UNIT 1

AMPLITUDE
MODULATION
Prepared by
Dr.P.Sunitha,M.Tech,Ph.D,
Associate Professor,
WHAT IS A COMMUNICATION SYSTEM?.

 Communication systems are designed to

transmit information.
EVOLUTION OF COMMUNICATION
 Telegraph & rise of international news
agencies 1850s-1900s
 Telephony-1900s

 Film 1920s-1930s
 Radio-1930s-50s

 Television-1950s-70s

 Satellite—1980s

 Internet—1990s
COMMUNICATION TODAY

 Cell-phones

 Instant Messaging
 Photo/Video Options
 Texting

 Internet

 E-Mail

 Twittering

 Live telecommunications
 ANALOG COMMUNICATION - INTRODUCTION

 Communication can be defined as the process of exchange

of information through means such as words, actions, signs,
etc., between two or more individuals.
 Sender is the person who sends a message. It could be a
transmitting station from where the signal is transmitted.
 Channel is the medium through which the message signals
travel to reach the destination.
 Receiver is the person who receives the message. It could be
a receiving station where the transmitted signal is being
received.
TYPES OF SIGNALS
Depending on their characteristics, signals are
mainly classified into two types: Analog and
Digital.
 Analog and Digital signals are further classified,
as shown in the following figure.
Analog Signal:

 A continuous time varying signal, which represents a time

varying quantity can be termed as an Analog Signal. This
signal keeps on varying with respect to time, according to the
instantaneous values of the quantity, which represents it.

Digital Signal

 A signal which is discrete in nature or which is non-

continuous in form can be termed as a Digital signal. This
signal has individual values, denoted separately, which are
not based on the previous values, as if they are derived at
that particular instant of time.
ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS (ECE)
II B. TECH II SEMESTER

Course Professional
Course Code 19EC4T14
Category Core

Course Type Theory L-T-P-C 3-0-0-3

Internal Assessment
30
Signals & Semester End
Prerequisites 70
Systems Examination
100
Total Marks
 COURSE OBJECTIVES

By studying this course the students will learn

the performance of Amplitude modulation and demodulation
1
techniques
DSB and SSB modulation schemes and their spectral
2
characteristics
the performance of Angle modulation and demodulation
3
techniques
4 various functional blocks of Radio Transmitters and Receivers
Noise Characteristics of Amplitude & Frequency modulation
5
Techniques
 COURSE OUTCOMES

K1: Remember, K2: Understand, K3: Apply, K4: Analyze, K5: Evaluate, K6:
Create
Upon successful completion of the course, the student will be Cognitive
able to: Level
Comprehend the performance of Amplitude modulation
CO1 K2
and demodulation techniques
Differentiate DSB and SSB modulation schemes and
CO2 K2
their spectral characteristics
Examine the performance of Angle modulation and
CO3 K1
demodulation techniques
Analyze various functional blocks of Radio Transmitters
CO4 K4
and Receivers
Analyze Noise Characteristics of Amplitude & Frequency
CO5 K4
modulation Techniques
Contribution of Course Outcomes towards achievement of Program
Outcomes (1 – Low, 2 - Medium, 3 – High)
PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO1 PSO PSO
PO12
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 1 2
CO
3 3 - 1 - - - - - - - - 2 -
1
CO
3 3 - 1 - - - - - - - - 2 -
2
CO
3 3 1 1 - - - - - - - - 2 -
3
CO
3 1 1 1 - 1 - - - - - - 2 -
4
CO
3 2 1 1 - 1 - - - - - - 2 -
5
PROGRAMME OUTCOMES:
 Engineering Graduates will be able to:

1Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,

engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution
of complex engineering problems.

2 Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and

analyze complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions
using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering
sciences.

3 Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex

engineering problems and design system components or processes that meet
the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and
safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
4 Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based
knowledge and research methods including design of experiments,
analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to
provide valid conclusions.
5 Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques,
resources, and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and
modelling to complex engineering activities with an understanding of the
limitations.
6 The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual
knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and
the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering
practice.
7 Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the
professional engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts,
and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
8 Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities

and norms of the engineering practice.

9 Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member

or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.

10 Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with

the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to

comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective

presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.

11 Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of

the engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a

member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary

environments.

