example 16 : Rationalise the denominator of ⋅
2

1
Solution : We want to write as an equivalent expression in which the denominator
2

is a rational number. We know that 2 . 2 is rational. We also know that multiplying

1 2 2
by will give us an equivalent expression, since = 1. So, we put these two
2 2 2
facts together to get

1 1 2 2
= × = ⋅
2 2 2 2
1
In this form, it is easy to locate on the number line. It is half way between 0
2
and 2.

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20 MATHEMATICS

1
Example 17 : Rationalise the denominator of ⋅
2+ 3

1
Solution : We use the Identity (iv) given earlier. Multiply and divide by
2+ 3

1 2− 3 2− 3
2 − 3 to get 2 + 3 × 2 − 3 = 4 − 3 = 2 − 3 .

5
Example 18 : Rationalise the denominator of ⋅
3− 5
Solution : Here we use the Identity (iii) given earlier.

5 3+ 5 5 3+ 5  −5  ( )
So,
3− 5
=
5
3− 5
×
3+ 5
=
3−5
= 
 2 
( 3+ 5 )
1
Example 19 : Rationalise the denominator of ⋅
7+3 2

1 1 7 −3 2 7 −3 2 7 −3 2
Solution : = ×  = =
7 + 3 2 7 + 3 2  7 − 3 2  49 − 18 31
So, when the denominator of an expression contains a term with a square root (or
a number under a radical sign), the process of converting it to an equivalent expression
whose denominator is a rational number is called rationalising the denominator.

EXERCISE 1.4
1. Classify the following numbers as rational or irrational:

(i) 2− 5 (
(ii) 3 + )
23 − 23 (iii)
2 7
7 7
1
(iv) (v) 2π
2

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 21

2. Simplify each of the following expressions:

(i) (3 + 3 ) ( 2 + 2 ) (
(ii) 3 + 3 ) (3 − 3 )
( 5 + 2) (iv) ( 2) ( 5 + 2)
2
(iii) 5−

3. Recall, π is defined as the ratio of the circumference (say c) of a circle to its diameter
c
(say d). That is, π = ⋅ This seems to contradict the fact that π is irrational. How will
d
you resolve this contradiction?
4. Represent 9.3 on the number line.
5. Rationalise the denominators of the following:
1 1
(i) (ii)
7 7− 6

1 1
(iii) (iv)
5+ 2 7 −2

1.5 Laws of Exponents for Real Numbers

Do you remember how to simplify the following?
(i) 172 . 175 = (ii) (52)7 =

2310
(iii) = (iv) 73 . 93 =
237
Did you get these answers? They are as follows:
(i) 172 . 175 = 177 (ii) (52)7 = 514

2310
(iii) = 233 (iv) 73 . 93 = 633
237
To get these answers, you would have used the following laws of exponents,
which you have learnt in your earlier classes. (Here a, n and m are natural numbers.
Remember, a is called the base and m and n are the exponents.)
(i) am . an = am + n (ii) (am)n = amn
am
(iii) = am − n , m > n (iv) ambm = (ab)m
an

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22 MATHEMATICS

What is (a)0? Yes, it is 1! So you have learnt that (a)0 = 1. So, using (iii), we can
1 −n
get n = a . We can now extend the laws to negative exponents too.
a
So, for example :
1
(i) 17 ⋅ 17 = 17 = 3
2 –5 –3
(ii) (52 ) –7 = 5–14
17
23–10
(iii) = 23–17 (iv) (7) –3 ⋅ (9) –3 = (63) –3
237
Suppose we want to do the following computations:
4
2 1
 1
(i) 2 3 ⋅ 23 (ii)  35 
 
1
5 1 1
7
(iii) 1 (iv) 135 ⋅ 17 5
3
7
How would we go about it? It turns out that we can extend the laws of exponents
that we have studied earlier, even when the base is a positive real number and the
exponents are rational numbers. (Later you will study that it can further to be extended
when the exponents are real numbers.) But before we state these laws, and to even
3
make sense of these laws, we need to first understand what, for example 4 2 is. So,
we have some work to do!
We define n
a for a real number a > 0 as follows:
Let a > 0 be a real number and n a positive integer. Then n
a = b, if bn = a and
b > 0.
1 1
n
In the language of exponents, we define n
a = a . So, in particular, 3
2 = 23 .
3
There are now two ways to look at 4 2 .
3
3  1
4 =  42  = 2 = 8
2 3

 
3 1 1
4 2 = ( 4 ) 2 = ( 64 ) 2 = 8
3

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 23

Therefore, we have the following definition:

Let a > 0 be a real number. Let m and n be integers such that m and n have no
common factors other than 1, and n > 0. Then,
m

( a)
m
n
a = n
= n am
We now have the following extended laws of exponents:
Let a > 0 be a real number and p and q be rational numbers. Then, we have
(i) ap . aq = ap+q (ii) (ap)q = apq
ap p−q
(iii) q = a (iv) apbp = (ab)p
a
You can now use these laws to answer the questions asked earlier.
4
2 1
 1
Example 20 : Simplify (i) 2 ⋅ 2 3 3 (ii)  35 
1  
75 1 1
(iii) 1 (iv) 135 ⋅ 17 5
3
Solution : 7
 2 1 4
2 1
 + 
3
 1 4
(i) 2 ⋅2 =2
3 3  3 3
=2 =2 =2
3 1
(ii)  35  = 35
 
1
1 1 3−5 −2 1 1 1 1
75  − 
(iii) 1
= 7 5 3
=7 15
= 7 15 (iv) 135 ⋅ 17 5 = (13 × 17) 5 = 2215
73

EXERCISE 1.5
1 1 1
1. Find : (i) 64 2 (ii) 32 5 (iii) 125 3
3 2 3 −1
2. Find : (i) 9 2 (ii) 32 5 (iii) 16 4 (iv) 125 3
1
2 1 1 1
 1 
7
112
3. Simplify : (i) 2 ⋅ 2 3 5 (ii)  3 (iii) 1
(iv) 7 2 ⋅ 8 2
3 
4
11

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24 MATHEMATICS

1.6 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points:
p
1. A number r is called a rational number, if it can be written in the form , where p and q are
q
integers and q ≠ 0.

p
2. A number s is called a irrational number, if it cannot be written in the form , where p and
q
q are integers and q ≠ 0.
3. The decimal expansion of a rational number is either terminating or non-terminating recurring.
Moreover, a number whose decimal expansion is terminating or non-terminating recurring
is rational.
4. The decimal expansion of an irrational number is non-terminating non-recurring. Moreover,
a number whose decimal expansion is non-terminating non-recurring is irrational.
5. All the rational and irrational numbers make up the collection of real numbers.

r
6. If r is rational and s is irrational, then r + s and r – s are irrational numbers, and rs and are
s
irrational numbers, r ≠ 0.
7. For positive real numbers a and b, the following identities hold:
a a
(i) ab = a b (ii) =
b b
(iii) ( a + b )( )
a − b =a−b (iv) (a + b ) (a − b ) = a 2
−b

( )
2
(v) a + b = a + 2 ab + b

1 , we multiply this by a −b
8. To rationalise the denominator of , where a and b are
a +b a −b
integers.
9. Let a > 0 be a real number and p and q be rational numbers. Then
(i) ap . aq = ap + q (ii) (ap)q = apq

ap
(iii) = ap − q (iv) apbp = (ab)p
aq

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POLYNOMIALS 25

CHAPTER 2

POLYNOMIALS

2.1 Introduction
You have studied algebraic expressions, their addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division in earlier classes. You also have studied how to factorise some algebraic
expressions. You may recall the algebraic identities :
(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2
(x – y)2 = x2 – 2xy + y2
and x2 – y2 = (x + y) (x – y)
and their use in factorisation. In this chapter, we shall start our study with a particular
type of algebraic expression, called polynomial, and the terminology related to it. We
shall also study the Remainder Theorem and Factor Theorem and their use in the
factorisation of polynomials. In addition to the above, we shall study some more algebraic
identities and their use in factorisation and in evaluating some given expressions.

2.2 Polynomials in One Variable

Let us begin by recalling that a variable is denoted by a symbol that can take any real
1
value. We use the letters x, y, z, etc. to denote variables. Notice that 2x, 3x, – x, – x
2
are algebraic expressions. All these expressions are of the form (a constant) × x. Now
suppose we want to write an expression which is (a constant) × (a variable) and we do
not know what the constant is. In such cases, we write the constant as a, b, c, etc. So
the expression will be ax, say.
However, there is a difference between a letter denoting a constant and a letter
denoting a variable. The values of the constants remain the same throughout a particular
situation, that is, the values of the constants do not change in a given problem, but the
value of a variable can keep changing.

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26 MATHEMATICS

Now, consider a square of side 3 units (see Fig. 2.1). 3

What is its perimeter? You know that the perimeter of a square
is the sum of the lengths of its four sides. Here, each side is
3 3
3 units. So, its perimeter is 4 × 3, i.e., 12 units. What will be the
perimeter if each side of the square is 10 units? The perimeter
is 4 × 10, i.e., 40 units. In case the length of each side is x 3
units (see Fig. 2.2), the perimeter is given by 4x units. So, as Fig. 2.1
the length of the side varies, the perimeter varies.
Can you find the area of the square PQRS? It is
x × x = x2 square units. x2 is an algebraic expression. You are x R
S
also familiar with other algebraic expressions like
2x, x2 + 2x, x3 – x2 + 4x + 7. Note that, all the algebraic x x
expressions we have considered so far have only whole
numbers as the exponents of the variable. Expressions of this
form are called polynomials in one variable. In the examples P Q
x
above, the variable is x. For instance, x3 – x2 + 4x + 7 is a
Fig. 2.2
polynomial in x. Similarly, 3y2 + 5y is a polynomial in the
variable y and t2 + 4 is a polynomial in the variable t.
In the polynomial x2 + 2x, the expressions x2 and 2x are called the terms of the
polynomial. Similarly, the polynomial 3y2 + 5y + 7 has three terms, namely, 3y2, 5y and
7. Can you write the terms of the polynomial –x3 + 4x2 + 7x – 2 ? This polynomial has
4 terms, namely, –x3, 4x2, 7x and –2.
Each term of a polynomial has a coefficient. So, in –x3 + 4x2 + 7x – 2, the
coefficient of x3 is –1, the coefficient of x2 is 4, the coefficient of x is 7 and –2 is the
coefficient of x0 (Remember, x0 = 1). Do you know the coefficient of x in x2 – x + 7?
It is –1.
2 is also a polynomial. In fact, 2, –5, 7, etc. are examples of constant polynomials.
The constant polynomial 0 is called the zero polynomial. This plays a very important
role in the collection of all polynomials, as you will see in the higher classes.
1
Now, consider algebraic expressions such as x + , x + 3 and 3 y + y . Do you
2

x
1
know that you can write x + = x + x–1? Here, the exponent of the second term, i.e.,
x
x–1 is –1, which is not a whole number. So, this algebraic expression is not a polynomial.
1
1
Again, x + 3 can be written as x 2 + 3 . Here the exponent of x is
, which is
2
not a whole number. So, is x + 3 a polynomial? No, it is not. What about
3 y + y2? It is also not a polynomial (Why?).

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POLYNOMIALS 27

If the variable in a polynomial is x, we may denote the polynomial by p(x), or q(x),

or r(x), etc. So, for example, we may write :
p(x) = 2x2 + 5x – 3
q(x) = x3 –1
r(y) = y3 + y + 1
s(u) = 2 – u – u2 + 6u5
A polynomial can have any (finite) number of terms. For instance, x150 + x149 + ...
2
+ x + x + 1 is a polynomial with 151 terms.
Consider the polynomials 2x, 2, 5x3, –5x2, y and u4. Do you see that each of these
polynomials has only one term? Polynomials having only one term are called monomials
(‘mono’ means ‘one’).
Now observe each of the following polynomials:
p(x) = x + 1, q(x) = x2 – x, r(y) = y9 + 1, t(u) = u15 – u2
How many terms are there in each of these? Each of these polynomials has only
two terms. Polynomials having only two terms are called binomials (‘bi’ means ‘two’).
Similarly, polynomials having only three terms are called trinomials
(‘tri’ means ‘three’). Some examples of trinomials are
p(x) = x + x2 + π, q(x) = 2 + x – x2,
r(u) = u + u2 – 2, t(y) = y4 + y + 5.
Now, look at the polynomial p(x) = 3x7 – 4x6 + x + 9. What is the term with the
highest power of x ? It is 3x7. The exponent of x in this term is 7. Similarly, in the
polynomial q(y) = 5y6 – 4y2 – 6, the term with the highest power of y is 5y6 and the
exponent of y in this term is 6. We call the highest power of the variable in a polynomial
as the degree of the polynomial. So, the degree of the polynomial 3x7 – 4x6 + x + 9
is 7 and the degree of the polynomial 5y6 – 4y2 – 6 is 6. The degree of a non-zero
constant polynomial is zero.

Example 1 : Find the degree of each of the polynomials given below:

(i) x5 – x4 + 3 (ii) 2 – y2 – y3 + 2y8 (iii) 2
Solution : (i) The highest power of the variable is 5. So, the degree of the polynomial
is 5.
(ii) The highest power of the variable is 8. So, the degree of the polynomial is 8.
(iii) The only term here is 2 which can be written as 2x0. So the exponent of x is 0.
Therefore, the degree of the polynomial is 0.

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28 MATHEMATICS

Now observe the polynomials p(x) = 4x + 5, q(y) = 2y, r(t) = t + 2 and

s(u) = 3 – u. Do you see anything common among all of them? The degree of each of
these polynomials is one. A polynomial of degree one is called a linear polynomial.
Some more linear polynomials in one variable are 2x – 1, 2 y + 1, 2 – u. Now, try and
find a linear polynomial in x with 3 terms? You would not be able to find it because a
linear polynomial in x can have at most two terms. So, any linear polynomial in x will
be of the form ax + b, where a and b are constants and a ≠ 0 (why?). Similarly,
ay + b is a linear polynomial in y.
Now consider the polynomials :
2
2x2 + 5, 5x2 + 3x + π, x2 and x2 + x
5
Do you agree that they are all of degree two? A polynomial of degree two is called
a quadratic polynomial. Some examples of a quadratic polynomial are 5 – y 2,
4y + 5y2 and 6 – y – y2. Can you write a quadratic polynomial in one variable with four
different terms? You will find that a quadratic polynomial in one variable will have at
most 3 terms. If you list a few more quadratic polynomials, you will find that any
quadratic polynomial in x is of the form ax2 + bx + c, where a ≠ 0 and a, b, c are
constants. Similarly, quadratic polynomial in y will be of the form ay2 + by + c, provided
a ≠ 0 and a, b, c are constants.
We call a polynomial of degree three a cubic polynomial. Some examples of a
cubic polynomial in x are 4x3, 2x3 + 1, 5x3 + x2, 6x3 – x, 6 – x3, 2x3 + 4x2 + 6x + 7. How
many terms do you think a cubic polynomial in one variable can have? It can have at
most 4 terms. These may be written in the form ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, where a ≠ 0 and
a, b, c and d are constants.
Now, that you have seen what a polynomial of degree 1, degree 2, or degree 3
looks like, can you write down a polynomial in one variable of degree n for any natural
number n? A polynomial in one variable x of degree n is an expression of the form
anxn + an–1xn–1 + . . . + a1x + a0
where a0, a1, a2, . . ., an are constants and an ≠ 0.
In particular, if a0 = a1 = a2 = a3 = . . . = an = 0 (all the constants are zero), we get
the zero polynomial, which is denoted by 0. What is the degree of the zero polynomial?
The degree of the zero polynomial is not defined.
So far we have dealt with polynomials in one variable only. We can also have
polynomials in more than one variable. For example, x2 + y2 + xyz (where variables
are x, y and z) is a polynomial in three variables. Similarly p2 + q10 + r (where the
variables are p, q and r), u3 + v2 (where the variables are u and v) are polynomials in
three and two variables, respectively. You will be studying such polynomials in detail
later.

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POLYNOMIALS 29

EXERCISE 2.1
1. Which of the following expressions are polynomials in one variable and which are
not? State reasons for your answer.
2
(i) 4x2 – 3x + 7 (ii) y2 + 2 (iii) 3 t + t 2 (iv) y +
y
(v) x10 + y3 + t50
2. Write the coefficients of x2 in each of the following:
π 2
(i) 2 + x2 + x (ii) 2 – x2 + x3 (iii) x +x (iv) 2 x − 1
2
3. Give one example each of a binomial of degree 35, and of a monomial of degree 100.
4. Write the degree of each of the following polynomials:
(i) 5x3 + 4x2 + 7x (ii) 4 – y2
(iii) 5t – 7 (iv) 3
5. Classify the following as linear, quadratic and cubic polynomials:
(i) x2 + x (ii) x – x3 (iii) y + y2 + 4 (iv) 1 + x
2 3
(v) 3t (vi) r (vii) 7x

2.3 Zeroes of a Polynomial

Consider the polynomial p(x) = 5x3 – 2x2 + 3x – 2.
If we replace x by 1 everywhere in p(x), we get
p(1) = 5 × (1)3 – 2 × (1)2 + 3 × (1) – 2
= 5 – 2 + 3 –2
=4
So, we say that the value of p(x) at x = 1 is 4.
Similarly, p(0) = 5(0)3 – 2(0)2 + 3(0) –2
= –2
Can you find p(–1)?

