Physics M

Chapter 1 – Temperature and Heat

Section 1.1 Sensation of Hotness and Temperature

(1)
1. a) Although the hardness of egg white changes as temperature increases but it
doesn't as temperature falls back down. It is a quantity that cannot be measured,
hence it cannot be considered as a thermometric property.
b) One can measure the length of mercury column as temperature changes; hence it
is a thermometric property.
c) The mass of a fixed quantity remains constant with temperature; hence it cannot
be considered as thermometric property.

Section 1.2 Temperature Scale

(2)
2. Insert the bulb of the thermometer in melting crushed ice.
When mercury stops shrinking, mark the stem of the thermometer at the mercury
level; this should be the 0oC on the Celsius scale.
Insert the thermometer now inside a flask containing boiling water, so that the bulb
is just above the surface of boiling water.
When mercury stops expanding, mark the stem of the thermometer at the mercury
level; this should be the 100oC on the Celsius scale.
Three principal hazards, one should be aware of: fragile glassware, toxic mercury
and extreme heat.

(3)
3. a) Thermometer X goes to higher temperature
b) Liquid in X expands uniformly (with temperature rise)
c) For the same temperature rise, the liquid in X expands more

(4)
4. [G] (a) Ice point: The point on the thermometer which corresponds to the tip of the
mercury column when the thermometer is in thermal equilibrium with melting ice
at a pressure of one atmosphere. The temperature of the thermometer, when the
mercury level is at this point, is defined to be 0°C.
(b) Steam point: The point on the thermometer which corresponds to the tip of the
mercury column when the thermometer is in thermal equilibrium with the steam
above boiling water at a pressure of one atmosphere. The temperature of the
thermometer, when the mercury level is at this point, is defined to be 100°C.

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(5)
5. [G] Liquid-in-glass thermometers are based on the principle of thermal expansion of
substances. A liquid in a glass tube expands when heated and contracts when
cooled. A calibrated scale can then be used to read off the respective temperature
that led to the corresponding thermal expansion.

Section 1.3 Gas Laws

(6)
6. Use apparatus on page 6.
Slowly increase the pressure of the air using the foot pump.
Read the pressure on the Bourdon gauge and the corresponding volume from the
vertical volume scale. Repeat the experiment for several values of p and V.
Tabulate your results.
A graph of V against 1/p is plotted, if the graph is a straight line through the origin,
Boyle’s law has been verified.

(7)
7. c) since mass remains constant
(8)
8. [G] K = °C + 273.15

(9)
9. [G] a. Wires W and Y are made of the same metallic material, while wire Z is made
of a different metallic material.

b. Thermocouples have low heat capacity, which makes them respond quickly to
changes in temperature and quickly reach thermal equilibrium with the body.
Moreover, thermocouples are very sensitive over a wide range of temperatures
with a relatively high precision.

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Section 1.4 Change in Temperature using Kinetic Theory

(10)
10.
i. True
ii. True
iii. True
iv. True
v. True (the converse is false)

Section 1.5 Thermal Properties of Matter

(11)
11. The heat lost by the iron = the heat gained by water and pot:
mici(333.15 - T) = (mwcw + mKcK)(T - 300), implies T = 305 K.

(12)
12. Qheater = Qlead + Qwater + QAl
P × t = mlead clead (80-20) + mwater cwater (80-20) + mAl cAl (80-20)
Solve to get, clead = 0.21 kJ/kg.K. Some of the heat given to the system may escape
through the walls of the container or with water vapor through the top, causing
overestimation of heat capacity. To reduce heat exchange we may cover the
container, reduce its size or insulate it.

(13)
13. Connect immersion heater to power supply. Fill beaker with water, cover it and
weigh m1. Insert heater and heat until water begins to boil. Remove the lid so that
steam escapes and at the same time read the Joulemeter (Q1). After 15 minutes
time switch off heater and replace lid.
The mass of water converted to steam is m1 - m2
Find L using L = (Q2 - Q1)/(m1 - m2).
No thermometer is needed because there is no change of temperature during
evaporation. Read Joule meter again (Q2). Weigh the beaker again with lid, m2.

(14)
14. Connect the electric heater to its power supply and measuring circuit. Put ice of
known mass m at 0°C into a thermo flask containing water at 0°C and upon
heating keep stirring the mixture. Turn on the stopwatch when heating starts.
Record the values of the current I and the voltage V. Once the ice has just melted,
turn the heater and the stopwatch off, and record the time t it took the ice to melt.
The heat energy supplied by the heater is Q = IVt.
Use the equation lf = Q/m = IVt/m to calculate the latent heat of fusion.
Thermometer is not needed there is no change in temperature during fusion.