12 Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to

engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological

change.
PROGRAMME SPECIFIC OUTCOMES:

 PSO-1: The ability to absorb and apply fundamental

knowledge of core Electronics and Communication
Engineering subjects in the analysis, design, and
development of various types of integrated electronic
systems as well as to interpret and synthesize the
experimental data leading to valid conclusions
 PSO-2: Excellent adaptability to changing work
environment, good interpersonal skills as a leader in a team
in appreciation of professional ethics and societal
responsibilities.
 SYLLABUS
COURSE CONTENT
AMPLITUDE MODULATION
Introduction to communication system, Need for modulation,
Frequency Division Multiplexing , Amplitude Modulation, Definition,
UNIT I Time domain and frequency domain description, single tone
modulation, power relations in AM waves, Generation of AM waves,
square law Modulator, Switching modulator, Detection of AM Waves;
Square law detector, Envelope detector
DSB & SSB MODULATION
Double side band suppressed carrier modulators, time domain and
frequency domain description, Generation of DSBSC Waves, Balanced
Modulators, Ring Modulator, Coherent detection of DSB-SC
UNIT II
Modulated waves, COSTAS Loop. Frequency domain description,
Frequency discrimination method for generation of AM SSB Modulated
Wave, Time domain description, Phase discrimination method for
generating AM SSB Modulated waves. Demodulation of SSB Waves
 VSB MODULATION & ANGLE MODULATION:
Vestigial side band modulation: Frequency description, Generation of VSB Modulated
wave, Time domain description, Envelope detection of a VSB Wave pulse Carrier,
Comparison of AM Techniques, Applications of different AM Systems
Frequency Modulation: Single tone frequency modulation, Spectrum Analysis of
UNIT III
Sinusoidal FM Wave, Narrow band FM, Wide band FM, Constant Average Power,
Transmission bandwidth of FM Wave - Generation of FM Waves, Direct FM, Detection of
FM Waves: Balanced Frequency discriminator, Zero crossing detector, Phase locked loop,
Comparison of FM & AM. Pulse Modulation Techniques: PAM,PWM,PPM (Qualitative
Treatment)

TRANSMITTERS & RECEIVERS

Radio Transmitter Classification of Transmitter, AM Transmitter, Effect of feedback on
performance of AM Transmitter, FM Transmitter – Variable reactance type and phase
UNIT IV modulated FM Transmitter, frequency stability in FM Transmitter. Radio Receiver -
Receiver Types - Tuned radio frequency receiver, Super heterodyne receiver, RF section and
Characteristics - Frequency changing and tracking, Intermediate frequency, AGC, FM
Receiver, Comparison with AM Receiver, Amplitude limiting

NOISE
Noise in Analog communication Systems: Noise in AM-SC System, Noise in AM-FC
UNIT V
system, Noise in Frequency Modulation System, Threshold effect in Frequency
Modulation System, Pre-emphasis & de-emphasis
TEXT BOOKS
Principles of Communication Systems – H Taub & D. Schilling, Gautam Sahe,
1.
TMH, 3rd Edition 2007
Principles of Communication Systems - Simon Haykin. 2nd Edition, John Wiley
2.
2007
3. Communication Systems– R.P. Singh, SP Sapre, Second Edition TMH, 2007
REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Communication Systems – B P Lathi, B S Publication, 2006
Analog communication systems - Dr.sanjay Sharma, 6th Edition , S K kataria and
2.
sons 2016
Electronics & Communication System - George Kennedy and Bernard Davis, 4th
3.
Edition TMH 2009
4. Radio Engineering – G K Mithal, Dhanapatrai Publications

WEB RESOURCES (Suggested)

1. https://www.smartzworld.com/notes/analog-communication-system-pdf-notes-ac/

2. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/117105143/15
 COMMUNICATION
 Communication is the process of establishing connection or link between two points for
information exchange.

Block diagram of a general communication system

2
BASE-BAND COMMUNICATION

The base-band is used to designate the band of frequencies of the signal

delivered by the source or the input transducer.

•In telephone, the base-band is the audio band (band of voice signals) of 0

to 3.5 kHz.

•In television, the base-band is video band occupying 0 to 4.3 MHz.