Example 2 : Find the value of each of the following polynomials at the indicated value
of variables:
(i) p(x) = 5x2 – 3x + 7 at x = 1.
(ii) q(y) = 3y3 – 4y + 11 at y = 2.
(iii) p(t) = 4t4 + 5t3 – t2 + 6 at t = a.

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30 MATHEMATICS

Solution : (i) p(x) = 5x2 – 3x + 7

The value of the polynomial p(x) at x = 1 is given by
p(1) = 5(1)2 – 3(1) + 7
= 5–3+7= 9
(ii) q(y) = 3y3 – 4y + 11
The value of the polynomial q(y) at y = 2 is given by

q(2) = 3(2)3 – 4(2) + 11 = 24 – 8 + 11 = 16 + 11

4 3 2
(iii) p(t) = 4t + 5t – t + 6
The value of the polynomial p(t) at t = a is given by
p(a) = 4a4 + 5a3 – a2 + 6
Now, consider the polynomial p(x) = x – 1.
What is p(1)? Note that : p(1) = 1 – 1 = 0.
As p(1) = 0, we say that 1 is a zero of the polynomial p(x).
Similarly, you can check that 2 is a zero of q(x), where q(x) = x – 2.
In general, we say that a zero of a polynomial p(x) is a number c such that p(c) = 0.
You must have observed that the zero of the polynomial x – 1 is obtained by
equating it to 0, i.e., x – 1 = 0, which gives x = 1. We say p(x) = 0 is a polynomial
equation and 1 is the root of the polynomial equation p(x) = 0. So we say 1 is the zero
of the polynomial x – 1, or a root of the polynomial equation x – 1 = 0.
Now, consider the constant polynomial 5. Can you tell what its zero is? It has no
zero because replacing x by any number in 5x0 still gives us 5. In fact, a non-zero
constant polynomial has no zero. What about the zeroes of the zero polynomial? By
convention, every real number is a zero of the zero polynomial.

Example 3 : Check whether –2 and 2 are zeroes of the polynomial x + 2.

Solution : Let p(x) = x + 2.
Then p(2) = 2 + 2 = 4, p(–2) = –2 + 2 = 0
Therefore, –2 is a zero of the polynomial x + 2, but 2 is not.
Example 4 : Find a zero of the polynomial p(x) = 2x + 1.
Solution : Finding a zero of p(x), is the same as solving the equation
p(x) = 0

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POLYNOMIALS 31

1
Now, 2x + 1 = 0 gives us x = –
2
1
So, – is a zero of the polynomial 2x + 1.
2
Now, if p(x) = ax + b, a ≠ 0, is a linear polynomial, how can we find a zero of
p(x)? Example 4 may have given you some idea. Finding a zero of the polynomial p(x),
amounts to solving the polynomial equation p(x) = 0.
Now, p(x) = 0 means ax + b = 0, a ≠ 0
So, ax = –b
b.
i.e., x= –
a
b
So, x = − is the only zero of p(x), i.e., a linear polynomial has one and only one zero.
a
Now we can say that 1 is the zero of x – 1, and –2 is the zero of x + 2.
Example 5 : Verify whether 2 and 0 are zeroes of the polynomial x2 – 2x.
Solution : Let p(x) = x2 – 2x
Then p(2) = 22 – 4 = 4 – 4 = 0
and p(0) = 0 – 0 = 0
Hence, 2 and 0 are both zeroes of the polynomial x2 – 2x.
Let us now list our observations:
(i) A zero of a polynomial need not be 0.
(ii) 0 may be a zero of a polynomial.
(iii) Every linear polynomial has one and only one zero.
(iv) A polynomial can have more than one zero.

EXERCISE 2.2
1. Find the value of the polynomial 5x – 4x2 + 3 at
(i) x = 0 (ii) x = –1 (iii) x = 2
2. Find p(0), p(1) and p(2) for each of the following polynomials:
(i) p(y) = y2 – y + 1 (ii) p(t) = 2 + t + 2t2 – t3
(iii) p(x) = x3 (iv) p(x) = (x – 1) (x + 1)

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32 MATHEMATICS

3. Verify whether the following are zeroes of the polynomial, indicated against them.
1 4
(i) p(x) = 3x + 1, x = – (ii) p(x) = 5x – π, x =
3 5
(iii) p(x) = x2 – 1, x = 1, –1 (iv) p(x) = (x + 1) (x – 2), x = – 1, 2
m
(v) p(x) = x2, x = 0 (vi) p(x) = lx + m, x = –
l
1 , 2 1
(vii) p(x) = 3x2 – 1, x = − (viii) p(x) = 2x + 1, x =
3 3 2
4. Find the zero of the polynomial in each of the following cases:
(i) p(x) = x + 5 (ii) p(x) = x – 5 (iii) p(x) = 2x + 5
(iv) p(x) = 3x – 2 (v) p(x) = 3x (vi) p(x) = ax, a ≠ 0
(vii) p(x) = cx + d, c ≠ 0, c, d are real numbers.

2.4 Factorisation of Polynomials

Let us now look at the situation of Example 10 above more closely. It tells us that since
 1
the remainder, q  −  = 0, (2t + 1) is a factor of q(t), i.e., q(t) = (2t + 1) g(t)
 2
for some polynomial g(t). This is a particular case of the following theorem.
Factor Theorem : If p(x) is a polynomial of degree n > 1 and a is any real number,
then (i) x – a is a factor of p(x), if p(a) = 0, and (ii) p(a) = 0, if x – a is a factor of p(x).
Proof: By the Remainder Theorem, p(x)=(x – a) q(x) + p(a).
(i) If p(a) = 0, then p(x) = (x – a) q(x), which shows that x – a is a factor of p(x).
(ii) Since x – a is a factor of p(x), p(x) = (x – a) g(x) for same polynomial g(x).
In this case, p(a) = (a – a) g(a) = 0.

Example 6 : Examine whether x + 2 is a factor of x3 + 3x2 + 5x + 6 and of 2x + 4.

Solution : The zero of x + 2 is –2. Let p(x) = x3 + 3x2 + 5x + 6 and s(x) = 2x + 4

Then, p(–2) = (–2)3 + 3(–2)2 + 5(–2) + 6
= –8 + 12 – 10 + 6
=0

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POLYNOMIALS 33

So, by the Factor Theorem, x + 2 is a factor of x3 + 3x2 + 5x + 6.

Again, s(–2) = 2(–2) + 4 = 0
So, x + 2 is a factor of 2x + 4. In fact, you can check this without applying the Factor
Theorem, since 2x + 4 = 2(x + 2).

Example 7 : Find the value of k, if x – 1 is a factor of 4x3 + 3x2 – 4x + k.

Solution : As x – 1 is a factor of p(x) = 4x3 + 3x2 – 4x + k, p(1) = 0
Now, p(1) = 4(1)3 + 3(1)2 – 4(1) + k
So, 4+3–4+k= 0
i.e., k = –3
We will now use the Factor Theorem to factorise some polynomials of degree 2 and 3.
You are already familiar with the factorisation of a quadratic polynomial like
x2 + lx + m. You had factorised it by splitting the middle term lx as ax + bx so that
ab = m. Then x2 + lx + m = (x + a) (x + b). We shall now try to factorise quadratic
polynomials of the type ax2 + bx + c, where a ≠ 0 and a, b, c are constants.
Factorisation of the polynomial ax2 + bx + c by splitting the middle term is as
follows: 3x 2
= 3x = first term of quotient
Let its factors be (px + q) and (rx + s). Then x
ax2 + bx + c = (px + q) (rx + s) = pr x2 + (ps + qr) x + qs
Comparing the coefficients of x2, we get a = pr.
Similarly, comparing the coefficients of x, we get b = ps + qr.
And, on comparing the constant terms, we get c = qs.
This shows us that b is the sum of two numbers ps and qr, whose product is
(ps)(qr) = (pr)(qs) = ac.
Therefore, to factorise ax2 + bx + c, we have to write b as the sum of two
numbers whose product is ac. This will be clear from Example 13.

Example 8 : Factorise 6x2 + 17x + 5 by splitting the middle term, and by using the
Factor Theorem.
Solution 1 : (By splitting method) : If we can find two numbers p and q such that
p + q = 17 and pq = 6 × 5 = 30, then we can get the factors.
So, let us look for the pairs of factors of 30. Some are 1 and 30, 2 and 15, 3 and 10, 5
and 6. Of these pairs, 2 and 15 will give us p + q = 17.

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34 MATHEMATICS

So, 6x2 + 17x + 5 = 6x2 + (2 + 15)x + 5

= 6x2 + 2x + 15x + 5
= 2x(3x + 1) + 5(3x + 1)
= (3x + 1) (2x + 5)
Solution 2 : (Using the Factor Theorem)

 2 17 5
6x2 + 17x + 5 = 6  x + x +  = 6 p(x), say. If a and b are the zeroes of p(x), then
 6 6
5
6x2 + 17x + 5 = 6(x – a) (x – b). So, ab = . Let us look at some possibilities for a and
6
1 1 5 5  1  1 17  1  5
b. They could be ± , ± , ± , ± , ± 1 . Now, p   = +   + ≠ 0. But
2 3 3 2  2 4 6  2 6
 −1   1
p   = 0. So,  x +  is a factor of p(x). Similarly, by trial, you can find that
 3   3

 5
 x +  is a factor of p(x).
 2

 1  5
Therefore, 6x2 + 17x + 5 = 6  x +   x + 
 3  2

 3x + 1   2 x + 5 
= 6  
 3  2 
= (3x + 1) (2x + 5)
For the example above, the use of the splitting method appears more efficient. However,
let us consider another example.

Example 9 : Factorise y2 – 5y + 6 by using the Factor Theorem.

Solution : Let p(y) = y2 – 5y + 6. Now, if p(y) = (y – a) (y – b), you know that the
constant term will be ab. So, ab = 6. So, to look for the factors of p(y), we look at the
factors of 6.
The factors of 6 are 1, 2 and 3.
Now, p(2) = 22 – (5 × 2) + 6 = 0
So, y – 2 is a factor of p(y).

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POLYNOMIALS 35

Also, p(3) = 32 – (5 × 3) + 6 = 0
So, y – 3 is also a factor of y2 – 5y + 6.
Therefore, y2 – 5y + 6 = (y – 2)(y – 3)
Note that y2 – 5y + 6 can also be factorised by splitting the middle term –5y.
Now, let us consider factorising cubic polynomials. Here, the splitting method will not
be appropriate to start with. We need to find at least one factor first, as you will see in
the following example.

Example 10 : Factorise x3 – 23x2 + 142x – 120.

Solution : Let p(x) = x3 – 23x2 + 142x – 120
We shall now look for all the factors of –120. Some of these are ±1, ±2, ±3,
±4, ±5, ±6, ±8, ±10, ±12, ±15, ±20, ±24, ±30, ±60.
By trial, we find that p(1) = 0. So x – 1 is a factor of p(x).
Now we see that x3 – 23x2 + 142x – 120 = x3 – x2 – 22x2 + 22x + 120x – 120
= x2(x –1) – 22x(x – 1) + 120(x – 1) (Why?)
2
= (x – 1) (x – 22x + 120) [Taking (x – 1) common]
We could have also got this by dividing p(x) by x – 1.
Now x2 – 22x + 120 can be factorised either by splitting the middle term or by using
the Factor theorem. By splitting the middle term, we have:
x2 – 22x + 120 = x2 – 12x – 10x + 120
= x(x – 12) – 10(x – 12)
= (x – 12) (x – 10)
So, x3 – 23x2 – 142x – 120 = (x – 1)(x – 10)(x – 12)

EXERCISE 2.3
1. Determine which of the following polynomials has (x + 1) a factor :
(i) x3 + x2 + x + 1 (ii) x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1

(iii) x4 + 3x3 + 3x2 + x + 1 (

(iv) x3 – x2 – 2 + )
2 x+ 2
2. Use the Factor Theorem to determine whether g(x) is a factor of p(x) in each of the
following cases:
(i) p(x) = 2x3 + x2 – 2x – 1, g(x) = x + 1

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36 MATHEMATICS

(ii) p(x) = x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1, g(x) = x + 2

(iii) p(x) = x3 – 4x2 + x + 6, g(x) = x – 3
3. Find the value of k, if x – 1 is a factor of p(x) in each of the following cases:
(i) p(x) = x2 + x + k (ii) p(x) = 2x2 + kx + 2
(iii) p(x) = kx2 – 2x+1 (iv) p(x) = kx2 – 3x + k
4. Factorise :
(i) 12x2 – 7x + 1 (ii) 2x2 + 7x + 3
(iii) 6x2 + 5x – 6 (iv) 3x2 – x – 4
5. Factorise :
(i) x3 – 2x2 – x + 2 (ii) x3 – 3x2 – 9x – 5
(iii) x3 + 13x2 + 32x + 20 (iv) 2y3 + y2 – 2y – 1

2.5 Algebraic Identities

From your earlier classes, you may recall that an algebraic identity is an algebraic
equation that is true for all values of the variables occurring in it. You have studied the
following algebraic identities in earlier classes:
Identity I : (x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2
Identity II : (x – y)2 = x2 – 2xy + y2
Identity III : x2 – y2 = (x + y) (x – y)
Identity IV : (x + a) (x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab
You must have also used some of these algebraic identities to factorise the algebraic
expressions. You can also see their utility in computations.
Example 11 : Find the following products using appropriate identities:
(i) (x + 3) (x + 3) (ii) (x – 3) (x + 5)
Solution : (i) Here we can use Identity I : (x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2. Putting y = 3 in it,
we get
(x + 3) (x + 3) = (x + 3)2 = x2 + 2(x)(3) + (3)2
= x2 + 6x + 9
(ii) Using Identity IV above, i.e., (x + a) (x + b) = x2 + (a + b)x + ab, we have
(x – 3) (x + 5) = x2 + (–3 + 5)x + (–3)(5)
= x2 + 2x – 15

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POLYNOMIALS 37

Example 12 : Evaluate 105 × 106 without multiplying directly.

Solution : 105 × 106 = (100 + 5) × (100 + 6)
= (100)2 + (5 + 6) (100) + (5 × 6), using Identity IV
= 10000 + 1100 + 30
= 11130
You have seen some uses of the identities listed above in finding the product of some
given expressions. These identities are useful in factorisation of algebraic expressions
also, as you can see in the following examples.
Example 13 : Factorise:
25 2 y 2
(i) 49a2 + 70ab + 25b2 (ii) x −
4 9
Solution : (i) Here you can see that
49a2 = (7a)2, 25b2 = (5b)2, 70ab = 2(7a) (5b)
Comparing the given expression with x2 + 2xy + y2, we observe that x = 7a and y = 5b.
Using Identity I, we get
49a2 + 70ab + 25b2 = (7a + 5b)2 = (7a + 5b) (7a + 5b)
2 2
25 2 y 2  5   y
(ii) We have x – =  x –  
4 9 2  3
Now comparing it with Identity III, we get
2 2
25 2 y 2 5   y
x – =  x –  
4 9 2  3

5 y5 y
=  x+  x− 
2 32 3
So far, all our identities involved products of binomials. Let us now extend the Identity
I to a trinomial x + y + z. We shall compute (x + y + z)2 by using Identity I.
Let x + y = t. Then,
(x + y + z)2 = (t + z)2
= t2 + 2tz + t2 (Using Identity I)
= (x + y)2 + 2(x + y)z + z2 (Substituting the value of t)

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38 MATHEMATICS

= x2 + 2xy + y2 + 2xz + 2yz + z2 (Using Identity I)

= x2 + y2 + z2 + 2xy + 2yz + 2zx (Rearranging the terms)
So, we get the following identity:
Identity V : (x + y + z)2 = x2 + y2 + z2 + 2xy + 2yz + 2zx
Remark : We call the right hand side expression the expanded form of the left hand
side expression. Note that the expansion of (x + y + z)2 consists of three square terms
and three product terms.

Example 14 : Write (3a + 4b + 5c)2 in expanded form.