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(15)
15. [G] A liquid evaporates not only at its boiling point, but also at any temperature.
The difference is that at the boiling point evaporation takes place anywhere within
the body of the liquid, whereas at other lower temperatures evaporation takes place
only at the surface. Evaporation is always accompanied by cooling.
According to the kinetic molecular theory, the potential energy of the particles that
leave the liquid increases; this happens at the expense of the molecules that stay in
the liquid state. Only the more energetic molecules near the surface leave the liquid;
the remaining molecules will have a lower average kinetic energy, and therefore a
lower temperature.

(16)
16. [G] The energy required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of a substance
by 1 degree Celsius is called the specific heat capacity.

(17)
17. [G] The quantity of heat needed is given by:
Q = mcT
Q = ( 5.0 kg ) ( 3.0 102 J/kg.oC )(10.o C ) = 1.5 10 4 J

(18)
18. [G] The parts corresponding to the substance existing in two states are AB and
CD. During a phase change, the temperature of a substance does not change. This
corresponds to the horizontal lines AB and CD.

(19)
19. [G] The quantity of heat needed is:
Q = ml v
.
Q = ( 0.500 kg )( 2.30 MJ/kg ) = 1.15 MJ

The electric heater can supply this quantity in:

Q
t=
P
.
1.15 106 J
t= = 7.67 10 s
2

1.50 103 W

(20)
20. [G] The energy required to turn one kilogram of a substance from a solid into a
liquid state is the specific latent heat of fusion.
The energy required to turn one kilogram of a substance from a liquid into a gas
state is the specific latent heat of vaporization.

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Section 1.6 Expansion of Solids and Liquids upon Heating

(21)
21. Copper has a greater expansion coefficient and hence expands faster than iron.
The bimetallic strip thus bends downwards.

(22)
22. [G] An object shrinks when its temperature drops. Therefore, the wire will most
probably break.

Section 1.7 Heat Transfer by Conduction

(23)
23. All will have the same temperature. Because at thermal equilibrium, all bodies in
an insulated system end up with the same temperature.

(24)
24. No. They can exchange energy mechanically, for example.

(25)
25. [G]
a) We explain the flow of heat by means of the kinetic molecular theory by
imagining that the faster-moving molecules in the hotter parts of matter collide
with the slower-moving molecules in the colder parts in contact with them, thus,
passing on to them a part of their kinetic energy.

b) The free electrons in a metal are not confined to any particular place, but are
free to move throughout the body of the metal.
If a part of a metallic object is hotter than another, free-moving fast electrons
move across the body of the metal, and thus carry thermal energy across the
body, much faster than it can be transferred from molecule to molecule by
molecular collision.

(26)
26. [G] The ice at the bottom of the beaker did not melt. Then, heat was not transferred
through water from the top of the beaker to its bottom. Therefore, we can conclude
that water is a bad conductor of thermal energy (heat).

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Section 1.8 Convection

(27)
27. Trapped air forms a very good insulator preventing heat produced in our bodies
from escaping.

(28)
28. a) They preserve the thin layer in contact with the body by reducing convection.
b) They preserve the thin layer in contact with the body by reducing convection.
c) Forced convection: wind removes heat from the skin.

(29)
29. [G] Convection is a mode of heat transfer that takes place in fluids. In this method,
heat transfer takes place with the actual motion of matter from one place within the
body to the other.

For example, when water is heated at the bottom of a container, it expands and
becomes lighter since its density decreases. The warmer and less dense water
moves upwards forcing the cold and denser water at the top to come down and
thus get heated up and rising again; the cycle repeats forming convection currents.

Section 1.9 Radiation

(30)
30.

The vacuum completely stops conduction and convection.

The silvered surfaces reflect back radiation and prevent it from escaping the flask.

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(31)
31. By conduction: the lamp filament gets hot when the bulb is switched on and
because the argon gas is in contact with both the glass and the filament,
conduction takes place. Filament being a metal is a good conductor so heat energy
is passed from the filament to the glass bulb since the filament is hotter than the
bulb.
Convection currents take place in gas or a liquid, and here the gas is argon. As the
gas around the filament gets hot, its density decreases. Thus argon gas around the
filament rises and is replaced by the cool argon gas whose density is higher.
Therefore, convection currents are created and heat is lost.
Radiation: since all hot bodies give off radiant energy, the filament of the lamp
emits radiant energy at the beginning. Heating up the gas. which in turn heats the
glass bulb. The glass bulb becomes hot and again starts to emit radiant energy to
the surrounding.