•For digital data or PCM using bipolar signalling at a rate of f0 pulses/s, the

base-band is 0 to f0 Hz.
WHY MODULATION?
• Ease of radiation
• The size of antenna λ/4 = c/4f
–If we wish to throw a piece of paper (base-band signal), it cannot go too
far by itself. But by wrapping it around a stone(carrier), it can be
thrown over a longer distance.

• Simultaneous transmission of several signals

• FDM (Frequency Division Modulation)
• Reduce the influence of interference
• Frequency Hopping
• Effecting the exchange of SNR with B

• Shannon‟s equation : C  B log2 (1 SNR)

• C is rate of information change per second (bit/s)
THE CONCEPT OF MODULATION
Modulation 
process of varying carrier wave in accordance with bearing signal
information (message signal).
i.shift spectral content of data signal to lie in a channel;
ii.Efficient transmission of message signals at higher frequencies;
iii.put information signal in a form that has more noise immunity;
iv.permit multiple access to channel with variety of techniques;
(Transmitting multiple signals through the same medium using different
carriers).
v.Transmitting through “channels” with limited pass-bands.

x(t) Transmitted Signal

Carrier Signal
NEED FOR MODULATION

 Baseband signals are incompatible for direct

transmission.
 For such a signal, to travel longer distances, its
strength has to be increased by modulating with
a high frequency carrier wave, which doesn’t
affect the parameters of the modulating signal.
ADVANTAGES OF MODULATION

 The antenna used for transmission, had to be very large,

if modulation was not introduced. The range of
communication gets limited as the wave cannot travel a
distance without getting distorted.
 Following are some of the advantages for implementing
modulation in the communication systems.
 Reduction of antenna size
 No signal mixing
 Increased communication range
 Multiplexing of signals
 Possibility of bandwidth adjustments
 Improved reception quality
THE CONCEPT OF MODULATION
How?

• Many methods

Linear & Non Linear Modulation

m(t) s(t)
• m(t) = modulating signal (data)
• c(t) = sinusoidal carrier c(t)
• s(t) = modulated signal
THE CONCEPT OF MODULATION
Carrier c(t) given as c(t) = Accos (2πfct + θ)
vary parameters of c(t) based on m(t) to produce s(t)
(1) amplitude modulation Ac is varied linearly.
(2) angle modulation – carrier angle φ is varied linearly
φ = 2fct + θ

- frequency fc is varies linearly with m(t)

- phase θ is varies linearly with m(t)

Accos (2πfct+θ) Pass-band signal

base band data signal

AMPLITUDE MODULATION

 The amplitude of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal.” Which means, the amplitude of the carrier signal
containing no information varies as per the amplitude of the signal containing

information, at each instant.

 MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSIONS
Following are the mathematical expressions for these waves.
 Time-domain Representation of the Waves
 Let the modulating or message signal be,
 m(t)=Amcos(2πfmt)
 and the carrier signal be,
 c(t)=Accos(2πfct)
 Where, Am and Ac are the amplitude of the modulating signal and the
carrier signal respectively.
 fm and fc are the frequency of the modulating signal and the carrier
signal respectively.
 Then, the equation of Amplitude Modulated wave will be

 s(t)=[Ac+Am cos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct)
 UNIT-1
AMPLITUDE MODULATION

What is Modulation?
o Modulation is the process of changing the
parameters of the carrier signal, in accordance
with the instantaneous values of the modulating
signal.
o For a signal to be transmitted to a distance,
without the effect of any external interferences or
noise addition and without getting faded away, it
has to undergo a process called as Modulation.
It improves the strength of the signal without
disturbing the parameters of the original signal.
SIGNALS IN THE MODULATION PROCESS

 Following are the three types of signals in the

modulation process.
 Message or Modulating Signal

 Carrier Signal

 Modulated Signal

Message or Modulating Signal:

o The signal which contains a message to be
transmitted, is called as a message signal. It is a
baseband signal, which has to undergo the process of
modulation, to get transmitted.
o Hence, it is also called as the modulating signal.
 Carrier Signal:

The high frequency signal, which has a certain

amplitude, frequency and phase but contains no
information is called as a carrier signal. It is an empty
signal and is used to carry the signal to the receiver after
modulation.

 Modulated Signal;

The resultant signal after the process of modulation is

called as a modulated signal. This signal is a
combination of modulating signal and carrier signal.
TYPES OF MODULATION

There are many types of modulations. Depending

upon the modulation techniques used, they are
classified as shown in the following figure.
CONTINUOUS-WAVE MODULATION

In continuous-wave modulation, a high frequency sine

wave is used as a carrier wave. This is further
divided into amplitude and angle modulation.