Solution : Comparing the given expression with (x + y + z)2, we find that
x = 3a, y = 4b and z = 5c.
Therefore, using Identity V, we have
(3a + 4b + 5c)2 = (3a)2 + (4b)2 + (5c)2 + 2(3a)(4b) + 2(4b)(5c) + 2(5c)(3a)
= 9a2 + 16b2 + 25c2 + 24ab + 40bc + 30ac
Example 15 : Expand (4a – 2b – 3c)2.
Solution : Using Identity V, we have
(4a – 2b – 3c)2 = [4a + (–2b) + (–3c)]2
= (4a)2 + (–2b)2 + (–3c)2 + 2(4a)(–2b) + 2(–2b)(–3c) + 2(–3c)(4a)
= 16a2 + 4b2 + 9c2 – 16ab + 12bc – 24ac
Example 16 : Factorise 4x2 + y2 + z2 – 4xy – 2yz + 4xz.
Solution : We have 4x2 + y2 + z2 – 4xy – 2yz + 4xz = (2x)2 + (–y)2 + (z)2 + 2(2x)(–y)
+ 2(–y)(z) + 2(2x)(z)
= [2x + (–y) + z]2 (Using Identity V)
2
= (2x – y + z) = (2x – y + z)(2x – y + z)
So far, we have dealt with identities involving second degree terms. Now let us
extend Identity I to compute (x + y)3. We have:
(x + y)3 = (x + y) (x + y)2
= (x + y)(x2 + 2xy + y2)
= x(x2 + 2xy + y2) + y(x2 + 2xy + y2)
= x3 + 2x2y + xy2 + x2y + 2xy2 + y3
= x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3
= x3 + y3 + 3xy(x + y)

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POLYNOMIALS 39

So, we get the following identity:

Identity VI : (x + y)3 = x3 + y3 + 3xy (x + y)
Also, by replacing y by –y in the Identity VI, we get
Identity VII : (x – y)3 = x3 – y3 – 3xy(x – y)
= x3 – 3x2y + 3xy2 – y3
Example 17 : Write the following cubes in the expanded form:
(i) (3a + 4b)3 (ii) (5p – 3q)3
Solution : (i) Comparing the given expression with (x + y)3, we find that
x = 3a and y = 4b.
So, using Identity VI, we have:
(3a + 4b)3 = (3a)3 + (4b)3 + 3(3a)(4b)(3a + 4b)
= 27a3 + 64b3 + 108a2b + 144ab2
(ii) Comparing the given expression with (x – y)3, we find that
x = 5p, y = 3q.
So, using Identity VII, we have:
(5p – 3q)3 = (5p)3 – (3q)3 – 3(5p)(3q)(5p – 3q)
= 125p3 – 27q3 – 225p2q + 135pq2
Example 18 : Evaluate each of the following using suitable identities:
(i) (104)3 (ii) (999)3
Solution : (i) We have
(104)3 = (100 + 4)3
= (100)3 + (4)3 + 3(100)(4)(100 + 4)
(Using Identity VI)
= 1000000 + 64 + 124800
= 1124864
(ii) We have
(999)3 = (1000 – 1)3
= (1000)3 – (1)3 – 3(1000)(1)(1000 – 1)
(Using Identity VII)
= 1000000000 – 1 – 2997000
= 997002999

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40 MATHEMATICS

Example 19 : Factorise 8x3 + 27y3 + 36x2y + 54xy2

Solution : The given expression can be written as
(2x)3 + (3y)3 + 3(4x2)(3y) + 3(2x)(9y2)
= (2x)3 + (3y)3 + 3(2x)2(3y) + 3(2x)(3y)2
= (2x + 3y)3 (Using Identity VI)
= (2x + 3y)(2x + 3y)(2x + 3y)
2 2 2
Now consider (x + y + z)(x + y + z – xy – yz – zx)
On expanding, we get the product as
x(x2 + y2 + z2 – xy – yz – zx) + y(x2 + y2 + z2 – xy – yz – zx)
+ z(x2 + y2 + z2 – xy – yz – zx) = x3 + xy2 + xz2 – x2y – xyz – zx2 + x2y
+ y3 + yz2 – xy2 – y2z – xyz + x2z + y2z + z3 – xyz – yz2 – xz2
= x3 + y3 + z3 – 3xyz (On simplification)
So, we obtain the following identity:
Identity VIII : x3 + y3 + z3 – 3xyz = (x + y + z)(x2 + y2 + z2 – xy – yz – zx)
Example 20 : Factorise : 8x3 + y3 + 27z3 – 18xyz
Solution : Here, we have
8x3 + y3 + 27z3 – 18xyz
= (2x)3 + y3 + (3z)3 – 3(2x)(y)(3z)
= (2x + y + 3z)[(2x)2 + y2 + (3z)2 – (2x)(y) – (y)(3z) – (2x)(3z)]
= (2x + y + 3z) (4x2 + y2 + 9z2 – 2xy – 3yz – 6xz)

EXERCISE 2.4
1. Use suitable identities to find the following products:
(i) (x + 4) (x + 10) (ii) (x + 8) (x – 10) (iii) (3x + 4) (3x – 5)
3 3
(iv) (y2 + ) (y2 – ) (v) (3 – 2x) (3 + 2x)
2 2
2. Evaluate the following products without multiplying directly:
(i) 103 × 107 (ii) 95 × 96 (iii) 104 × 96
3. Factorise the following using appropriate identities:
y2
(i) 9x2 + 6xy + y2 (ii) 4y2 – 4y + 1 (iii) x2 –
100

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POLYNOMIALS 41

4. Expand each of the following, using suitable identities:

(i) (x + 2y + 4z)2 (ii) (2x – y + z)2 (iii) (–2x + 3y + 2z)2
2
1 1 
(iv) (3a – 7b – c)2 (v) (–2x + 5y – 3z)2 (vi)  a − b + 1
4 2 
5. Factorise:
(i) 4x2 + 9y2 + 16z2 + 12xy – 24yz – 16xz

(ii) 2x2 + y2 + 8z2 – 2 2 xy + 4 2 yz – 8xz

6. Write the following cubes in expanded form:
3 3
3   2 
(i) (2x + 1)3 (ii) (2a – 3b)3 (iii)  x + 1 (iv)  x − y 
2   3 
7. Evaluate the following using suitable identities:
(i) (99)3 (ii) (102)3 (iii) (998)3
8. Factorise each of the following:
(i) 8a3 + b3 + 12a2b + 6ab2 (ii) 8a3 – b3 – 12a2b + 6ab2
(iii) 27 – 125a3 – 135a + 225a2 (iv) 64a3 – 27b3 – 144a2b + 108ab2

1 9 1
(v) 27p3 – – p2 + p
216 2 4
9. Verify : (i) x3 + y3 = (x + y) (x2 – xy + y2) (ii) x3 – y3 = (x – y) (x2 + xy + y2)
10. Factorise each of the following:
(i) 27y3 + 125z3 (ii) 64m3 – 343n3
[Hint : See Question 9.]
11. Factorise : 27x3 + y3 + z3 – 9xyz
1
12. Verify that x3 + y3 + z3 – 3xyz = ( x + y + z )  ( x − y )2 + ( y − z )2 + ( z − x)2 
2
13. If x + y + z = 0, show that x3 + y3 + z3 = 3xyz.
14. Without actually calculating the cubes, find the value of each of the following:
(i) (–12)3 + (7)3 + (5)3
(ii) (28)3 + (–15)3 + (–13)3
15. Give possible expressions for the length and breadth of each of the following
rectangles, in which their areas are given:

Area : 25a2 – 35a + 12 Area : 35y2 + 13y –12

(i) (ii)

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42 MATHEMATICS

16. What are the possible expressions for the dimensions of the cuboids whose volumes
are given below?

Volume : 3x2 – 12x Volume : 12ky2 + 8ky – 20k

(i) (ii)

2.6 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points:
1. A polynomial p(x) in one variable x is an algebraic expression in x of the form
p(x) = anxn + an–1xn – 1 + . . . + a2x2 + a1x + a0,
where a0, a1, a2, . . ., an are constants and an ≠ 0.
a0, a1, a2, . . ., an are respectively the coefficients of x0, x, x2, . . ., xn, and n is called the degree
of the polynomial. Each of anxn, an–1 xn–1, ..., a0, with an ≠ 0, is called a term of the polynomial
p(x).
2. A polynomial of one term is called a monomial.
3. A polynomial of two terms is called a binomial.
4. A polynomial of three terms is called a trinomial.
5. A polynomial of degree one is called a linear polynomial.
6. A polynomial of degree two is called a quadratic polynomial.
7. A polynomial of degree three is called a cubic polynomial.
8. A real number ‘a’ is a zero of a polynomial p(x) if p(a) = 0. In this case, a is also called a
root of the equation p(x) = 0.
9. Every linear polynomial in one variable has a unique zero, a non-zero constant polynomial
has no zero, and every real number is a zero of the zero polynomial.
10. Factor Theorem : x – a is a factor of the polynomial p(x), if p(a) = 0. Also, if x – a is a factor
of p(x), then p(a) = 0.
11. (x + y + z)2 = x2 + y2 + z2 + 2xy + 2yz + 2zx
12. (x + y)3 = x3 + y3 + 3xy(x + y)
13. (x – y)3 = x3 – y3 – 3xy(x – y)
14. x3 + y3 + z3 – 3xyz = (x + y + z) (x2 + y2 + z2 – xy – yz – zx)

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 CHAPTER 3

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

What’s the good of Mercator’s North Poles and Equators, Tropics, Zones and
Meridian Lines?’ So the Bellman would cry; and crew would reply ‘ They are
merely conventional signs!’
LEWIS CARROLL, The Hunting of the Snark
3.1 Introduction
You have already studied how to locate a point on a number line. You also know how
to describe the position of a point on the line. There are many other situations, in which
to find a point we are required to describe its position with reference to more than one
line. For example, consider the following situations:
I. In Fig. 3.1, there is a main road running
in the East-West direction and streets with
numbering from West to East. Also, on each
street, house numbers are marked. To look for
a friend’s house here, is it enough to know only
one reference point? For instance, if we only
know that she lives on Street 2, will we be able
to find her house easily? Not as easily as when
we know two pieces of information about it,
namely, the number of the street on which it is
situated, and the house number. If we want to
reach the house which is situated in the 2nd
street and has the number 5, first of all we
would identify the 2nd street and then the house
numbered 5 on it. In Fig. 3.1, H shows the
location of the house. Similarly, P shows the
Fig. 3.1
location of the house corresponding to Street
number 7 and House number 4.

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44 MATHEMATICS

II. Suppose you put a dot on a sheet of paper [Fig.3.2 (a)]. If we ask you to tell us
the position of the dot on the paper, how will you do this? Perhaps you will try in some
such manner: “The dot is in the upper half of the paper”, or “It is near the left edge of
the paper”, or “It is very near the left hand upper corner of the sheet”. Do any of
these statements fix the position of the dot precisely? No! But, if you say “ The dot is
nearly 5 cm away from the left edge of the paper”, it helps to give some idea but still
does not fix the position of the dot. A little thought might enable you to say that the dot
is also at a distance of 9 cm above the bottom line. We now know exactly where the dot is!

Fig. 3.2

For this purpose, we fixed the position of the dot by specifying its distances from two
fixed lines, the left edge of the paper and the bottom line of the paper [Fig.3.2 (b)]. In
other words, we need two independent informations for finding the position of the dot.
Now, perform the following classroom activity known as ‘Seating Plan’.
Activity 1 (Seating Plan) : Draw a plan of the seating in your classroom, pushing all
the desks together. Represent each desk by a square. In each square, write the name
of the student occupying the desk, which the square represents. Position of each
student in the classroom is described precisely by using two independent informations:
(i) the column in which she or he sits,
(ii) the row in which she or he sits.
If you are sitting on the desk lying in the 5th column and 3rd row (represented by
the shaded square in Fig. 3.3), your position could be written as (5, 3), first writing the
column number, and then the row number. Is this the same as (3, 5)? Write down the
names and positions of other students in your class. For example, if Sonia is sitting in
the 4th column and 1st row, write S(4,1). The teacher’s desk is not part of your seating
plan. We are treating the teacher just as an observer.

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COORDINATE GEOMETRY 45

Fig. 3.3
In the discussion above, you observe that position of any object lying in a plane
can be represented with the help of two perpendicular lines. In case of ‘dot’, we
require distance of the dot from bottom line as well as from left edge of the paper. In
case of seating plan, we require the number of the column and that of the row. This
simple idea has far reaching consequences, and has given rise to a very important
branch of Mathematics known as Coordinate Geometry. In this chapter, we aim to
introduce some basic concepts of coordinate geometry. You will study more about
these in your higher classes. This study was initially developed by the French philosopher
and mathematician René Déscartes.
René Déscartes, the great French mathematician of the
seventeenth century, liked to lie in bed and think! One
day, when resting in bed, he solved the problem of
describing the position of a point in a plane. His method
was a development of the older idea of latitude and
longitude. In honour of Déscartes, the system used for
describing the position of a point in a plane is also
known as the Cartesian system.

René Déscartes (1596 -1650)

Fig. 3.4

EXERCISE 3.1
1. How will you describe the position of a table lamp on your study table to another
person?
2. (Street Plan) : A city has two main roads which cross each other at the centre of the
city. These two roads are along the North-South direction and East-West direction.

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46 MATHEMATICS

All the other streets of the city run parallel to these roads and are 200 m apart. There
are 5 streets in each direction. Using 1cm = 200 m, draw a model of the city on your
notebook. Represent the roads/streets by single lines.
There are many cross- streets in your model. A particular cross-street is made by
two streets, one running in the North - South direction and another in the East - West
direction. Each cross street is referred to in the following manner : If the 2nd street
running in the North - South direction and 5th in the East - West direction meet at some
crossing, then we will call this cross-street (2, 5). Using this convention, find:
(i) how many cross - streets can be referred to as (4, 3).
(ii) how many cross - streets can be referred to as (3, 4).

3.2 Cartesian System

You have studied the number line in the chapter on ‘Number System’. On the number
line, distances from a fixed point are marked in equal units positively in one direction
and negatively in the other. The point from which the distances are marked is called
the origin. We use the number line to represent the numbers by marking points on a
line at equal distances. If one unit distance represents the number ‘1’, then 3 units
distance represents the number ‘3’, ‘0’ being at the origin. The point in the positive
direction at a distance r from the origin represents the number r. The point in the
negative direction at a distance r from the origin represents the number −r. Locations
of different numbers on the number line are shown in Fig. 3.5.

Fig. 3.5
Descartes invented the idea of placing two such lines perpendicular to each other
on a plane, and locating points on the plane by referring them to these lines. The
perpendicular lines may be in any direction such as in Fig.3.6. But, when we choose

Fig. 3.6

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COORDINATE GEOMETRY 47

these two lines to locate a point in a plane in this chapter, one line
will be horizontal and the other will be vertical, as in Fig. 3.6(c).
These lines are actually obtained as follows : Take two number
lines, calling them X′X and Y′Y. Place X′X horizontal [as in Fig. 3.7(a)]
and write the numbers on it just as written on the number line. We do
the same thing with Y′Y except that Y′Y is vertical, not horizontal
[Fig. 3.7(b)].

Fig. 3.7
Combine both the lines in such
a way that the two lines cross each
other at their zeroes, or origins
(Fig. 3.8). The horizontal line X′X
is called the x - axis and the vertical
line YY′ is called the y - axis. The
point where X′X and Y′Y cross is
called the origin, and is denoted
by O. Since the positive numbers
lie on the directions OX and OY,
OX and OY are called the positive
directions of the x - axis and the
y - axis, respectively. Similarly, OX′
and OY′ are called the negative
directions of the x - axis and the
y - axis, respectively.
Fig. 3.8

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48 MATHEMATICS

You observe that the axes (plural of the word

‘axis’) divide the plane into four parts. These four
parts are called the quadrants (one fourth part),
numbered I, II, III and IV anticlockwise from OX
(see Fig.3.9). So, the plane consists of the axes and
these quadrants. We call the plane, the Cartesian
plane, or the coordinate plane, or the xy-plane.
The axes are called the coordinate axes.

Fig. 3.9

Now, let us see why this system is so basic to mathematics, and how it is useful.
Consider the following diagram where the axes are drawn on graph paper. Let us see
the distances of the points P and Q from the axes. For this, we draw perpendiculars
PM on the x - axis and PN on the y - axis. Similarly, we draw perpendiculars QR and
QS as shown in Fig. 3.10.

Fig.3.10
You find that
(i) The perpendicular distance of the point P from the y - axis measured along the
positive direction of the x - axis is PN = OM = 4 units.
(ii) The perpendicular distance of the point P from the x - axis measured along the
positive direction of the y - axis is PM = ON = 3 units.

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COORDINATE GEOMETRY 49

(iii) The perpendicular distance of the point Q from the y - axis measured along
the negative direction of the x - axis is OR = SQ = 6 units.
(iv) The perpendicular distance of the point Q from the x - axis measured along
the negative direction of the y - axis is OS = RQ = 2 units.
Now, using these distances, how can we describe the points so that there is no
confusion?
We write the coordinates of a point, using the following conventions:
(i) The x - coordinate of a point is its perpendicular distance from the y - axis
measured along the x -axis (positive along the positive direction of the x - axis
and negative along the negative direction of the x - axis). For the point P, it is
+ 4 and for Q, it is – 6. The x - coordinate is also called the abscissa.
(ii) The y - coordinate of a point is its perpendicular distance from the x - axis
measured along the y - axis (positive along the positive direction of the y - axis
and negative along the negative direction of the y - axis). For the point P, it is
+ 3 and for Q, it is –2. The y - coordinate is also called the ordinate.
(iii) In stating the coordinates of a point in the coordinate plane, the x - coordinate
comes first, and then the y - coordinate. We place the coordinates in brackets.
Hence, the coordinates of P are (4, 3) and the coordinates of Q are (– 6, – 2).
Note that the coordinates describe a point in the plane uniquely. (3, 4) is not the
same as (4, 3).

Example 1 : See Fig. 3.11 and complete the following statements:

(i) The abscissa and the ordinate of the point B are _ _ _ and _ _ _, respectively.
Hence, the coordinates of B are (_ _, _ _).
(ii) The x-coordinate and the y-coordinate of the point M are _ _ _ and _ _ _,
respectively. Hence, the coordinates of M are (_ _, _ _).
(iii) The x-coordinate and the y-coordinate of the point L are _ _ _ and _ _ _,
respectively. Hence, the coordinates of L are (_ _, _ _).
(iv) The x-coordinate and the y-coordinate of the point S are _ _ _ and _ _ _,
respectively. Hence, the coordinates of S are (_ _, _ _).