(32)
32. [G] Radiation is defined as the flow of heat from one place to another by means
of electromagnetic waves. Radiation has all the properties of electromagnetic
waves and can travel through vacuum.

(33)
33. [G]
E = hf
E = ( 6.63 10−34 m2 .kg/s )( 6.0 1014 Hz ) = 4.0 10−19 J

(34)
34. [G] Black color is the best absorber and emitter of radiation.
White color is the best reflector of radiation.

Section 1.10 Heat Insulation

(35)
35. Double glazing. Loft insulation. Floor carpeting

(36)
36.
a) Copper is a good conductor of heat.
b) Black color is a good absorber of heat.
c) An insulating material is added to reduce heat loss to the surrounding.
d) Trapped air inside the glass sheet increases the energy collected by the water.

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(37)
37. [T]
a. The energy supplied to the substance as it melts is used to increase the potential energy
of its atoms/molecules, allowing them to overcome the intermolecular forces that hold them
together, and break free.

b.
i. Q = mwater cwater T , Q = ( 0.300 kg ) ( 4.1103 J/kg. C )( 20 C − 0 C ) = 2.5 10 4 J
ii. For the amount of ice that melts: Q = mice Lf
Q 2.5 104 J
mice = , mice = = 0.074 kg , Remaining ice: m = 250 g – 74 g = 176 g
Lf 3.4 105 J/kg

c. Conduction, convection, and radiation

(38)
38. [T]
a.
i. p =  
1
kPa/K  T , Dividing T over p gives, within the margin of error, the value of 2.7
 2.7 
in all columns
ii. volume, mass/amount

b. Greater temperature results in a greater average speed / momentum of gas particles,

which collide more often and more vigorously with the walls of the container producing a
greater pressure on the walls of the container.

c.

increases stays the same decreases

Volume of air X
Density of air X
Temperature of air X

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(39)
39. [T]
a.79C, When the sample freezes, its temperature remains constant.

b. As the internal energy is lost to the surrounding, the potential energy of the particles of
the sample decreases until it is low enough for the attraction of particles to form crystal
bonds.

c. Qf = mLf , Qf = ( 60 10−3 kg )( 264 103 J/kg ) = 16 kJ

d. convection

(40)
40. [T]
a. evaporation

b. The fan forces the fast moving air molecules of hot air to come in contact with the wet
cloth. Some of this kinetic energy is transferred to the water molecules, allowing them to
break free and evaporate.
As the result, water molecules absorb the thermal energy from air, cooling it down.

c. The fan maintains the forced convection of air gradually moving all air towards the wet
parts of the swamp box.

(41)
41. [T]
a. Only a small amount of energy is wasted on heating the pot; most of the energy of the
stove is used to heat the food in it.

b.
( )
i. E = Pt , E = 1.5 103 W ( 2.4 min )( 60 s/min ) = 2.16 105 J
( ) ( )
ii. Qw = cmT , Qw = 4200 J/kg. C ( 0.6 kg ) 80 C = 2.02 105 J
iii. The rest of the heat was transferred to the pot:
Qp = Q − Qw
Qp = 2.16 105 J − 2.02 105 J = 0.14 105 J
0.14 105 J
Qp = cp mp T , cp = = 700 J/kg. C
( 0.25 kg ) (80 C )
iv. Some of the heat supplied to the hotplate was lost to the surrounding

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(42)
42. [T]
a. A potential difference is generated between the wires made of two different metals, if
there is a difference in temperature between them.

b. potential difference (accept: current)

c.
i. Type N
ii. Type T

d. This is not necessarily true. If a precise instrument has a systemic error in its graduation,
it will give reading to many s.f., but all of them will be incorrect = inaccurate.

(43)
43. [T]
a. They vibrate about the equilibrium positions.

b. As the faster-moving particles of warm air collide with the slower-moving particles of
ice, they transfer some of their energy.
This energy is used to overcome the attraction of water particles in the crystalline lattice.
Once this is accomplished, the bonds between the particles are broken and the water
becomes liquid.

c. Q = mLf
Q = ( 5 10−3 kg )( 334 103 J/kg ) = 1.7 103 J

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Chapter 2 – Electricity

Section 2.1 Rubbing Together Some Materials

(44)
1. No, since for objects to be charged by rubbing, they must be rubbed against
objects of a different material.