If the amplitude of the high frequency carrier wave is

varied in accordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal, then such a
technique is called as Amplitude Modulation.
ANGLE MODULATION.
 If the angle of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the
instantaneous value of the modulating signal, then such a
technique is called as Angle Modulation. Angle modulation is
further divided into frequency modulation and phase modulation.

 If the frequency of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with

the instantaneous value of the modulating signal, then such a
technique is called as Frequency Modulation.

 If the phase of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in

accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating
signal, then such a technique is called as Phase Modulation.
 AMPLITUDE MODULATION

 A continuous-wave goes on continuously without any

intervals and it is the baseband message signal, which
contains the information. This wave has to be
modulated.
 According to the standard definition, “The amplitude
of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.”
 Which means, the amplitude of the carrier signal
containing no information varies as per the amplitude
of the signal containing information, at each instant.
This can be well explained by the following figures.
 The first figure shows the modulating wave, which is
the message signal. The next one is the carrier wave,
which is a high frequency signal and contains no
information. While, the last one is the resultant
modulated wave.
 It can be observed that the positive and negative peaks
of the carrier wave, are interconnected with an
imaginary line. This line helps recreating the exact
shape of the modulating signal. This imaginary line on
the carrier wave is called as Envelope. It is the same
as that of the message signal.
 MODULATION INDEX

 A carrier wave, after being modulated, if the modulated level is calculated,

then such an attempt is called as Modulation Index or Modulation Depth. It

states the level of modulation that a carrier wave undergoes.

s(t)=Ac[1+( )cos(2πfm t)]cos(2πfc t)

⇒s(t)=Ac[1+m cos(2πf t)]cos(2πfc t)
m

 Where, m is Modulation index and it is equal to the ratio of Am and Ac .

Mathematically, we can write it as
m=Am/Ac
 We can use this formula for calculating modulation index value, when the
maximum and minimum amplitudes of the modulated wave are known.
 Let Amax and Amin be the maximum and minimum amplitudes
of the modulated wave.
 We will get the maximum amplitude of the modulated wave,
when cos(2πfmt) is 1.
⇒Amax=Ac+Am
 We will get the minimum amplitude of the modulated wave,
when cos(2πfmt) is -1.
⇒Amin=Ac−Am
 Adding equations

 Subtracting Equations

 The ratio of

⇒m=Amax−Amin / Amax+Amin
 The modulation index or modulation depth is often denoted in

percentage called as Percentage of Modulation.

 We will get the percentage of modulation, just by multiplying the

modulation index value with 100.

 For a perfect modulation, the value of modulation index should be 1,

which implies the percentage of modulation should be 100%.

 For instance, if this value is less than 1, i.e., the modulation index is

0.5, then the modulated output would look like the following figure. It

is called as Under-modulation. Such a wave is called as an under-

modulated wave.
 If the value of the modulation index is greater than 1, i.e., 1.5 or so,
then the wave will be an over-modulated wave. It would look like
the following figure.

 As the value of the modulation index increases, the carrier

experiences a 180o phase reversal, which causes additional
sidebands and hence, the wave gets distorted. Such an over-
modulated wave causes interference, which cannot be eliminated.
 BANDWIDTH OF AM WAVE

 Bandwidth (BW) is the difference between the highest and lowest

frequencies of the signal. Mathematically, we can write it as

BW=fmax−fmin

Consider the following equation of amplitude modulated wave.

s(t)=Ac[1+m cos(2πfmt)]cos(2πfct) ⇒s(t)=Ac cos(2πfct)+Ac m cos(2πfct) cos(2πfmt)

⇒s(t)=Ac cos(2πfct)+Ac m/ 2cos[2π(fc+fm)t]+Ac m /2cos[2π(fc−fm)t]

• An amplitude-modulated wave contains three terms:
 The un-modulated carrier.
  The two additional terms (called two sidebands)
- frequency of the lower sideband (LSB) is, fmin
fc  fm
- frequency of the upper sideband (USB), fmax
fc  fm

 Substitute, f max and f min values in bandwidth formula.