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50 MATHEMATICS

Fig. 3.11
Solution: (i) Since the distance of the point B from the y - axis is 4 units, the
x - coordinate or abscissa of the point B is 4. The distance of the point B from the
x - axis is 3 units; therefore, the y - coordinate, i.e., the ordinate, of the point B is 3.
Hence, the coordinates of the point B are (4, 3).
As in (i) above :
(ii) The x - coordinate and the y - coordinate of the point M are –3 and 4, respectively.
Hence, the coordinates of the point M are (–3, 4).
(iii) The x - coordinate and the y - coordinate of the point L are –5 and – 4, respectively.
Hence, the coordinates of the point L are (–5, – 4).
(iv) The x - coordinate and the y- coordinate of the point S are 3 and – 4, respectively.
Hence, the coordinates of the point S are (3, – 4).

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COORDINATE GEOMETRY 51

Example 2 : Write the coordinates of the

points marked on the axes in Fig. 3.12.
Solution : You can see that :
(i) The point A is at a distance of + 4 units
from the y - axis and at a distance zero
from the x - axis. Therefore, the
x - coordinate of A is 4 and the
y - coordinate is 0. Hence, the
coordinates of A are (4, 0).
(ii) The coordinates of B are (0, 3). Why?
(iii) The coordinates of C are (– 5, 0).
Why?
(iv) The coordinates of D are (0, – 4). Why?
Fig. 3.12
2 
(v) The coordinates of E are  , 0  . Why?
3 
Since every point on the x - axis has no distance (zero distance) from the x - axis,
therefore, the y - coordinate of every point lying on the x - axis is always zero. Thus, the
coordinates of any point on the x - axis are of the form (x, 0), where x is the distance of
the point from the y - axis. Similarly, the coordinates of any point on the y - axis are of
the form (0, y), where y is the distance of the point from the x - axis. Why?
What are the coordinates of the origin O? It has zero distance from both the
axes so that its abscissa and ordinate are both zero. Therefore, the coordinates of
the origin are (0, 0).
In the examples above, you may have observed the following relationship between
the signs of the coordinates of a point and the quadrant of a point in which it lies.
(i) If a point is in the 1st quadrant, then the point will be in the form (+, +), since the
1st quadrant is enclosed by the positive x - axis and the positive y - axis.
(ii) If a point is in the 2nd quadrant, then the point will be in the form (–, +), since the
2nd quadrant is enclosed by the negative x - axis and the positive y - axis.
(iii) If a point is in the 3rd quadrant, then the point will be in the form (–, –), since the
3rd quadrant is enclosed by the negative x - axis and the negative y - axis.
(iv) If a point is in the 4th quadrant, then the point will be in the form (+, –), since the
4th quadrant is enclosed by the positive x - axis and the negative y - axis
(see Fig. 3.13).

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52 MATHEMATICS

Fig. 3.13
Remark : The system we have discussed above for describing a point in a plane is
only a convention, which is accepted all over the world. The system could also have
been, for example, the ordinate first, and the abscissa second. However, the whole
world sticks to the system we have described to avoid any confusion.

EXERCISE 3.2
1. Write the answer of each of the following questions:
(i) What is the name of horizontal and the vertical lines drawn to determine the
position of any point in the Cartesian plane?
(ii) What is the name of each part of the plane formed by these two lines?
(iii) Write the name of the point where these two lines intersect.
2. See Fig.3.14, and write the following:
(i) The coordinates of B.
(ii) The coordinates of C.
(iii) The point identified by the coordinates (–3, –5).

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COORDINATE GEOMETRY 53

(iv) The point identified by the coordinates (2, – 4).

(v) The abscissa of the point D.
(vi) The ordinate of the point H.
(vii) The coordinates of the point L.
(viii) The coordinates of the point M.

Fig. 3.14

3.3 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points :
1. To locate the position of an object or a point in a plane, we require two perpendicular
lines. One of them is horizontal, and the other is vertical.
2. The plane is called the Cartesian, or coordinate plane and the lines are called the coordinate
axes.
3. The horizontal line is called the x -axis, and the vertical line is called the y - axis.

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54 MATHEMATICS

4. The coordinate axes divide the plane into four parts called quadrants.
5. The point of intersection of the axes is called the origin.
6. The distance of a point from the y - axis is called its x-coordinate, or abscissa, and the
distance of the point from the x-axis is called its y-coordinate, or ordinate.
7. If the abscissa of a point is x and the ordinate is y, then (x, y) are called the coordinates of
the point.
8. The coordinates of a point on the x-axis are of the form (x, 0) and that of the point on the
y-axis are (0, y).
9. The coordinates of the origin are (0, 0).
10. The coordinates of a point are of the form (+ , +) in the first quadrant, (–, +) in the second
quadrant, (–, –) in the third quadrant and (+, –) in the fourth quadrant, where + denotes a
positive real number and – denotes a negative real number.
11. If x ≠ y, then (x, y) ≠ (y, x), and (x, y) = (y, x), if x = y.

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LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 55

CHAPTER 4

LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES

The principal use of the Analytic Art is to bring Mathematical Problems to

Equations and to exhibit those Equations in the most simple terms that can be.
—Edmund Halley

4.1 Introduction
In earlier classes, you have studied linear equations in one variable. Can you write
down a linear equation in one variable? You may say that x + 1 = 0, x + 2 = 0 and
2 y + 3 = 0 are examples of linear equations in one variable. You also know that
such equations have a unique (i.e., one and only one) solution. You may also remember
how to represent the solution on a number line. In this chapter, the knowledge of linear
equations in one variable shall be recalled and extended to that of two variables. You
will be considering questions like: Does a linear equation in two variables have a
solution? If yes, is it unique? What does the solution look like on the Cartesian plane?
You shall also use the concepts you studied in Chapter 3 to answer these questions.

4.2 Linear Equations

Let us first recall what you have studied so far. Consider the following equation:
2x + 5 = 0
5
Its solution, i.e., the root of the equation, is − . This can be represented on the
2
number line as shown below:

Fig. 4.1
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56 MATHEMATICS

While solving an equation, you must always keep the following points in mind:
The solution of a linear equation is not affected when:
(i) the same number is added to (or subtracted from) both the sides of the equation.
(ii) you multiply or divide both the sides of the equation by the same non-zero
number.
Let us now consider the following situation:
In a One-day International Cricket match between India and Sri Lanka played in
Nagpur, two Indian batsmen together scored 176 runs. Express this information in the
form of an equation.
Here, you can see that the score of neither of them is known, i.e., there are two
unknown quantities. Let us use x and y to denote them. So, the number of runs scored
by one of the batsmen is x, and the number of runs scored by the other is y. We know
that
x + y = 176,
which is the required equation.
This is an example of a linear equation in two variables. It is customary to denote
the variables in such equations by x and y, but other letters may also be used. Some
examples of linear equations in two variables are:
1.2s + 3t = 5, p + 4q = 7, πu + 5v = 9 and 3 = 2 x – 7y.
Note that you can put these equations in the form 1.2s + 3t – 5 = 0,
p + 4q – 7 = 0, πu + 5v – 9 = 0 and 2 x – 7y – 3 = 0, respectively.
So, any equation which can be put in the form ax + by + c = 0, where a, b and c
are real numbers, and a and b are not both zero, is called a linear equation in two
variables. This means that you can think of many many such equations.
Example 1 : Write each of the following equations in the form ax + by + c = 0 and
indicate the values of a, b and c in each case:
(i) 2x + 3y = 4.37 (ii) x – 4 = 3y (iii) 4 = 5x – 3y (iv) 2x = y

Solution : (i) 2x + 3y = 4.37 can be written as 2x + 3y – 4.37 = 0. Here a = 2, b = 3

and c = – 4.37.
(ii) The equation x – 4 = 3 y can be written as x – 3 y – 4 = 0. Here a = 1,
b = – 3 and c = – 4.
(iii) The equation 4 = 5x – 3y can be written as 5x – 3y – 4 = 0. Here a = 5, b = –3
and c = – 4. Do you agree that it can also be written as –5x + 3y + 4 = 0 ? In this
case a = –5, b = 3 and c = 4.

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LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 57

(iv) The equation 2x = y can be written as 2x – y + 0 = 0. Here a = 2, b = –1 and

c = 0.
Equations of the type ax + b = 0 are also examples of linear equations in two variables
because they can be expressed as
ax + 0.y + b = 0
For example, 4 – 3x = 0 can be written as –3x + 0.y + 4 = 0.
Example 2 : Write each of the following as an equation in two variables:
(i) x = –5 (ii) y = 2 (iii) 2x = 3 (iv) 5y = 2
Solution : (i) x = –5 can be written as 1.x + 0.y = –5, or 1.x + 0.y + 5 = 0.
(ii) y = 2 can be written as 0.x + 1.y = 2, or 0.x + 1.y – 2 = 0.
(iii) 2x = 3 can be written as 2x + 0.y – 3 = 0.
(iv) 5y = 2 can be written as 0.x + 5y – 2 = 0.

EXERCISE 4.1
1. The cost of a notebook is twice the cost of a pen. Write a linear equation in two
variables to represent this statement.
(Take the cost of a notebook to be ` x and that of a pen to be ` y).
2. Express the following linear equations in the form ax + by + c = 0 and indicate the
values of a, b and c in each case:
y
(i) 2x + 3y = 9.35 (ii) x – – 10 = 0 (iii) –2x + 3y = 6 (iv) x = 3y
5
(v) 2x = –5y (vi) 3x + 2 = 0 (vii) y – 2 = 0 (viii) 5 = 2x

4.3 Solution of a Linear Equation

You have seen that every linear equation in one variable has a unique solution. What
can you say about the solution of a linear equation involving two variables? As there
are two variables in the equation, a solution means a pair of values, one for x and one
for y which satisfy the given equation. Let us consider the equation 2x + 3y = 12.
Here, x = 3 and y = 2 is a solution because when you substitute x = 3 and y = 2 in the
equation above, you find that
2x + 3y = (2 × 3) + (3 × 2) = 12
This solution is written as an ordered pair (3, 2), first writing the value for x and
then the value for y. Similarly, (0, 4) is also a solution for the equation above.

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58 MATHEMATICS

On the other hand, (1, 4) is not a solution of 2x + 3y = 12, because on putting

x = 1 and y = 4 we get 2x + 3y = 14, which is not 12. Note that (0, 4) is a solution but
not (4, 0).
You have seen at least two solutions for 2x + 3y = 12, i.e., (3, 2) and (0, 4). Can
you find any other solution? Do you agree that (6, 0) is another solution? Verify the
same. In fact, we can get many many solutions in the following way. Pick a value of
your choice for x (say x = 2) in 2x + 3y = 12. Then the equation reduces to 4 + 3y = 12,
8  8
which is a linear equation in one variable. On solving this, you get y = . So  2,  is
3  3
another solution of 2x + 3y = 12. Similarly, choosing x = – 5, you find that the equation
22
. So,  −5,
22 
becomes –10 + 3y = 12. This gives y =  is another solution of
3  3 
2x + 3y = 12. So there is no end to different solutions of a linear equation in two
variables. That is, a linear equation in two variables has infinitely many solutions.

Example 3 : Find four different solutions of the equation x + 2y = 6.

Solution : By inspection, x = 2, y = 2 is a solution because for x = 2, y = 2
x + 2y = 2 + 4 = 6
Now, let us choose x = 0. With this value of x, the given equation reduces to 2y = 6
which has the unique solution y = 3. So x = 0, y = 3 is also a solution of x + 2y = 6.
Similarly, taking y = 0, the given equation reduces to x = 6. So, x = 6, y = 0 is a solution
of x + 2y = 6 as well. Finally, let us take y = 1. The given equation now reduces to
x + 2 = 6, whose solution is given by x = 4. Therefore, (4, 1) is also a solution of the
given equation. So four of the infinitely many solutions of the given equation are:
(2, 2), (0, 3), (6, 0) and (4, 1).
Remark : Note that an easy way of getting a solution is to take x = 0 and get the
corresponding value of y. Similarly, we can put y = 0 and obtain the corresponding
value of x.
Example 4 : Find two solutions for each of the following equations:
(i) 4x + 3y = 12
(ii) 2x + 5y = 0
(iii) 3y + 4 = 0
Solution : (i) Taking x = 0, we get 3y = 12, i.e., y = 4. So, (0, 4) is a solution of the
given equation. Similarly, by taking y = 0, we get x = 3. Thus, (3, 0) is also a solution.

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LINEAR EQUATIONS IN TWO VARIABLES 59

(ii) Taking x = 0, we get 5y = 0, i.e., y = 0. So (0, 0) is a solution of the given equation.

Now, if you take y = 0, you again get (0, 0) as a solution, which is the same as the
earlier one. To get another solution, take x = 1, say. Then you can check that the
2  2
corresponding value of y is − . So 1, −  is another solution of 2x + 5y = 0.
5  5
4
(iii) Writing the equation 3y + 4 = 0 as 0.x + 3y + 4 = 0, you will find that y = – for
3
 4  4
any value of x. Thus, two solutions can be given as  0, –  and 1, –  .
 3  3

EXERCISE 4.2
1. Which one of the following options is true, and why?
y = 3x + 5 has
(i) a unique solution, (ii) only two solutions, (iii) infinitely many solutions
2. Write four solutions for each of the following equations:
(i) 2x + y = 7 (ii) πx + y = 9 (iii) x = 4y
3. Check which of the following are solutions of the equation x – 2y = 4 and which are
not:
(i) (0, 2) (ii) (2, 0) (iii) (4, 0)

(iv) ( 2, 4 2 ) (v) (1, 1)

4. Find the value of k, if x = 2, y = 1 is a solution of the equation 2x + 3y = k.

4.4 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points:
1. An equation of the form ax + by + c = 0, where a, b and c are real numbers, such that a and
b are not both zero, is called a linear equation in two variables.
2. A linear equation in two variables has infinitely many solutions.
3. Every point on the graph of a linear equation in two variables is a solution of the linear
equation. Moreover, every solution of the linear equation is a point on the graph of the
linear equation.

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60 MATHEMATICS

CHAPTER 5

INTRODUCTION TO EUCLID’S GEOMETRY

5.1 Introduction
The word ‘geometry’ comes form the Greek words ‘geo’, meaning the ‘earth’,
and ‘metrein’, meaning ‘to measure’. Geometry appears to have originated from
the need for measuring land. This branch of mathematics was studied in various
forms in every ancient civilisation, be it in Egypt, Babylonia, China, India, Greece,
the Incas, etc. The people of these civilisations faced several practical problems
which required the development of geometry in various ways.
For example, whenever the river Nile
overflowed, it wiped out the boundaries between
the adjoining fields of different land owners. After
such flooding, these boundaries had to be
redrawn. For this purpose, the Egyptians
developed a number of geometric techniques and
rules for calculating simple areas and also for
doing simple constructions. The knowledge of
geometry was also used by them for computing
volumes of granaries, and for constructing canals
and pyramids. They also knew the correct formula
to find the volume of a truncated pyramid (see
Fig. 5.1).You know that a pyramid is a solid figure,
the base of which is a triangle, or square, or some
other polygon, and its side faces are triangles Fig. 5.1 : A Truncated Pyramid
converging to a point at the top.