Section 2.2. Electric Charges and Charged Bodies

(45)
2. The charge of B is negative; it would attract D.

(46)
3. [G] Two, positive and negative.

(47)
4. [G] Like charges would repel: diagrams A and C
Unlike charges would attract: diagram B

Section 2.3 Conductors and Insulators

(48)
5. Conductors: metals, electrolytes. Insulators: wood, plastic, etc.

(49)
6. [G] Conductors allow the flow of electric charges through them while insulators
limit the flow of charges.

Section 2.4 Sharing an Electric Charge

(50)
7. The ball will lose its charge to your body. If you were barefoot, charges leak from
the ball through your hand and into the earth.

(51)
8. [G] To earth a charged object means to bring it in contact with a much larger
conductor, which may or may not be planet Earth.

(52)
9. [G] 1. An uncharged metal sphere is put on an insulating stand.
2. A positively charged glass rod is brought near the sphere without actually
touching it.
3. Without removing the glass rod, the sphere is momentarily earthed.
4. The glass rod is moved far away.
5. The metal sphere is left with a negative charge.

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Section 2.5 Attraction of Neutral Bodies by Charged Objects

(53)
10. a) The metal rod will attract the sphere.
b) An induced negative charge will appear at the end of the rod closer to the ball
causing a net attractive force.
(54)
11.
a) We rub the plastic strip with paper. The strip becomes negatively charged and
the paper positively charged. We touch one of the spheres with the paper and the
sphere becomes positively charged. Then we touch the charged sphere to the
second one and the charge will spread so the spheres will have equal positive
charges.

b) We rub the plastic strip with paper so the strip becomes negatively charged. The
two metal spheres are put on insulating stands such that they touch each other.
The charged strip is brought near one of the metal spheres, and the spheres are
separated by pulling the stands apart. The sphere that was nearer to the charged
strip is found to have positive charge and the other one an equal amount of
negative charge.
(55)
12. Since charges have same magnitude, nothing happens as the two rods tend to
attract the sphere with opposite forces.

(56)
13. [G] Based on Coulomb’s law:
q q
F = k 1 2 2 , with q1 = q2 = q
r
F r2
q =
2

k
F r2
q =
k

( 5.0 N ) (1.0 10−2 m)

2

q = = 2.4  10−7 C
9.0 10 N.m /C
9 2 2

(57)
14. [G] Consider a negatively charged plastic rod and an uncharged conducting
sphere.

When brought near each other, the positive charges within the conducting sphere
are attracted towards the negatively charged plastic rod, while the negative charges

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are repelled away from the rod. This results in a positive charge nearer to the rod,
and an equal negative charge farther away from the rod.
Since the positive charge is nearer, the attractive force is greater than the repulsive
force exerted on the equal negative charge, hence resulting in a net attractive force.

Section 2.6 A Model for Electric Charge

(58)
15. q = Ne so N = 7.4 × 10-9/1.6 × 10-19 = 4.625 × 1010 electrons.

(59)
16. q = Ne so N = 20/1.6 × 10-19 = 1.25 × 1020 electrons.

(60)
17. [G] When an object gains electrons, it becomes negatively charged.
When an object loses electrons, it becomes positively charged.

Section 2.7 Charge Detection

(61)
18. The negatively charged plastic rod will repel electrons from the metal cap to the
gold leaves, causing the gold leaves to separate and rise as the excess of electrons
in the gold leaves leave them negatively charged. When we take the rod away, the
electrons that were repelled return to the metal cap and the gold leaves hang straight
down.
(62)
19. [G] Bring the body with the unknown charge near the cap of an uncharged
electroscope:

• If the leaf does not diverge, then the body is neutral.

• If the leaf diverges, then the body is charged and we have to find the sign of that
charge. For this, electrify the electroscope with a charge of a known sign. After
charging the electroscope with a negative charge for example, we then bring the
charged body near the metal cap of the electroscope. If the leaf diverges more,
then the object is negatively charged and if the divergence of the leaf decreases,
then the object is positively charged.