 BW=fc+fm−(fc−fm)

⇒BW=2fm⇒BW=2fm

 Thus, it can be said that the bandwidth required for amplitude

modulated wave is twice the frequency of the modulating signal.

 We can use the above formula to calculate the power of AM wave,

when the carrier power and the modulation index are known.

 If the modulation index μ=1 then the power of AM wave is equal to

1.5 times the carrier power.

 So, the power required for transmitting an AM wave is 1.5 times the

carrier power for a perfect modulation.

 PROBLEM
Determine  and the percentage of the total power carried out by the sidebands of the
AM wave for tone modulation when (1) m = 0.5 and (2) m = 0.3.

m2
We know that,  100%
2m 2

For m=0.5, m  0.5

  0.25 100%  11.11%

2.25
• Hence, only 11% of the total power is in the sidebands.

For m=0.3, m  0.3

0.09
 100%  4.3%
2.09
•Thus, only 4.3% of the total power is the useful
power (i.e., power in the sidebands).
MODULATION INDEX FROM CURRENT
If the modulated and un-modulated currents are easily measurable, then the
modulation index can be calculated from them.

Let Ic be the un-modulated current and It the total, or modulated current of an AM

transmitter, both being rms values. If R is the resistance in which these currents flow,
then

I t R  It 
2
Pt 2 m2
 2     1 
Pc I c R  I c  2

It m2
 1
Ic 2
m2
It  Ic 1
2
NOTES: POWER RELATION IN AM
Pt  1  m2
• Power relation:
Pc 2
• Relates the total power in the amplitude-modulated wave to the un-
modulated carrier power.

• This must be used to determine, among other quantities, the modulation

index in instances.

• It is interesting to note from the equation that the maximum power in the
AM wave is
Pt  1.5Pc
when m = 1.

• This is important, because it is the maximum power that the relevant

amplifiers must be capable of handling without distortion.
PROBLEM: POWER IN AM
1. A 400-watt (400-W) carrier is modulated to a depth of 75%. Calculate the
total power in the modulated wave.
Solution:

Pt  1  m2  0.752 
 4001    400 1.281  512.5W
Pc 2  2 

2. A broadcast radio transmitter radiates 10 kilowatts (10 kW) when the

modulation percentage is 60. How much of this is carrier power?

Solution:

Pt 10 10
Pc  2
   8.47kW
2
m 0.6 1.18
1 1
2 2
PROBLEM: POWER IN AM
The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 8 amperes (8 A) when only the carrier is
sent, but it increases to 8.93 A when the carrier is modulated by a single sine wave.
Find the percentage modulation. Determine the antenna current when the depth of
modulation changes to 0.8.

 I t  I 2 
Solution: 2
I 
2
m 2
m2
 t   1 ;    1 ; m  2   t 1
 Ic  2 2  Ic   Ic  

Here,
 8.93  2 
m  2   
  1  2  1.116   1
2

 8  
 2
(1.246 1)

 0.701  70.1%
0.4
92
MODULATION BY SEVERAL SINE WAVES

Total power in an AM wave consists of carrier power and sidebands’ power.

2 2
This yields: P  P (1 
m P .m P .m 2

t c )  Pc  c
 Pc  PSB where, PSB  c

2 2 2
If several sine waves simultaneously modulate the carrier, the carrier power will be
unaffected, but the total sideband power will now be the sum of the individual
sidebands’ power. Hence we have,

PSBT  PSB1  PSB2  PSB3  ..............

2 2 2
Pc mt Pc m1 Pc m 2 Pc m3 2
    ..............
2 2 2 2
m 2 m 2 m 2
 m 2  ..........
t 1 2 3

mt  m  m 2
2m 2
 ..........
2 1 3
POINTS TO BE NOTED:

• Two approaches yield the same result

• Total modulation index = square root of sum of the squares of individual

modulation indices.

• Total modulation index must still not exceed unity, or distortion will
result in with over- modulation by a single sine wave.