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INTRODUCTION TO EUCLID’S GEOMETRY 61

In the Indian subcontinent, the excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, etc.

show that the Indus Valley Civilisation (about 3000 BCE) made extensive use of
geometry. It was a highly organised society. The cities were highly developed and
very well planned. For example, the roads were parallel to each other and there was
an underground drainage system. The houses had many rooms of different types. This
shows that the town dwellers were skilled in mensuration and practical arithmetic.
The bricks used for constructions were kiln fired and the ratio length : breadth : thickness,
of the bricks was found to be 4 : 2 : 1.
In ancient India, the Sulbasutras (800 BCE to 500 BCE) were the manuals of
geometrical constructions. The geometry of the Vedic period originated with the
construction of altars (or vedis) and fireplaces for performing Vedic rites. The location
of the sacred fires had to be in accordance to the clearly laid down instructions about
their shapes and areas, if they were to be effective instruments. Square and circular
altars were used for household rituals, while altars whose shapes were combinations
of rectangles, triangles and trapeziums were required for public worship. The sriyantra
(given in the Atharvaveda) consists of nine interwoven isosceles triangles. These
triangles are arranged in such a way that they produce 43 subsidiary triangles. Though
accurate geometric methods were used for the constructions of altars, the principles
behind them were not discussed.
These examples show that geometry was being developed and applied everywhere
in the world. But this was happening in an unsystematic manner. What is interesting
about these developments of geometry in the ancient world is that they were passed
on from one generation to the next, either orally or through palm leaf messages, or by
other ways. Also, we find that in some civilisations like Babylonia, geometry remained
a very practical oriented discipline, as was the case in India and Rome. The geometry
developed by Egyptians mainly consisted of the statements of results. There were no
general rules of the procedure. In fact, Babylonians and Egyptians used geometry
mostly for practical purposes and did very little to develop it as a systematic science.
But in civilisations like Greece, the emphasis was on the reasoning behind why certain
constructions work. The Greeks were interested in establishing the truth of the
statements they discovered using deductive reasoning (see Appendix 1).
A Greek mathematician, Thales is credited with giving the
first known proof. This proof was of the statement that a circle
is bisected (i.e., cut into two equal parts) by its diameter. One of
Thales’ most famous pupils was Pythagoras (572 BCE), whom
you have heard about. Pythagoras and his group discovered many
geometric properties and developed the theory of geometry to a
great extent. This process continued till 300 BCE. At that time
Euclid, a teacher of mathematics at Alexandria in Egypt, collected
Thales
all the known work and arranged it in his famous treatise,
(640 BCE – 546 BCE)
Fig. 5.2

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62 MATHEMATICS

called ‘Elements’. He divided the ‘Elements’ into thirteen

chapters, each called a book. These books influenced
the whole world’s understanding of geometry for
generations to come.
In this chapter, we shall discuss Euclid’s approach
to geometry and shall try to link it with the present day
geometry. Euclid (325 BCE – 265 BCE)
Fig. 5.3
5.2 Euclid’s Definitions, Axioms and Postulates
The Greek mathematicians of Euclid’s time thought of geometry as an abstract model
of the world in which they lived. The notions of point, line, plane (or surface) and so on
were derived from what was seen around them. From studies of the space and solids
in the space around them, an abstract geometrical notion of a solid object was developed.
A solid has shape, size, position, and can be moved from one place to another. Its
boundaries are called surfaces. They separate one part of the space from another,
and are said to have no thickness. The boundaries of the surfaces are curves or
straight lines. These lines end in points.
Consider the three steps from solids to points (solids-surfaces-lines-points). In
each step we lose one extension, also called a dimension. So, a solid has three
dimensions, a surface has two, a line has one and a point has none. Euclid summarised
these statements as definitions. He began his exposition by listing 23 definitions in
Book 1 of the ‘Elements’. A few of them are given below :
1. A point is that which has no part.
2. A line is breadthless length.
3. The ends of a line are points.
4. A straight line is a line which lies evenly with the points on itself.
5. A surface is that which has length and breadth only.
6. The edges of a surface are lines.
7. A plane surface is a surface which lies evenly with the straight lines on itself.
If you carefully study these definitions, you find that some of the terms like part,
breadth, length, evenly, etc. need to be further explained clearly. For example, consider
his definition of a point. In this definition, ‘a part’ needs to be defined. Suppose if you
define ‘a part’ to be that which occupies ‘area’, again ‘an area’ needs to be defined.
So, to define one thing, you need to define many other things, and you may get a long
chain of definitions without an end. For such reasons, mathematicians agree to leave

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INTRODUCTION TO EUCLID’S GEOMETRY 63

some geometric terms undefined. However, we do have a intuitive feeling for the
geometric concept of a point than what the ‘definition’ above gives us. So, we represent
a point as a dot, even though a dot has some dimension.
A similar problem arises in Definition 2 above, since it refers to breadth and length,
neither of which has been defined. Because of this, a few terms are kept undefined
while developing any course of study. So, in geometry, we take a point, a line and a
plane (in Euclid‘s words a plane surface) as undefined terms. The only thing is
that we can represent them intuitively, or explain them with the help of ‘physical
models’.
Starting with his definitions, Euclid assumed certain properties, which were not to
be proved. These assumptions are actually ‘obvious universal truths’. He divided them
into two types: axioms and postulates. He used the term ‘postulate’ for the assumptions
that were specific to geometry. Common notions (often called axioms), on the other
hand, were assumptions used throughout mathematics and not specifically linked to
geometry. For details about axioms and postulates, refer to Appendix 1. Some of
Euclid’s axioms, not in his order, are given below :
(1) Things which are equal to the same thing are equal to one another.
(2) If equals are added to equals, the wholes are equal.
(3) If equals are subtracted from equals, the remainders are equal.
(4) Things which coincide with one another are equal to one another.
(5) The whole is greater than the part.
(6) Things which are double of the same things are equal to one another.
(7) Things which are halves of the same things are equal to one another.
These ‘common notions’ refer to magnitudes of some kind. The first common
notion could be applied to plane figures. For example, if an area of a triangle equals the
area of a rectangle and the area of the rectangle equals that of a square, then the area
of the triangle also equals the area of the square.
Magnitudes of the same kind can be compared and added, but magnitudes of
different kinds cannot be compared. For example, a line cannot be compared to a
rectangle, nor can an angle be compared to a pentagon.
The 4th axiom given above seems to say that if two things are identical (that is,
they are the same), then they are equal. In other words, everything equals itself. It is
the justification of the principle of superposition. Axiom (5) gives us the definition of
‘greater than’. For example, if a quantity B is a part of another quantity A, then A can
be written as the sum of B and some third quantity C. Symbolically, A > B means that
there is some C such that A = B + C.

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64 MATHEMATICS

Now let us discuss Euclid’s five postulates. They are :

Postulate 1 : A straight line may be drawn from any one point to any other point.
Note that this postulate tells us that at least one straight line passes through two
distinct points, but it does not say that there cannot be more than one such line. However,
in his work, Euclid has frequently assumed, without mentioning, that there is a unique
line joining two distinct points. We state this result in the form of an axiom as follows:
Axiom 5.1 : Given two distinct points, there is a unique line that passes through
them.
How many lines passing through P also pass through Q (see Fig. 5.4)? Only one,
that is, the line PQ. How many lines passing through Q also pass through P? Only one,
that is, the line PQ. Thus, the statement above is self-evident, and so is taken as an
axiom.

Fig. 5.4

Postulate 2 : A terminated line can be produced indefinitely.

Note that what we call a line segment now-a-days is what Euclid called a terminated
line. So, according to the present day terms, the second postulate says that a line
segment can be extended on either side to form a line (see Fig. 5.5).

Fig. 5.5
Postulate 3 : A circle can be drawn with any centre and any radius.
Postulate 4 : All right angles are equal to one another.
Postulate 5 : If a straight line falling on two straight lines makes the interior
angles on the same side of it taken together less than two right angles, then the
two straight lines, if produced indefinitely, meet on that side on which the sum of
angles is less than two right angles.

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INTRODUCTION TO EUCLID’S GEOMETRY 65

For example, the line PQ in Fig. 5.6 falls on lines

AB and CD such that the sum of the interior angles 1
and 2 is less than 180° on the left side of PQ.
Therefore, the lines AB and CD will eventually
intersect on the left side of PQ.

Fig. 5.6

A brief look at the five postulates brings to your notice that Postulate 5 is far more
complex than any other postulate. On the other hand, Postulates 1 through 4 are so
simple and obvious that these are taken as ‘self-evident truths’. However, it is not
possible to prove them. So, these statements are accepted without any proof
(see Appendix 1). Because of its complexity, the fifth postulate will be given more
attention in the next section.
Now-a-days, ‘postulates’ and ‘axioms’ are terms that are used interchangeably
and in the same sense. ‘Postulate’ is actually a verb. When we say “let us postulate”,
we mean, “let us make some statement based on the observed phenomenon in the
Universe”. Its truth/validity is checked afterwards. If it is true, then it is accepted as a
‘Postulate’.
A system of axioms is called consistent (see Appendix 1), if it is impossible to
deduce from these axioms a statement that contradicts any axiom or previously proved
statement. So, when any system of axioms is given, it needs to be ensured that the
system is consistent.
After Euclid stated his postulates and axioms, he used them to prove other results.
Then using these results, he proved some more results by applying deductive reasoning.
The statements that were proved are called propositions or theorems. Euclid
deduced 465 propositions in a logical chain using his axioms, postulates, definitions and
theorems proved earlier in the chain. In the next few chapters on geometry, you will
be using these axioms to prove some theorems.
Now, let us see in the following examples how Euclid used his axioms and postulates
for proving some of the results:
Example 1 : If A, B and C are three points on a line, and B lies between A and C
(see Fig. 5.7), then prove that AB + BC = AC.

Fig. 5.7

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66 MATHEMATICS

Solution : In the figure given above, AC coincides with AB + BC.

Also, Euclid’s Axiom (4) says that things which coincide with one another are equal to
one another. So, it can be deduced that
AB + BC = AC
Note that in this solution, it has been assumed that there is a unique line passing
through two points.
Example 2 : Prove that an equilateral triangle can be constructed on any given line
segment.
Solution : In the statement above, a line segment of any length is given, say AB
[see Fig. 5.8(i)].

Fig. 5.8
Here, you need to do some construction. Using Euclid’s Postulate 3, you can draw a
circle with point A as the centre and AB as the radius [see Fig. 5.8(ii)]. Similarly, draw
another circle with point B as the centre and BA as the radius. The two circles meet at
a point, say C. Now, draw the line segments AC and BC to form ∆ ABC
[see Fig. 5.8 (iii)].
So, you have to prove that this triangle is equilateral, i.e., AB = AC = BC.
Now, AB = AC, since they are the radii of the same circle (1)
Similarly, AB = BC (Radii of the same circle) (2)
From these two facts, and Euclid’s axiom that things which are equal to the same thing
are equal to one another, you can conclude that AB = BC = AC.
So, ∆ ABC is an equilateral triangle.
Note that here Euclid has assumed, without mentioning anywhere, that the two circles
drawn with centres A and B will meet each other at a point.
Now we prove a theorem, which is frequently used in different results:

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INTRODUCTION TO EUCLID’S GEOMETRY 67

Theorem 5.1 : Two distinct lines cannot have more than one point in common.
Proof : Here we are given two lines l and m. We need to prove that they have only one
point in common.
For the time being, let us suppose that the two lines intersect in two distinct points,
say P and Q. So, you have two lines passing through two distinct points P and Q. But
this assumption clashes with the axiom that only one line can pass through two distinct
points. So, the assumption that we started with, that two lines can pass through two
distinct points is wrong.
From this, what can we conclude? We are forced to conclude that two distinct
lines cannot have more than one point in common.

EXERCISE 5.1
1. Which of the following statements are true and which are false? Give reasons for your
answers.
(i) Only one line can pass through a single point.
(ii) There are an infinite number of lines which pass through two distinct points.
(iii) A terminated line can be produced indefinitely on both the sides.
(iv) If two circles are equal, then their radii are equal.
(v) In Fig. 5.9, if AB = PQ and PQ = XY, then AB = XY.

Fig. 5.9
2. Give a definition for each of the following terms. Are there other terms that need to be
defined first? What are they, and how might you define them?
(i) parallel lines (ii) perpendicular lines (iii) line segment
(iv) radius of a circle (v) square
3. Consider two ‘postulates’ given below:
(i) Given any two distinct points A and B, there exists a third point C which is in
between A and B.
(ii) There exist at least three points that are not on the same line.
Do these postulates contain any undefined terms? Are these postulates consistent?
Do they follow from Euclid’s postulates? Explain.

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68 MATHEMATICS

4. If a point C lies between two points A and B such that AC = BC, then prove that
1
AC = AB. Explain by drawing the figure.
2
5. In Question 4, point C is called a mid-point of line segment AB. Prove that every line
segment has one and only one mid-point.
6. In Fig. 5.10, if AC = BD, then prove that AB = CD.

Fig. 5.10
7. Why is Axiom 5, in the list of Euclid’s axioms, considered a ‘universal truth’? (Note that
the question is not about the fifth postulate.)

5.3 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points:
1. Though Euclid defined a point, a line, and a plane, the definitions are not accepted by
mathematicians. Therefore, these terms are now taken as undefined.
2. Axioms or postulates are the assumptions which are obvious universal truths. They are not
proved.
3. Theorems are statements which are proved, using definitions, axioms, previously proved
statements and deductive reasoning.
4. Some of Euclid’s axioms were :
(1) Things which are equal to the same thing are equal to one another.
(2) If equals are added to equals, the wholes are equal.
(3) If equals are subtracted from equals, the remainders are equal.
(4) Things which coincide with one another are equal to one another.
(5) The whole is greater than the part.
(6) Things which are double of the same things are equal to one another.
(7) Things which are halves of the same things are equal to one another.
5. Euclid’s postulates were :
Postulate 1 : A straight line may be drawn from any one point to any other point.
Postulate 2 : A terminated line can be produced indefinitely.
Postulate 3 : A circle can be drawn with any centre and any radius.
Postulate 4 : All right angles are equal to one another.

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 CHAPTER 6

LINES AND ANGLES

6.1 Introduction
In Chapter 5, you have studied that a minimum of two points are required to draw a
line. You have also studied some axioms and, with the help of these axioms, you
proved some other statements. In this chapter, you will study the properties of the
angles formed when two lines intersect each other, and also the properties of the
angles formed when a line intersects two or more parallel lines at distinct points.
Further you will use these properties to prove some statements using deductive reasoning
(see Appendix 1). You have already verified these statements through some activities
in the earlier classes.
In your daily life, you see different types of angles formed between the edges of
plane surfaces. For making a similar kind of model using the plane surfaces, you need
to have a thorough knowledge of angles. For instance, suppose you want to make a
model of a hut to keep in the school exhibition using bamboo sticks. Imagine how you
would make it? You would keep some of the sticks parallel to each other, and some
sticks would be kept slanted. Whenever an architect has to draw a plan for a multistoried
building, she has to draw intersecting lines and parallel lines at different angles. Without
the knowledge of the properties of these lines and angles, do you think she can draw
the layout of the building?
In science, you study the properties of light by drawing the ray diagrams.
For example, to study the refraction property of light when it enters from one medium
to the other medium, you use the properties of intersecting lines and parallel lines.
When two or more forces act on a body, you draw the diagram in which forces are
represented by directed line segments to study the net effect of the forces on the
body. At that time, you need to know the relation between the angles when the rays
(or line segments) are parallel to or intersect each other. To find the height of a tower
or to find the distance of a ship from the light house, one needs to know the angle

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70 MATHEMATICS

formed between the horizontal and the line of sight. Plenty of other examples can be
given where lines and angles are used. In the subsequent chapters of geometry, you
will be using these properties of lines and angles to deduce more and more useful
properties.
Let us first revise the terms and definitions related to lines and angles learnt in
earlier classes.

6.2 Basic Terms and Definitions

Recall that a part (or portion) of a line with two end points is called a line-segment
and a part of a line with one end point is called a ray. Note that the line segment AB is
denoted by AB , and its length is denoted by AB. The ray AB is denoted by AB , and
a line is denoted by AB . However, we will not use these symbols, and will denote
the line segment AB, ray AB, length AB and line AB by the same symbol, AB. The
meaning will be clear from the context. Sometimes small letters l, m, n, etc. will be
used to denote lines.
If three or more points lie on the same line, they are called collinear points;
otherwise they are called non-collinear points.
Recall that an angle is formed when two rays originate from the same end point.
The rays making an angle are called the arms of the angle and the end point is called
the vertex of the angle. You have studied different types of angles, such as acute
angle, right angle, obtuse angle, straight angle and reflex angle in earlier classes
(see Fig. 6.1).

(i) acute angle : 0° < x < 90° (ii) right angle : y = 90° (iii) obtuse angle : 90° < z < 180°

(iv) straight angle : s = 180° (v) reflex angle : 180° < t < 360°
Fig. 6.1 : Types of Angles

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LINES AND ANGLES 71

An acute angle measures between 0° and 90°, whereas a right angle is exactly
equal to 90°. An angle greater than 90° but less than 180° is called an obtuse angle.
Also, recall that a straight angle is equal to 180°. An angle which is greater than 180°
but less than 360° is called a reflex angle. Further, two angles whose sum is 90° are
called complementary angles, and two angles whose sum is 180° are called
supplementary angles.
You have also studied about adjacent angles
in the earlier classes (see Fig. 6.2). Two angles
are adjacent, if they have a common vertex, a
common arm and their non-common arms are
on different sides of the common arm. In
Fig. 6.2, ∠ ABD and ∠ DBC are adjacent
angles. Ray BD is their common arm and point
B is their common vertex. Ray BA and ray BC
are non common arms. Moreover, when two
angles are adjacent, then their sum is always
Fig. 6.2 : Adjacent angles
equal to the angle formed by the two non-
common arms. So, we can write
∠ ABC = ∠ ABD + ∠ DBC.
Note that ∠ ABC and ∠ ABD are not
adjacent angles. Why? Because their non-
common arms BD and BC lie on the same side
of the common arm BA.

If the non-common arms BA and BC in

Fig. 6.2, form a line then it will look like Fig. 6.3.
In this case, ∠ ABD and ∠ DBC are called
linear pair of angles. Fig. 6.3 : Linear pair of angles

You may also recall the vertically opposite

angles formed when two lines, say AB and CD,
intersect each other, say at the point O
(see Fig. 6.4). There are two pairs of vertically
opposite angles.

One pair is ∠AOD and ∠BOC. Can you

find the other pair?
Fig. 6.4 : Vertically opposite
angles

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72 MATHEMATICS

6.3 Intersecting Lines and Non-intersecting Lines

Draw two different lines PQ and RS on a paper. You will see that you can draw them
in two different ways as shown in Fig. 6.5 (i) and Fig. 6.5 (ii).

(i) Intersecting lines (ii) Non-intersecting (parallel) lines

Fig. 6.5 : Different ways of drawing two lines
Recall the notion of a line, that it extends indefinitely in both directions. Lines PQ
and RS in Fig. 6.5 (i) are intersecting lines and in Fig. 6.5 (ii) are parallel lines. Note
that the lengths of the common perpendiculars at different points on these parallel
lines is the same. This equal length is called the distance between two parallel lines.

6.4 Pairs of Angles

In Section 6.2, you have learnt the definitions of
some of the pairs of angles such as
complementary angles, supplementary angles,
adjacent angles, linear pair of angles, etc. Can
you think of some relations between these
angles? Now, let us find out the relation between
the angles formed when a ray stands on a line.
Draw a figure in which a ray stands on a line as
shown in Fig. 6.6. Name the line as AB and the
ray as OC. What are the angles formed at the Fig. 6.6 : Linear pair of angles
point O? They are ∠ AOC, ∠ BOC and ∠ AOB.
Can we write ∠ AOC + ∠ BOC = ∠ AOB? (1)
Yes! (Why? Refer to adjacent angles in Section 6.2)
What is the measure of ∠ AOB? It is 180°. (Why?) (2)
From (1) and (2), can you say that ∠ AOC + ∠ BOC = 180°? Yes! (Why?)
From the above discussion, we can state the following Axiom:

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LINES AND ANGLES 73

Axiom 6.1 : If a ray stands on a line, then the sum of two adjacent angles so
formed is 180°.
Recall that when the sum of two adjacent angles is 180°, then they are called a
linear pair of angles.
In Axiom 6.1, it is given that ‘a ray stands on a line’. From this ‘given’, we have
concluded that ‘the sum of two adjacent angles so formed is 180°’. Can we write
Axiom 6.1 the other way? That is, take the ‘conclusion’ of Axiom 6.1 as ‘given’ and
the ‘given’ as the ‘conclusion’. So it becomes:
(A) If the sum of two adjacent angles is 180°, then a ray stands on a line (that is,
the non-common arms form a line).
Now you see that the Axiom 6.1 and statement (A) are in a sense the reverse of
each others. We call each as converse of the other. We do not know whether the
statement (A) is true or not. Let us check. Draw adjacent angles of different measures
as shown in Fig. 6.7. Keep the ruler along one of the non-common arms in each case.
Does the other non-common arm also lie along the ruler?

Fig. 6.7 : Adjacent angles with different measures

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74 MATHEMATICS

You will find that only in Fig. 6.7 (iii), both the non-common arms lie along the
ruler, that is, points A, O and B lie on the same line and ray OC stands on it. Also see
that ∠ AOC + ∠ COB = 125° + 55° = 180°. From this, you may conclude that statement
(A) is true. So, you can state in the form of an axiom as follows:

Axiom 6.2 : If the sum of two adjacent angles is 180°, then the non-common arms
of the angles form a line.
For obvious reasons, the two axioms above together is called the Linear Pair
Axiom.
Let us now examine the case when two lines intersect each other.
Recall, from earlier classes, that when two lines intersect, the vertically opposite
angles are equal. Let us prove this result now. See Appendix 1 for the ingredients of a
proof, and keep those in mind while studying the proof given below.
Theorem 6.1 : If two lines intersect each other, then the vertically opposite
angles are equal.
Proof : In the statement above, it is given
that ‘two lines intersect each other’. So, let
AB and CD be two lines intersecting at O as
shown in Fig. 6.8. They lead to two pairs of
vertically opposite angles, namely,
(i) ∠ AOC and ∠ BOD (ii) ∠ AOD and
∠ BOC. Fig. 6.8 : Vertically opposite angles
We need to prove that ∠ AOC = ∠ BOD
and ∠ AOD = ∠ BOC.
Now, ray OA stands on line CD.
Therefore, ∠ AOC + ∠ AOD = 180° (Linear pair axiom) (1)
Can we write ∠ AOD + ∠ BOD = 180°? Yes! (Why?) (2)
From (1) and (2), we can write
∠ AOC + ∠ AOD = ∠ AOD + ∠ BOD
This implies that ∠ AOC = ∠ BOD (Refer Section 5.2, Axiom 3)
Similarly, it can be proved that ∠AOD = ∠BOC
Now, let us do some examples based on Linear Pair Axiom and Theorem 6.1.

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LINES AND ANGLES 75

Example 1 : In Fig. 6.9, lines PQ and RS

intersect each other at point O. If
∠ POR : ∠ ROQ = 5 : 7, find all the angles.
Solution : ∠ POR +∠ ROQ = 180°
(Linear pair of angles)
But ∠ POR : ∠ ROQ = 5 : 7
(Given)
5
Therefore, ∠ POR = × 180° = 75° Fig. 6.9
12
7
Similarly, ∠ ROQ = × 180° = 105°
12
Now, ∠ POS = ∠ROQ = 105° (Vertically opposite angles)
and ∠ SOQ = ∠POR = 75° (Vertically opposite angles)

Example 2 : In Fig. 6.10, ray OS stands on a line POQ. Ray OR and ray OT are
angle bisectors of ∠ POS and ∠ SOQ, respectively. If ∠ POS = x, find ∠ ROT.
Solution : Ray OS stands on the line POQ.
Therefore, ∠ POS + ∠ SOQ = 180°
But, ∠ POS = x
Therefore, x + ∠ SOQ = 180°
So, ∠ SOQ = 180° – x
Fig. 6.10
Now, ray OR bisects ∠ POS, therefore,
1
∠ ROS = × ∠ POS
2
1 x
= ×x=
2 2
1
Similarly, ∠ SOT = × ∠ SOQ
2
1
= × (180° – x)
2
x
= 90° −
2

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76 MATHEMATICS

Now, ∠ ROT = ∠ ROS + ∠ SOT

x x
= + 90° –
2 2
= 90°
Example 3 : In Fig. 6.11, OP, OQ, OR and OS are
four rays. Prove that ∠ POQ + ∠ QOR + ∠ SOR +
∠ POS = 360°.
Solution : In Fig. 6.11, you need to produce any of
the rays OP, OQ, OR or OS backwards to a point.
Let us produce ray OQ backwards to a point T so
that TOQ is a line (see Fig. 6.12). Fig. 6.11

Now, ray OP stands on line TOQ.

Therefore, ∠ TOP + ∠ POQ = 180° (1)
(Linear pair axiom)
Similarly, ray OS stands on line TOQ.
Therefore, ∠ TOS + ∠ SOQ = 180° (2)
But ∠ SOQ = ∠ SOR + ∠ QOR
So, (2) becomes Fig. 6.12

∠ TOS + ∠ SOR + ∠ QOR = 180° (3)

Now, adding (1) and (3), you get
∠ TOP + ∠ POQ + ∠ TOS + ∠ SOR + ∠ QOR = 360° (4)
But ∠ TOP + ∠ TOS = ∠ POS
Therefore, (4) becomes
∠ POQ + ∠ QOR + ∠ SOR + ∠ POS = 360°

EXERCISE 6.1
1. In Fig. 6.13, lines AB and CD intersect at O. If
∠ AOC + ∠ BOE = 70° and ∠ BOD = 40°, find
∠ BOE and reflex ∠ COE.

Fig. 6.13

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LINES AND ANGLES 77

2. In Fig. 6.14, lines XY and MN intersect at O. If

∠ POY = 90° and a : b = 2 : 3, find c.

Fig. 6.14
3. In Fig. 6.15, ∠ PQR = ∠ PRQ, then prove that
∠ PQS = ∠ PRT.

Fig. 6.15
4. In Fig. 6.16, if x + y = w + z, then prove that AOB
is a line.

Fig. 6.16

5. In Fig. 6.17, POQ is a line. Ray OR is perpendicular

to line PQ. OS is another ray lying between rays
OP and OR. Prove that
1
∠ ROS = (∠ QOS – ∠ POS).
2
6. It is given that ∠ XYZ = 64° and XY is produced
to point P. Draw a figure from the given
information. If ray YQ bisects ∠ ZYP, find ∠ XYQ
Fig. 6.17
and reflex ∠ QYP.

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78 MATHEMATICS

6.5 Lines Parallel to the Same Line

If two lines are parallel to the same line, will they be parallel to each other? Let us
check it. See Fig. 6.18 in which line m || line l and line n || line l.
Let us draw a line t transversal for the lines, l, m and n. It is given that
line m || line l and line n || line l.
Therefore, ∠ 1 = ∠ 2 and ∠ 1 = ∠ 3
(Corresponding angles axiom)
So, ∠ 2 = ∠ 3 (Why?)
But ∠ 2 and ∠ 3 are corresponding angles and they
are equal.
Therefore, you can say that
Line m || Line n
(Converse of corresponding angles axiom)
Fig. 6.18
This result can be stated in the form of the following theorem:

Theorem 6.6 : Lines which are parallel to the same line are parallel to each
other.
Note : The property above can be extended to more than two lines also.
Now, let us solve some examples related to parallel lines.

Example 4 : In Fig. 6.19, if PQ || RS, ∠ MXQ = 135° and ∠ MYR = 40°, find ∠ XMY.

Fig. 6.19 Fig. 6.20

Solution : Here, we need to draw a line AB parallel to line PQ, through point M as
shown in Fig. 6.20. Now, AB || PQ and PQ || RS.

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LINES AND ANGLES 79

Therefore, AB || RS (Why?)
Now, ∠ QXM + ∠ XMB = 180°
(AB || PQ, Interior angles on the same side of the transversal XM)
But ∠ QXM = 135°
So, 135° + ∠ XMB = 180°
Therefore, ∠ XMB = 45° (1)
Now, ∠ BMY = ∠ MYR (AB || RS, Alternate angles)
Therefore, ∠ BMY = 40° (2)
Adding (1) and (2), you get
∠ XMB + ∠ BMY = 45° + 40°
That is, ∠ XMY = 85°

Example 5 : If a transversal intersects two lines such that the bisectors of a pair of
corresponding angles are parallel, then prove that the two lines are parallel.
Solution : In Fig. 6.21, a transversal AD intersects two lines PQ and RS at points B
and C respectively. Ray BE is the bisector of ∠ ABQ and ray CG is the bisector of
∠ BCS; and BE || CG.
We are to prove that PQ || RS.
It is given that ray BE is the bisector of ∠ ABQ.

1
Therefore, ∠ ABE = ∠ ABQ (1)
2
Similarly, ray CG is the bisector of ∠ BCS.

1
Therefore, ∠ BCG = ∠ BCS (2)
2
But BE || CG and AD is the transversal.
Fig. 6.21
Therefore, ∠ ABE = ∠ BCG
(Corresponding angles axiom) (3)
Substituting (1) and (2) in (3), you get

1 1
∠ ABQ = ∠ BCS
2 2
That is, ∠ ABQ = ∠ BCS

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80 MATHEMATICS

But, they are the corresponding angles formed by transversal AD with PQ and RS;
and are equal.
Therefore, PQ || RS
(Converse of corresponding angles axiom)

Example 6 : In Fig. 6.22, AB || CD and CD || EF. Also EA ⊥ AB. If ∠ BEF = 55°, find
the values of x, y and z.
Solution : y + 55° = 180°
(Interior angles on the same side of the
transversal ED)
Therefore, y = 180º – 55º = 125º
Again x=y
(AB || CD, Corresponding angles axiom)
Therefore x = 125º
Fig. 6.22
Now, since AB || CD and CD || EF, therefore, AB || EF.
So, ∠ EAB + ∠ FEA = 180° (Interior angles on the same
side of the transversal EA)
Therefore, 90° + z + 55° = 180°
Which gives z = 35°

EXERCISE 6.2
1. In Fig. 6.23, if AB || CD, CD || EF and y : z = 3 : 7,
find x.

Fig. 6.23

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LINES AND ANGLES 81

2. In Fig. 6.24, if AB || CD, EF ⊥ CD and ∠ GED = 126°, find ∠ AGE, ∠ GEF and ∠ FGE.

Fig. 6.24
3. In Fig. 6.25, if PQ || ST, ∠ PQR = 110° and ∠ RST = 130°, find ∠ QRS.
[Hint : Draw a line parallel to ST through point R.]

Fig. 6.25
4. In Fig. 6.26, if AB || CD, ∠ APQ = 50° and ∠ PRD = 127°, find x and y.

Fig. 6.26
5. In Fig. 6.27, PQ and RS are two mirrors placed parallel to each other. An incident ray
AB strikes the mirror PQ at B, the reflected ray moves along the path BC and strikes
the mirror RS at C and again reflects back along CD. Prove that
AB || CD.

Fig. 6.27

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82 MATHEMATICS

6.6 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points:
1. If a ray stands on a line, then the sum of the two adjacent angles so formed is 180° and vice-
versa. This property is called as the Linear pair axiom.
2. If two lines intersect each other, then the vertically opposite angles are equal.
3. Lines which are parallel to a given line are parallel to each other.

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 CHAPTER 7

TRIANGLES

7.1 Introduction
You have studied about triangles and their various properties in your earlier classes.
You know that a closed figure formed by three intersecting lines is called a triangle.
(‘Tri’ means ‘three’). A triangle has three sides, three angles and three vertices. For
example, in triangle ABC, denoted as ∆ ABC (see Fig. 7.1); AB, BC, CA are the three
sides, ∠ A, ∠ B, ∠ C are the three angles and A, B, C are three vertices.
In Chapter 6, you have also studied some properties
of triangles. In this chapter, you will study in details
about the congruence of triangles, rules of congruence,
some more properties of triangles and inequalities in
a triangle. You have already verified most of these
properties in earlier classes. We will now prove some
of them.

7.2 Congruence of Triangles Fig. 7.1

You must have observed that two copies of your photographs of the same size are
identical. Similarly, two bangles of the same size, two ATM cards issued by the same
bank are identical. You may recall that on placing a one rupee coin on another minted
in the same year, they cover each other completely.
Do you remember what such figures are called? Indeed they are called congruent
figures (‘congruent’ means equal in all respects or figures whose shapes and sizes
are both the same).
Now, draw two circles of the same radius and place one on the other. What do
you observe? They cover each other completely and we call them as congruent circles.

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84 MATHEMATICS

Repeat this activity by placing one

square on the other with sides of the same
measure (see Fig. 7.2) or by placing two
equilateral triangles of equal sides on each
other. You will observe that the squares are
congruent to each other and so are the
equilateral triangles. Fig. 7.2

You may wonder why we are studying congruence. You all must have seen the ice
tray in your refrigerator. Observe that the moulds for making ice are all congruent.
The cast used for moulding in the tray also has congruent depressions (may be all are
rectangular or all circular or all triangular). So, whenever identical objects have to be
produced, the concept of congruence is used in making the cast.
Sometimes, you may find it difficult to replace the refill in your pen by a new one
and this is so when the new refill is not of the same size as the one you want to
remove. Obviously, if the two refills are identical or congruent, the new refill fits.
So, you can find numerous examples where congruence of objects is applied in
daily life situations.
Can you think of some more examples of congruent figures?
Now, which of the following figures are not congruent to the square in
Fig 7.3 (i) :

Fig. 7.3
The large squares in Fig. 7.3 (ii) and (iii) are obviously not congruent to the one in
Fig 7.3 (i), but the square in Fig 7.3 (iv) is congruent to the one given in Fig 7.3 (i).
Let us now discuss the congruence of two triangles.
You already know that two triangles are congruent if the sides and angles of one
triangle are equal to the corresponding sides and angles of the other triangle.

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TRIANGLES 85

Now, which of the triangles given below are congruent to triangle ABC in
Fig. 7.4 (i)?

Fig. 7.4
Cut out each of these triangles from Fig. 7.4 (ii) to (v) and turn them around and
try to cover ∆ ABC. Observe that triangles in Fig. 7.4 (ii), (iii) and (iv) are congruent
to ∆ ABC while ∆ TSU of Fig 7.4 (v) is not congruent to ∆ ABC.
If ∆ PQR is congruent to ∆ ABC, we write ∆ PQR ≅ ∆ ABC.
Notice that when ∆ PQR ≅ ∆ ABC, then sides of ∆ PQR fall on corresponding
equal sides of ∆ ABC and so is the case for the angles.
That is, PQ covers AB, QR covers BC and RP covers CA; ∠ P covers ∠ A,
∠ Q covers ∠ B and ∠ R covers ∠ C. Also, there is a one-one correspondence
between the vertices. That is, P corresponds to A, Q to B, R to C and so on which is
written as
P ↔ A, Q ↔ B, R ↔ C
Note that under this correspondence, ∆ PQR ≅ ∆ ABC; but it will not be correct to
write ∆QRP ≅ ∆ ABC.
Similarly, for Fig. 7.4 (iii),

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86 MATHEMATICS

FD ↔ AB, DE ↔ BC and EF ↔ CA
and F ↔ A, D ↔ B and E ↔ C
So, ∆ FDE ≅ ∆ ABC but writing ∆ DEF ≅ ∆ ABC is not correct.
Give the correspondence between the triangle in Fig. 7.4 (iv) and ∆ ABC.
So, it is necessary to write the correspondence of vertices correctly for writing of
congruence of triangles in symbolic form.
Note that in congruent triangles corresponding parts are equal and we write
in short ‘CPCT’ for corresponding parts of congruent triangles.

7.3 Criteria for Congruence of Triangles

In earlier classes, you have learnt four criteria for congruence of triangles. Let us
recall them.
Draw two triangles with one side 3 cm. Are these triangles congruent? Observe
that they are not congruent (see Fig. 7.5).

Fig. 7.5
Now, draw two triangles with one side 4 cm and one angle 50° (see Fig. 7.6). Are
they congruent?

Fig. 7.6

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TRIANGLES 87

See that these two triangles are not congruent.

Repeat this activity with some more pairs of triangles.
So, equality of one pair of sides or one pair of sides and one pair of angles is not
sufficient to give us congruent triangles.
What would happen if the other pair of arms (sides) of the equal angles are also
equal?
In Fig 7.7, BC = QR, ∠ B = ∠ Q and also, AB = PQ. Now, what can you say
about congruence of ∆ ABC and ∆ PQR?
Recall from your earlier classes that, in this case, the two triangles are congruent.
Verify this for ∆ ABC and ∆ PQR in Fig. 7.7.
Repeat this activity with other pairs of triangles. Do you observe that the equality
of two sides and the included angle is enough for the congruence of triangles? Yes, it
is enough.