• Whether modulation is by one or many sine waves, the output of the

modulated amplifier will be zero for the negative modulating voltage
peak if over- modulation takes place.
PROBLEM
A certain transmitter radiates 9 kW with the carrier un-modulated and 10.125 kW when
the carrier is sinusoidally modulated. Calculate the modulation index. If another sine
wave, corresponding to 40 percent modulation, is transmitted simultaneously,
determine the total radiated power.
Solution:
m2
 Pt 1  10.125 1  1.125 1  0.125
2 Pc 9
m 2  0.125  2  0.25

m  0.25  0.5
For the second part, the total modulation index will be

mt  m1  m2 2  0.52  0.42  0.25  0.16  0.41  0.64

2

mt 2 0.64
Pt  Pc (1  )  9  (1  )  9  (1  0.205)  10.84kW
2 2
PROBLEM
The antenna current of an AM broadcast transmitter, modulated to a depth of 40
percent by an audio sine wave, is 11 A. It increases to 12 A as a result of simultaneous
modulation by another audio sine wave. What is the modulation index due to this
second wave?
Solution:
IT 11 11
Ic     10.58 A
m 2
0.4 2 1  0.08
1 1
2 2
Total modulation index mt,

 I  2   1 2  2 
mt  2   T 
 1  2     1   2  (1.28 6  1)  0.757
 c 
I    1 0 .58  

2  m 2  m 2  ..........
Using equation mt  m1 2 3
we obtain,

m2  mt  m12  0.7572  0.42  0.573  0.16  0.413  0.643

2
GENERATION OF AM WAVES

Square law Modulator

Switching modulator,
SQUARE LAW MODULATOR
 Let the modulating and carrier signals be denoted as m(t)
and Acos(2πfct) respectively.
 These two signals are applied as inputs to the summer (adder)
block.
 This summer block produces an output, which is the addition of the
modulating and the carrier signal.
 Mathematically, we can write it as
 V1(t) =m(t) +Ac cos(2πfct)
 This signal V1(t) is applied as an input to a nonlinear device like
diode. The characteristics of the diode are closely related to square
law.
 V2(t) =k1V1(t)+k2V21(t) (1)
 The five terms in the expression for V2(t) are as under :
 Term 1: k1m(t): Modulating Signal
 Term 2 : k1Accos(2πfct): Carrier Signal
 Term 3 : k2m2 (t) : Squared modulating Signal
 Term 4 : 2k2 m(t)Ac cos(2πfc t): AM wave with only
sidebands
 Term 5 : k2A2c cos2 (2πfct) : Squared Carrier
 Out of these five terms, terms 2 and 4 are useful whereas
the remaining terms are not useful .
 The last term of the above equation represents the
desired AM wave and the first three terms of the above
equation are unwanted. So, with the help of band pass
filter, we can pass only AM wave and eliminate the
first three terms.
 Therefore, the output of square law modulator is
 By comparing the output of the square law
modulator with the standard equation of AM wave,
we will get the scaling factor as k1 and the
amplitude sensitivity ka as 2k2/k1.

Practical circuit using diode as a square law

device and Tuned circuit as a band pass filter
SWITCHING MODULATOR
 Switching modulator is similar to the square law modulator.
The only difference is that in the square law modulator, the
diode is operated in a non-linear mode, whereas, in the
switching modulator, the diode has to operate as an ideal
switch.

 Let the modulating and carrier signals be denoted

as m(t) and c(t)=Ac cos(2πfct) respectively.

 These two signals are applied as inputs to the summer (adder)

block. Summer block produces an output, which is the addition
of modulating and carrier signals. Mathematically, we can
write it as
 This signal V1(t) is applied as an input of diode.
 Assume, the magnitude of the modulating signal is very
small when compared to the amplitude of carrier
signal Ac.
 So, the diode’s ON and OFF action is controlled by
carrier signal c(t).
 This means, the diode will be forward biased
when c(t)>0 and it will be reverse biased when c(t)<0.
 Therefore, the output of the diode is
Substitute, V1(t) and x(t)
 The 1st term of the above equation represents the
desired AM wave and the remaining terms are
unwanted terms.
 Thus, with the help of band pass filter, we can pass
only AM wave and eliminate the remaining terms.
 Therefore, the output of switching modulator is
 Where, ka is the amplitude sensitivity.
 By comparing the output of the switching
modulator with the standard equation of AM wave,
we will get the scaling factor as 0.5 and amplitude
sensitivity ka as 4/πAc
DETECTION OF AM WAVES

 The process of extracting an original message

signal from the modulated wave is known
as detection or demodulation.