Fig. 7.7
This is the first criterion for congruence of triangles.
Axiom 7.1 (SAS congruence rule) : Two triangles are congruent if two sides
and the included angle of one triangle are equal to the two sides and the included
angle of the other triangle.
This result cannot be proved with the help of previously known results and so it is
accepted true as an axiom (see Appendix 1).
Let us now take some examples.
Example 1 : In Fig. 7.8, OA = OB and OD = OC. Show that
(i) ∆ AOD ≅ ∆ BOC and (ii) AD || BC.
Solution : (i) You may observe that in ∆ AOD and ∆ BOC,
OA = OB 
 (Given)
OD = OC 
Fig. 7.8

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88 MATHEMATICS

Also, since ∠ AOD and ∠ BOC form a pair of vertically opposite angles, we have
∠ AOD = ∠ BOC.
So, ∆ AOD ≅ ∆ BOC (by the SAS congruence rule)
(ii) In congruent triangles AOD and BOC, the other corresponding parts are also
equal.
So, ∠ OAD = ∠ OBC and these form a pair of alternate angles for line segments
AD and BC.
Therefore, AD || BC.
Example 2 : AB is a line segment and line l is its perpendicular bisector. If a point P
lies on l, show that P is equidistant from A and B.
Solution : Line l ⊥ AB and passes through C which
is the mid-point of AB (see Fig. 7.9). You have to
show that PA = PB. Consider ∆ PCA and ∆ PCB.
We have AC = BC (C is the mid-point of AB)
∠ PCA = ∠ PCB = 90° (Given)
PC = PC (Common)
So, ∆ PCA ≅ ∆ PCB (SAS rule)
and so, PA = PB, as they are corresponding sides of
congruent triangles. Fig. 7.9
Now, let us construct two triangles, whose sides are 4 cm and 5 cm and one of the
angles is 50° and this angle is not included in between the equal sides (see Fig. 7.10).
Are the two triangles congruent?

Fig. 7.10

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TRIANGLES 89

Notice that the two triangles are not congruent.

Repeat this activity with more pairs of triangles. You will observe that for triangles
to be congruent, it is very important that the equal angles are included between the
pairs of equal sides.
So, SAS congruence rule holds but not ASS or SSA rule.
Next, try to construct the two triangles in which two angles are 60° and 45° and
the side included between these angles is 4 cm (see Fig. 7.11).

Fig. 7.11
Cut out these triangles and place one triangle on the other. What do you observe?
See that one triangle covers the other completely; that is, the two triangles are congruent.
Repeat this activity with more pairs of triangles. You will observe that equality of two
angles and the included side is sufficient for congruence of triangles.
This result is the Angle-Side-Angle criterion for congruence and is written as
ASA criterion. You have verified this criterion in earlier classes, but let us state and
prove this result.
Since this result can be proved, it is called a theorem and to prove it, we use the
SAS axiom for congruence.
Theorem 7.1 (ASA congruence rule) : Two triangles are congruent if two angles
and the included side of one triangle are equal to two angles and the included
side of other triangle.
Proof : We are given two triangles ABC and DEF in which:
∠ B = ∠ E, ∠ C = ∠ F
and BC = EF
We need to prove that ∆ ABC ≅ ∆ DEF
For proving the congruence of the two triangles see that three cases arise.

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90 MATHEMATICS

Case (i) : Let AB = DE (see Fig. 7.12).

Now what do you observe? You may observe that
AB = DE (Assumed)
∠B= ∠E (Given)
BC = EF (Given)
So, ∆ ABC ≅ ∆ DEF (By SAS rule)

Fig. 7.12
Case (ii) : Let if possible AB > DE. So, we can take a point P on AB such that
PB = DE. Now consider ∆ PBC and ∆ DEF (see Fig. 7.13).

Fig. 7.13
Observe that in ∆ PBC and ∆ DEF,
PB = DE (By construction)
∠B=∠E (Given)
BC = EF (Given)
So, we can conclude that:
∆ PBC ≅ ∆ DEF, by the SAS axiom for congruence.

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TRIANGLES 91

Since the triangles are congruent, their corresponding parts will be equal.
So, ∠ PCB = ∠ DFE
But, we are given that
∠ ACB = ∠ DFE
So, ∠ ACB = ∠ PCB
Is this possible?
This is possible only if P coincides with A.
or, BA = ED
So, ∆ ABC ≅ ∆ DEF (by SAS axiom)
Case (iii) : If AB < DE, we can choose a point M on DE such that ME = AB and
repeating the arguments as given in Case (ii), we can conclude that AB = DE and so,
∆ ABC ≅ ∆ DEF.
Suppose, now in two triangles two pairs of angles and one pair of corresponding
sides are equal but the side is not included between the corresponding equal pairs of
angles. Are the triangles still congruent? You will observe that they are congruent.
Can you reason out why?
You know that the sum of the three angles of a triangle is 180°. So if two pairs of
angles are equal, the third pair is also equal (180° – sum of equal angles).
So, two triangles are congruent if any two pairs of angles and one pair of
corresponding sides are equal. We may call it as the AAS Congruence Rule.
Now let us perform the following activity :
Draw triangles with angles 40°, 50° and 90°. How many such triangles can you
draw?
In fact, you can draw as many triangles as you want with different lengths of
sides (see Fig. 7.14).

Fig. 7.14

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92 MATHEMATICS

Observe that the triangles may or may not be congruent to each other.
So, equality of three angles is not sufficient for congruence of triangles. Therefore,
for congruence of triangles out of three equal parts, one has to be a side.
Let us now take some more examples.

Example 3 : Line-segment AB is parallel to another line-segment CD. O is the

mid-point of AD (see Fig. 7.15). Show that (i) ∆AOB ≅ ∆DOC (ii) O is also the
mid-point of BC.
Solution : (i) Consider ∆ AOB and ∆ DOC.
∠ ABO = ∠ DCO
(Alternate angles as AB || CD
and BC is the transversal)
∠ AOB = ∠ DOC
(Vertically opposite angles)
OA = OD (Given) Fig. 7.15

Therefore, ∆AOB ≅ ∆DOC (AAS rule)

(ii) OB = OC (CPCT)
So, O is the mid-point of BC.

EXERCISE 7.1
1. In quadrilateral ACBD,
AC = AD and AB bisects ∠ A
(see Fig. 7.16). Show that ∆ ABC ≅ ∆ ABD.
What can you say about BC and BD?

Fig. 7.16

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TRIANGLES 93

2. ABCD is a quadrilateral in which AD = BC and

∠ DAB = ∠ CBA (see Fig. 7.17). Prove that
(i) ∆ ABD ≅ ∆ BAC
(ii) BD = AC
(iii) ∠ ABD = ∠ BAC.

Fig. 7.17
3. AD and BC are equal perpendiculars to a line
segment AB (see Fig. 7.18). Show that CD bisects
AB.

Fig. 7.18
4. l and m are two parallel lines intersected by
another pair of parallel lines p and q
(see Fig. 7.19). Show that ∆ ABC ≅ ∆ CDA.

Fig. 7.19
5. Line l is the bisector of an angle ∠ A and B is any
point on l. BP and BQ are perpendiculars from B
to the arms of ∠ A (see Fig. 7.20). Show that:
(i) ∆ APB ≅ ∆ AQB
(ii) BP = BQ or B is equidistant from the arms
of ∠ A.

Fig. 7.20

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94 MATHEMATICS

6. In Fig. 7.21, AC = AE, AB = AD and

∠ BAD = ∠ EAC. Show that BC = DE.

Fig. 7.21
7. AB is a line segment and P is its mid-point. D and
E are points on the same side of AB such that
∠ BAD = ∠ ABE and ∠ EPA = ∠ DPB
(see Fig. 7.22). Show that
(i) ∆ DAP ≅ ∆ EBP
(ii) AD = BE

Fig. 7.22
8. In right triangle ABC, right angled at C, M is
the mid-point of hypotenuse AB. C is joined
to M and produced to a point D such that
DM = CM. Point D is joined to point B
(see Fig. 7.23). Show that:
(i) ∆ AMC ≅ ∆ BMD
(ii) ∠ DBC is a right angle.
(iii) ∆ DBC ≅ ∆ ACB Fig. 7.23
1
(iv) CM = AB
2

7.4 Some Properties of a Triangle

In the above section you have studied two criteria for congruence of triangles. Let us
now apply these results to study some properties related to a triangle whose two sides
are equal.

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TRIANGLES 95

Perform the activity given below:

Construct a triangle in which two sides are
equal, say each equal to 3.5 cm and the third side
equal to 5 cm (see Fig. 7.24). You have done such
constructions in earlier classes.
Do you remember what is such a triangle
called?
Fig. 7.24
A triangle in which two sides are equal is called
an isosceles triangle. So, ∆ ABC of Fig. 7.24 is
an isosceles triangle with AB = AC.
Now, measure ∠ B and ∠ C. What do you observe?
Repeat this activity with other isosceles triangles with different sides.
You may observe that in each such triangle, the angles opposite to the equal sides
are equal.
This is a very important result and is indeed true for any isosceles triangle. It can
be proved as shown below.

Theorem 7.2 : Angles opposite to equal sides of an isosceles triangle are equal.
This result can be proved in many ways. One of
the proofs is given here.
Proof : We are given an isosceles triangle ABC
in which AB = AC. We need to prove that
∠ B = ∠ C.
Let us draw the bisector of ∠ A and let D be
the point of intersection of this bisector of Fig. 7.25
∠ A and BC (see Fig. 7.25).
In ∆ BAD and ∆ CAD,
AB = AC (Given)
∠ BAD = ∠ CAD (By construction)
AD = AD (Common)
So, ∆ BAD ≅ ∆ CAD (By SAS rule)
So, ∠ ABD = ∠ ACD, since they are corresponding angles of congruent triangles.
So, ∠B=∠C

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96 MATHEMATICS

Is the converse also true? That is:

If two angles of any triangle are equal, can we conclude that the sides opposite to
them are also equal?
Perform the following activity.
Construct a triangle ABC with BC of any length and ∠ B = ∠ C = 50°. Draw the
bisector of ∠ A and let it intersect BC at D (see Fig. 7.26).
Cut out the triangle from the sheet of paper and fold it along AD so that vertex C
falls on vertex B.
What can you say about sides AC and AB?
Observe that AC covers AB completely
So, AC = AB
Repeat this activity with some more triangles.
Each time you will observe that the sides opposite
to equal angles are equal. So we have the Fig. 7.26
following:
Theorem 7.3 : The sides opposite to equal angles of a triangle are equal.
This is the converse of Theorem 7.2.
You can prove this theorem by ASA congruence rule.
Let us take some examples to apply these results.
Example 4 : In ∆ ABC, the bisector AD of ∠ A is perpendicular to side BC
(see Fig. 7.27). Show that AB = AC and ∆ ABC is isosceles.
Solution : In ∆ABD and ∆ACD,
∠ BAD = ∠ CAD (Given)
AD = AD (Common)
∠ ADB = ∠ ADC = 90° (Given)
So, ∆ ABD ≅ ∆ ACD (ASA rule)
So, AB = AC (CPCT)
or, ∆ ABC is an isosceles triangle.

Fig. 7.27

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TRIANGLES 97

Example 5 : E and F are respectively the mid-points

of equal sides AB and AC of ∆ ABC (see Fig. 7.28).
Show that BF = CE.
Solution : In ∆ ABF and ∆ ACE,
AB = AC (Given)
∠ A= ∠A (Common)
AF = AE (Halves of equal sides)
Fig. 7.28
So, ∆ ABF ≅ ∆ ACE (SAS rule)
Therefore, BF = CE (CPCT)
Example 6 : In an isosceles triangle ABC with AB = AC, D and E are points on BC
such that BE = CD (see Fig. 7.29). Show that AD = AE.
Solution : In ∆ ABD and ∆ ACE,
AB = AC (Given) (1)
∠B= ∠C
(Angles opposite to equal sides) (2)
Also, BE = CD
So, BE – DE = CD – DE
That is, BD = CE (3) Fig. 7.29
So, ∆ ABD ≅ ∆ ACE
(Using (1), (2), (3) and SAS rule).
This gives AD = AE (CPCT)

EXERCISE 7.2
1. In an isosceles triangle ABC, with AB = AC, the bisectors of ∠ B and ∠ C intersect
each other at O. Join A to O. Show that :
(i) OB = OC (ii) AO bisects ∠ A
2. In ∆ ABC, AD is the perpendicular bisector of BC
(see Fig. 7.30). Show that ∆ ABC is an isosceles
triangle in which AB = AC.

Fig. 7.30

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98 MATHEMATICS

3. ABC is an isosceles triangle in which altitudes

BE and CF are drawn to equal sides AC and AB
respectively (see Fig. 7.31). Show that these
altitudes are equal.

Fig. 7.31
4. ABC is a triangle in which altitudes BE and CF to
sides AC and AB are equal (see Fig. 7.32). Show
that
(i) ∆ ABE ≅ ∆ ACF
(ii) AB = AC, i.e., ABC is an isosceles triangle.

Fig. 7.32
5. ABC and DBC are two isosceles triangles on the
same base BC (see Fig. 7.33). Show that
∠ ABD = ∠ ACD.

Fig. 7.33
6. ∆ABC is an isosceles triangle in which AB = AC.
Side BA is produced to D such that AD = AB
(see Fig. 7.34). Show that ∠ BCD is a right angle.
7. ABC is a right angled triangle in which ∠ A = 90°
and AB = AC. Find ∠ B and ∠ C.
8. Show that the angles of an equilateral triangle
are 60° each.

Fig. 7.34

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TRIANGLES 99

7.5 Some More Criteria for Congruence of Triangles

You have seen earlier in this chapter that equality of three angles of one triangle to
three angles of the other is not sufficient for the congruence of the two triangles. You
may wonder whether equality of three sides of one triangle to three sides of another
triangle is enough for congruence of the two triangles. You have already verified in
earlier classes that this is indeed true.
To be sure, construct two triangles with sides 4 cm, 3.5 cm and 4.5 cm
(see Fig. 7.35). Cut them out and place them on each other. What do you observe?
They cover each other completely, if the equal sides are placed on each other. So, the
triangles are congruent.

Fig. 7.35
Repeat this activity with some more triangles. We arrive at another rule for
congruence.
Theorem 7.4 (SSS congruence rule) : If three sides of one triangle are equal to
the three sides of another triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.
This theorem can be proved using a suitable construction.
You have already seen that in the SAS congruence rule, the pair of equal angles
has to be the included angle between the pairs of corresponding pair of equal sides and
if this is not so, the two triangles may not be congruent.
Perform this activity:
Construct two right angled triangles with hypotenuse equal to 5 cm and one side
equal to 4 cm each (see Fig. 7.36).

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100 MATHEMATICS

Fig. 7.36
Cut them out and place one triangle over the other with equal side placed on each
other. Turn the triangles, if necessary. What do you observe?
The two triangles cover each other completely and so they are congruent. Repeat
this activity with other pairs of right triangles. What do you observe?
You will find that two right triangles are congruent if one pair of sides and the
hypotenuse are equal. You have verified this in earlier classes.
Note that, the right angle is not the included angle in this case.
So, you arrive at the following congruence rule:
Theorem 7.5 (RHS congruence rule) : If in two right triangles the hypotenuse
and one side of one triangle are equal to the hypotenuse and one side of the
other triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.
Note that RHS stands for Right angle - Hypotenuse - Side.
Let us now take some examples.
Example 7 : AB is a line-segment. P and Q are
points on opposite sides of AB such that each of them
is equidistant from the points A and B (see Fig. 7.37).
Show that the line PQ is the perpendicular bisector
of AB.
Solution : You are given that PA = PB and
QA = QB and you are to show that PQ ⊥ AB and
PQ bisects AB. Let PQ intersect AB at C.
Can you think of two congruent triangles in this figure?
Fig. 7.37
Let us take ∆ PAQ and ∆ PBQ.
In these triangles,

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TRIANGLES 101

AP = BP (Given)
AQ = BQ (Given)
PQ = PQ (Common)
So, ∆ PAQ ≅ ∆ PBQ (SSS rule)
Therefore, ∠ APQ = ∠ BPQ (CPCT).
Now let us consider ∆ PAC and ∆ PBC.
You have : AP = BP (Given)
∠ APC = ∠ BPC (∠ APQ = ∠ BPQ proved above)
PC = PC (Common)
So, ∆ PAC ≅ ∆ PBC (SAS rule)
Therefore, AC = BC (CPCT) (1)
and ∠ ACP = ∠ BCP (CPCT)
Also, ∠ ACP + ∠ BCP = 180° (Linear pair)
So, 2∠ ACP = 180°
or, ∠ ACP = 90° (2)
From (1) and (2), you can easily conclude that PQ is the perpendicular bisector of AB.
[Note that, without showing the congruence of ∆ PAQ and ∆ PBQ, you cannot show
that ∆ PAC ≅ ∆ PBC even though AP = BP (Given)
PC = PC (Common)
and ∠ PAC = ∠ PBC (Angles opposite to equal sides in
∆APB)
It is because these results give us SSA rule which is not always valid or true for
congruence of triangles. Also the angle is not included between the equal pairs of
sides.]
Let us take some more examples.
Example 8 : P is a point equidistant from two lines l and m intersecting at point A
(see Fig. 7.38). Show that the line AP bisects the angle between them.
Solution : You are given that lines l and m intersect each other at A. Let PB ⊥ l,
PC ⊥ m. It is given that PB = PC.
You are to show that ∠ PAB = ∠ PAC.

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102 MATHEMATICS

Let us consider ∆ PAB and ∆ PAC. In these two

triangles,
PB = PC (Given)
∠ PBA = ∠ PCA = 90° (Given)
PA = PA (Common)
So, ∆ PAB ≅ ∆ PAC (RHS rule) Fig. 7.38
So, ∠ PAB = ∠ PAC (CPCT)
Note that this result is the converse of the result proved in Q.5 of Exercise 7.1.

EXERCISE 7.3
1. ∆ ABC and ∆ DBC are two isosceles triangles on
the same base BC and vertices A and D are on the
same side of BC (see Fig. 7.39). If AD is extended
to intersect BC at P, show that
(i) ∆ ABD ≅ ∆ ACD
(ii) ∆ ABP ≅ ∆ ACP
(iii) AP bisects ∠ A as well as ∠ D.
(iv) AP is the perpendicular bisector of BC. Fig. 7.39
2. AD is an altitude of an isosceles triangle ABC in which AB = AC. Show that
(i) AD bisects BC (ii) AD bisects ∠ A.
3. Two sides AB and BC and median AM
of one triangle ABC are respectively
equal to sides PQ and QR and median
PN of ∆ PQR (see Fig. 7.40). Show that:
(i) ∆ ABM ≅ ∆ PQN
(ii) ∆ ABC ≅ ∆ PQR
Fig. 7.40

4. BE and CF are two equal altitudes of a triangle ABC. Using RHS congruence
rule, prove that the triangle ABC is isosceles.
5. ABC is an isosceles triangle with AB = AC. Draw AP ⊥ BC to show that
∠ B = ∠ C.

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7.6 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points :
1. Two figures are congruent, if they are of the same shape and of the same size.
2. Two circles of the same radii are congruent.
3. Two squares of the same sides are congruent.
4. If two triangles ABC and PQR are congruent under the correspondence A ↔ P,
B ↔ Q and C ↔ R, then symbolically, it is expressed as ∆ ABC ≅ ∆ PQR.
5. If two sides and the included angle of one triangle are equal to two sides and the included
angle of the other triangle, then the two triangles are congruent (SAS Congruence Rule).
6. If two angles and the included side of one triangle are equal to two angles and the
included side of the other triangle, then the two triangles are congruent (ASA Congruence
Rule).
7. If two angles and one side of one triangle are equal to two angles and the corresponding
side of the other triangle, then the two triangles are congruent (AAS Congruence Rule).
8. Angles opposite to equal sides of a triangle are equal.
9. Sides opposite to equal angles of a triangle are equal.
10. Each angle of an equilateral triangle is of 60°.
11. If three sides of one triangle are equal to three sides of the other triangle, then the two
triangles are congruent (SSS Congruence Rule).
12. If in two right triangles, hypotenuse and one side of a triangle are equal to the hypotenuse
and one side of other triangle, then the two triangles are congruent (RHS Congruence
Rule).

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CHAPTER 12

STATISTICS

12.1 Graphical Representation of Data

The representation of data by tables has already been discussed. Now let us turn our
attention to another representation of data, i.e., the graphical representation. It is well
said that one picture is better than a thousand words. Usually comparisons among the
individual items are best shown by means of graphs. The representation then becomes
easier to understand than the actual data. We shall study the following graphical
representations in this section.
(A) Bar graphs
(B) Histograms of uniform width, and of varying widths
(C) Frequency polygons
(A) Bar Graphs
In earlier classes, you have already studied and constructed bar graphs. Here we
shall discuss them through a more formal approach. Recall that a bar graph is a
pictorial representation of data in which usually bars of uniform width are drawn with
equal spacing between them on one axis (say, the x-axis), depicting the variable. The
values of the variable are shown on the other axis (say, the y-axis) and the heights of
the bars depend on the values of the variable.

Example 1 : In a particular section of Class IX, 40 students were asked about the
months of their birth and the following graph was prepared for the data so obtained:

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Fig. 12.1
Observe the bar graph given above and answer the following questions:
(i) How many students were born in the month of November?
(ii) In which month were the maximum number of students born?
Solution : Note that the variable here is the ‘month of birth’, and the value of the
variable is the ‘Number of students born’.
(i) 4 students were born in the month of November.
(ii) The Maximum number of students were born in the month of August.
Let us now recall how a bar graph is constructed by considering the following example.

Example 2 : A family with a monthly income of ` 20,000 had planned the following
expenditures per month under various heads:

Table 12.1

Heads Expenditure
(in thousand rupees)
Grocery 4
Rent 5
Education of children 5
Medicine 2
Fuel 2
Entertainment 1
Miscellaneous 1
Draw a bar graph for the data above.
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Solution : We draw the bar graph of this data in the following steps. Note that the unit
in the second column is thousand rupees. So, ‘4’ against ‘grocery’ means `4000.
1. We represent the Heads (variable) on the horizontal axis choosing any scale,
since the width of the bar is not important. But for clarity, we take equal widths
for all bars and maintain equal gaps in between. Let one Head be represented by
one unit.
2. We represent the expenditure (value) on the vertical axis. Since the maximum
expenditure is `5000, we can choose the scale as 1 unit = `1000.
3. To represent our first Head, i.e., grocery, we draw a rectangular bar with width
1 unit and height 4 units.
4. Similarly, other Heads are represented leaving a gap of 1 unit in between two
consecutive bars.
The bar graph is drawn in Fig. 12.2.

Fig. 12.2
Here, you can easily visualise the relative characteristics of the data at a glance, e.g.,
the expenditure on education is more than double that of medical expenses. Therefore,
in some ways it serves as a better representation of data than the tabular form.
Activity 1 : Continuing with the same four groups of Activity 1, represent the data by
suitable bar graphs.
Let us now see how a frequency distribution table for continuous class intervals
can be represented graphically.

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(B) Histogram
This is a form of representation like the bar graph, but it is used for continuous class
intervals. For instance, consider the frequency distribution Table 12.2, representing
the weights of 36 students of a class:
Table 12.2

Weights (in kg) Number of students

30.5 - 35.5 9
35.5 - 40.5 6
40.5 - 45.5 15
45.5 - 50.5 3
50.5 - 55.5 1
55.5 - 60.5 2
Total 36

Let us represent the data given above graphically as follows:

(i) We represent the weights on the horizontal axis on a suitable scale. We can choose
the scale as 1 cm = 5 kg. Also, since the first class interval is starting from 30.5
and not zero, we show it on the graph by marking a kink or a break on the axis.
(ii) We represent the number of students (frequency) on the vertical axis on a suitable
scale. Since the maximum frequency is 15, we need to choose the scale to
accomodate this maximum frequency.
(iii) We now draw rectangles (or rectangular bars) of width equal to the class-size
and lengths according to the frequencies of the corresponding class intervals. For
example, the rectangle for the class interval 30.5 - 35.5 will be of width 1 cm and
length 4.5 cm.
(iv) In this way, we obtain the graph as shown in Fig. 12.3:

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STATISTICS 155

Fig. 12.3
Observe that since there are no gaps in between consecutive rectangles, the resultant
graph appears like a solid figure. This is called a histogram, which is a graphical
representation of a grouped frequency distribution with continuous classes. Also, unlike
a bar graph, the width of the bar plays a significant role in its construction.
Here, in fact, areas of the rectangles erected are proportional to the corresponding
frequencies. However, since the widths of the rectangles are all equal, the lengths of
the rectangles are proportional to the frequencies. That is why, we draw the lengths
according to (iii) above.
Now, consider a situation different from the one above.
Example 3 : A teacher wanted to analyse the performance of two sections of students
in a mathematics test of 100 marks. Looking at their performances, she found that a
few students got under 20 marks and a few got 70 marks or above. So she decided to
group them into intervals of varying sizes as follows: 0 - 20, 20 - 30, . . ., 60 - 70,
70 - 100. Then she formed the following table:

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Table 12.3

Marks Number of students

0 - 20 7
20 - 30 10
30 - 40 10
40 - 50 20
50 - 60 20
60 - 70 15
70 - above 8
Total 90

A histogram for this table was prepared by a student as shown in Fig. 12.4.

Fig. 12.4
Carefully examine this graphical representation. Do you think that it correctly represents
the data? No, the graph is giving us a misleading picture. As we have mentioned
earlier, the areas of the rectangles are proportional to the frequencies in a histogram.
Earlier this problem did not arise, because the widths of all the rectangles were equal.
But here, since the widths of the rectangles are varying, the histogram above does not

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give a correct picture. For example, it shows a greater frequency in the interval
70 - 100, than in 60 - 70, which is not the case.
So, we need to make certain modifications in the lengths of the rectangles so that
the areas are again proportional to the frequencies.
The steps to be followed are as given below:
1. Select a class interval with the minimum class size. In the example above, the
minimum class-size is 10.
2. The lengths of the rectangles are then modified to be proportionate to the
class-size 10.
For instance, when the class-size is 20, the length of the rectangle is 7. So when
7
the class-size is 10, the length of the rectangle will be × 10 = 3.5.
20
Similarly, proceeding in this manner, we get the following table:

Table 12.4

Marks Frequency Width of Length of the rectangle

the class
7
0 - 20 7 20 × 10 = 3.5
20
10
20 - 30 10 10 × 10 = 10
10
10
30 - 40 10 10 × 10 = 10
10
20
40 - 50 20 10 × 10 = 20
10
20
50 - 60 20 10 × 10 = 20
10
15
60 - 70 15 10 × 10 = 15
10
8
70 - 100 8 30 × 10 = 2.67
30

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Since we have calculated these lengths for an interval of 10 marks in each case,
we may call these lengths as “proportion of students per 10 marks interval”.
So, the correct histogram with varying width is given in Fig. 12.5.

Fig. 12.5
(C) Frequency Polygon
There is yet another visual way of representing quantitative data and its frequencies.
This is a polygon. To see what we mean, consider the histogram represented by
Fig. 12.3. Let us join the mid-points of the upper sides of the adjacent rectangles of
this histogram by means of line segments. Let us call these mid-points B, C, D, E, F
and G. When joined by line segments, we obtain the figure BCDEFG (see Fig. 12.6).
To complete the polygon, we assume that there is a class interval with frequency zero

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before 30.5 - 35.5, and one after 55.5 - 60.5, and their mid-points are A and H,
respectively. ABCDEFGH is the frequency polygon corresponding to the data shown
in Fig. 12.3. We have shown this in Fig. 12.6.

Fig. 12.6
Although, there exists no class preceding the lowest class and no class succeeding
the highest class, addition of the two class intervals with zero frequency enables us to
make the area of the frequency polygon the same as the area of the histogram. Why
is this so? (Hint : Use the properties of congruent triangles.)
Now, the question arises: how do we complete the polygon when there is no class
preceding the first class? Let us consider such a situation.

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Example 4 : Consider the marks, out of 100, obtained by 51 students of a class in a

test, given in Table 12.5.
Table 12.5

Marks Number of students

0 - 10 5
10 - 20 10
20 - 30 4
30 - 40 6
40 - 50 7
50 - 60 3
60 - 70 2
70 - 80 2
80 - 90 3
90 - 100 9
Total 51

Draw a frequency polygon corresponding to this frequency distribution table.

Solution : Let us first draw a histogram for this data and mark the mid-points of the
tops of the rectangles as B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, respectively. Here, the first class is
0-10. So, to find the class preceeding 0-10, we extend the horizontal axis in the negative
direction and find the mid-point of the imaginary class-interval (–10) - 0. The first end
point, i.e., B is joined to this mid-point with zero frequency on the negative direction of
the horizontal axis. The point where this line segment meets the vertical axis is marked
as A. Let L be the mid-point of the class succeeding the last class of the given data.
Then OABCDEFGHIJKL is the frequency polygon, which is shown in Fig. 12.7.

Fig. 12.7

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Frequency polygons can also be drawn independently without drawing

histograms. For this, we require the mid-points of the class-intervals used in the data.
These mid-points of the class-intervals are called class-marks.
To find the class-mark of a class interval, we find the sum of the upper limit and
lower limit of a class and divide it by 2. Thus,

Upper limit + Lower limit

Class-mark =
2
Let us consider an example.

Example 5 : In a city, the weekly observations made in a study on the cost of living
index are given in the following table:
Table 12.6

Cost of living index Number of weeks

140 - 150 5
150 - 160 10
160 - 170 20
170 - 180 9
180 - 190 6
190 - 200 2
Total 52

Draw a frequency polygon for the data above (without constructing a histogram).
Solution : Since we want to draw a frequency polygon without a histogram, let us find
the class-marks of the classes given above, that is of 140 - 150, 150 - 160,....
For 140 - 150, the upper limit = 150, and the lower limit = 140

150 + 140 290

So, the class-mark = = = 145.
2 2
Continuing in the same manner, we find the class-marks of the other classes as well.
So, the new table obtained is as shown in the following table:

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Table 12.7

Classes Class-marks Frequency

140 - 150 145 5

150 - 160 155 10
160 - 170 165 20
170 - 180 175 9
180 - 190 185 6
190 - 200 195 2

Total 52

We can now draw a frequency polygon by plotting the class-marks along the horizontal
axis, the frequencies along the vertical-axis, and then plotting and joining the points
B(145, 5), C(155, 10), D(165, 20), E(175, 9), F(185, 6) and G(195, 2) by line segments.
We should not forget to plot the point corresponding to the class-mark of the class
130 - 140 (just before the lowest class 140 - 150) with zero frequency, that is,
A(135, 0), and the point H (205, 0) occurs immediately after G(195, 2). So, the resultant
frequency polygon will be ABCDEFGH (see Fig. 12.8).

Fig. 12.8

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Frequency polygons are used when the data is continuous and very large. It is
very useful for comparing two different sets of data of the same nature, for example,
comparing the performance of two different sections of the same class.

EXERCISE 12.1
1. A survey conducted by an organisation for the cause of illness and death among
the women between the ages 15 - 44 (in years) worldwide, found the following
figures (in %):
S.No. Causes Female fatality rate (%)

1. Reproductive health conditions 31.8

2. Neuropsychiatric conditions 25.4
3. Injuries 12.4
4. Cardiovascular conditions 4.3
5. Respiratory conditions 4.1
6. Other causes 22.0

(i) Represent the information given above graphically.

(ii) Which condition is the major cause of women’s ill health and death worldwide?
(iii) Try to find out, with the help of your teacher, any two factors which play a major
role in the cause in (ii) above being the major cause.
2. The following data on the number of girls (to the nearest ten) per thousand boys in
different sections of Indian society is given below.

Section Number of girls per thousand boys

Scheduled Caste (SC) 940

Scheduled Tribe (ST) 970
Non SC/ST 920
Backward districts 950
Non-backward districts 920
Rural 930
Urban 910

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(i) Represent the information above by a bar graph.

(ii) In the classroom discuss what conclusions can be arrived at from the graph.
3. Given below are the seats won by different political parties in the polling outcome of
a state assembly elections:

Political Party A B C D E F

Seats Won 75 55 37 29 10 37

(i) Draw a bar graph to represent the polling results.

(ii) Which political party won the maximum number of seats?
4. The length of 40 leaves of a plant are measured correct to one millimetre, and the
obtained data is represented in the following table:

Length (in mm) Number of leaves

118 - 126 3
127 - 135 5
136 - 144 9
145 - 153 12
154 - 162 5
163 - 171 4
172 - 180 2

(i) Draw a histogram to represent the given data. [Hint: First make the class intervals
continuous]
(ii) Is there any other suitable graphical representation for the same data?
(iii) Is it correct to conclude that the maximum number of leaves are 153 mm long?
Why?
5. The following table gives the life times of 400 neon lamps:

Life time (in hours) Number of lamps

300 - 400 14
400 - 500 56
500 - 600 60
600 - 700 86
700 - 800 74
800 - 900 62
900 - 1000 48

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(i) Represent the given information with the help of a histogram.

(ii) How many lamps have a life time of more than 700 hours?
6. The following table gives the distribution of students of two sections according to
the marks obtained by them:

Section A Section B
Marks Frequency Marks Frequency

0 - 10 3 0 - 10 5
10 - 20 9 10 - 20 19
20 - 30 17 20 - 30 15
30 - 40 12 30 - 40 10
40 - 50 9 40 - 50 1

Represent the marks of the students of both the sections on the same graph by two
frequency polygons. From the two polygons compare the performance of the two
sections.
7. The runs scored by two teams A and B on the first 60 balls in a cricket match are given
below:

Number of balls Team A Team B

1-6 2 5
7 - 12 1 6
13 - 18 8 2
19 - 24 9 10
25 - 30 4 5
31 - 36 5 6
37 - 42 6 3
43 - 48 10 4
49 - 54 6 8
55 - 60 2 10

Represent the data of both the teams on the same graph by frequency polygons.
[Hint : First make the class intervals continuous.]

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8. A random survey of the number of children of various age groups playing in a park
was found as follows:

Age (in years) Number of children

1-2 5
2-3 3
3-5 6
5-7 12
7 - 10 9
10 - 15 10
15 - 17 4

Draw a histogram to represent the data above.

9. 100 surnames were randomly picked up from a local telephone directory and a frequency
distribution of the number of letters in the English alphabet in the surnames was found
as follows:

Number of letters Number of surnames

1 - 4 6
4 - 6 30
6 - 8 44
8 - 12 16
12 - 20 4

(i) Draw a histogram to depict the given information.

(ii) Write the class interval in which the maximum number of surnames lie.

12.2 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points:
1. How data can be presented graphically in the form of bar graphs, histograms and frequency
polygons.

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