 The circuit, which demodulates the modulated

wave is known as the demodulator. The following
demodulators (detectors) are used for
demodulating AM wave
 Square law detector,
 Envelope detector
SQUARE LAW DETECTOR
 Square law demodulator is used to demodulate
low level AM wave.
 Following is the block diagram of the square
law demodulator.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MODULATOR AND
DEMODULATOR?

• The only difference between the modulation and demodulation is the output
filter. In the modulator, the multiplier output is passed through a band-pass
filter tuned to ωc, whereas in the demodulator, the multiplier O/P is passed
through a low-pass filter.

• Therefore, all four types of modulators discussed earlier can also be used
as demodulators, provided the band-pass filters at the O/P are replaced by
low-pass filters of bandwidth B.
DEMODULATOR: ENVELOPE DETECTOR
In an envelop detector, the O/P of the detector follows the envelope of the
modulated signal. Functions of the envelope detector:

One the positive half cycle, the capacitor C charges up to the peak voltage of the
input signal. As the peak voltage falls below this peak value, the diode is cut off,
since the capacitor voltage (which is nearly the peak voltage) is greater than the
input signal voltage.

The capacitor now discharges through the resistor R at a slow rate. During the
next positive cycle, when the input signal becomes greater than the capacitor
voltage, the diode conducts again. The capacitor again charges to the peak value
of this (new) cycle. The capacitor discharges slowly during the cutoff period,
thus changing the capacitor voltage very slightly.
 During each positive cycle, the capacitor charges up to the peak voltage of the input signal
and then decays slowly until the next positive cycle. The O/P voltage thus follows the
envelope of the input. A ripple signal of frequency c, however, is caused by capacitor
discharge between positive peaks.

 This ripple is reduced by increasing time constant RC so that the capacitor discharges
very little between positive peaks (RC >> 1/ωc). Making RC too large, however, would
make it impossible for the capacitor voltage to follow the envelope. Thus, RC should be
large compared to 1/ ω c but should be small compared to 1/2πB, where, B is the highest
frequency in m(t). This, incidentally, requires that ω c>> 2πB, a condition that is necessary
for a well-defined envelop.

 The envelope detector O/P is A + m(t) with a ripple of frequency ω c. The dc term A can be
blocked out by a capacitor or a simple RC high-pass filter. The ripple may be reduced
further by another (low-pass) RC filter.
ENVELOPE
DETECTOR

Receivers can be classified into coherent and non-coherent categories. Definition:

If a receiver requires knowledge of the carrier frequency and phase to extract the
message signal, then it is called coherent.
Definition: If a receiver does not require knowledge of the phase (only rough
knowledge of the carrier frequency) to extract the message signal, then it is called
non-coherent.
Non-coherent demodulator (receiver) for standard AM

A m(t)cosct + D
C R v0(t)
-
RC is too large
Peak envelope detector (demodulator)
E Envelope

t→
ENVELOPE DETECTOR
(EXAMPLE…)
For tone modulation, determine the upper limit on RC to ensure that the capacitor
voltage follows the envelope.
Capacitance voltage (RC discharge) E(1 - t/RC)

E Envelope The figure shows the envelope and voltage

across the capacitor.

t→
The capacitor discharges from the peak value E at
some arbitrary instant t=0. The voltage vc across the
capacitor is 1given by:
vc  Ee RC

Because the time constant is much larger than the interval between the two successive cycles of
the carrier (RC >> 1/c), the capacitor voltage vc discharges exponentially for a short time
compared to its time constant. Hence, the exponential can be approximated by a straight line
obtained from the first two terms in Taylor’s series of Ee-t/RC.
t
v c  E(1  )
RC
ENVELOPE DETECTOR
(EXAMPLE…)
The slope of the discharge is –E/RC. In order for the capacitor to follow the envelope E(t), the magnitude of
the slope of the RC discharge must be greater than the magnitude of the slope of the envelope E(t). Hence

dvc E dE
 
dt RC dt

But the envelope E(t) of a tone-modulated carrier is E(t)  A1  m.cos  m t 

dE
 m.A m sin  m t
dt
A(1  m cos m t)
Hence,  mAm sin m t for all t
RC
1 m cos mt
or, RC  for all t
mm sin mt
The worst possible case occurs when the right-hand side is the minimum. This is found (as usual, by taking the
derivative and setting it1to zme2ro) to be when cos(mt)=-m. For this case, the right-hand side is

1  1  m2 
RC   
m  m  55