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Section 2.8 Electrostatics in Real Life – Applications

(63)
20. a) The hair gets charged and repel like the leaves of an electroscope.
b) Paint drops are charged negatively as they leave the gun and are attracted to
the wall (which is grounded). by grounding the surface to be painted, charged
particles are attracted to the surface, hence depositing on it a thin coating. Static
electricity can cause a sparkle that might ignite the petroleum product.
c) The conductor provides a path for electrons to flow easily in huge numbers
from the top of a building to the ground. Thunderclouds carry charges, and if a
negatively charged one passes overhead it repels electrons from the spikes to the
earth. The points on the spikes are left with a high positive charge density. The air
between the cloud and the thick copper strip will be ionized and the positive ions
will be attracted to the cloud, leaving the negatively charged electrons to pass
through the thick copper strip towards the metal plate which is buried deep in the
ground.
d) The specimen to investigate is on one plate and it is connected to the negative
terminal of the power supply. The metal plate with the powder is connected to the
positive terminal of a high voltage charger, making it acquire a positive charge.
The positively charged powder is repelled from the metal plate and hits the
specimen, sticking only to the ridges of the fingerprint. The other powder particles
lose their positive charge and acquire a negative charge, so they are repelled back
to the bottom plate.
e) A fine wire grid inside the precipitator is kept highly charged so that a
discharge will always occur between the fine grid and the two concave metal
plates, which are earthed. When the smoke and dust particles carrying waste gases
rise through the region between the grid and the concave metal plates, the charged
dust particles are repelled from the wire grid and attracted to the earthed plates
where they are deposited.

(64)
21. a) positive charge
b) No. The balloons repel because they have like charges.

Section 2.9 Electric Field

(65)
22. the one "feeling" the field

(66)
23. A uniform electric field is characterized by parallel lines of field and has the
same magnitude and direction at any point in space.

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(67)
24. [G] An electric field is a vector quantity and thus has both magnitude and direction.
The magnitude of the field at any point is the force per unit charge. The
F
mathematical model that describes electric field is E = , where E is the electric
q0
field in newton per coulomb, F is the force in newtons, and q0 is a positive test
charge expressed in coulombs.

(68)
25. [G]

Section 2.10 Electric Current

(69)
26. [G] An electric current can be defined as a flow of electric charges.
The SI unit of an electric current (the ampere), represents the flow, past a point, of
1 C of charge per second.

(70)
27. [G]

(71)
28. [G] The quantity of charge is given by:
Q = It
Q = ( 9.1 A )( 3.5 min )( 60 s/min ) = 1.9 103 C

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Section 2.11 Potential Difference

(72)
29. W = QV = 2 × 1.5 = 3 J.
It comes from the electric potential energy in the dry cell.

(73)
30. [G] The energy released is given by:
W = QV
W = (5.0 C)(3.0 V) = 15 J

Section 2.12 Electric Power and Energy

(74)
31.
a) chemical potential energy
b) heat energy
c) mechanical energy
d) light energy

(75)
32. [G]
a.
P
I=
V
2.00 103 W
I= = 9.09 A
220. V
b.
E = Pt
E = ( 2.00 103 W ) (8.00 h )( 3600 s/h ) = 5.76 107 J

Section 2.13 Electromagnetic Force emf

(76)
33.
a) This energy is the e.m.f. of the battery, i.e. 4.5 J.
b) The energy lost by one coulomb is 4.5 – 4.1 = 0.4 J. This energy appears as
heat in the generator.
c) The energy supplied to the bulb and wires is 4.1 J.

(77)
34. Q = It = 70 × 1 × 3600 = 252000 C

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(78)
35. [G] The energy supplied by a generator to transport 1 C of positive charge from
the negative terminal to the positive terminal is called the electromotive force.

Section 2.14 Electric Circuits

(79)
36.
Consider a silver wire, a constantan wire
and a plastic ruler.
Connect each of the above wires, separately,
in series to a circuit containing a 1.5 V cell
and an ammeter. You will notice that the
current is maximum when the silver wire
is connected. The current will decrease
through the constantan wire, and no current will
pass when the plastic ruler is connected.
Therefore, silver is a better conductor than constantan. While plastic is an insulator.

(80)
37. a)

b)

c)

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(81)
38. [G]

(82)
39. [G]

R1

R2

The current in the resistors is the same while the voltage of the cell is divided
across each resistors.

Section 15: Taking Electric Measurements

(83)
40. [G] An ammeter should always be included in series with the component through
which the current is to be measured and the polarity must be respected.

(84)
41. [G] A voltmeter measures the potential difference between two points in a circuit
and its terminals must be connected to these points.

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Section 2.16 Kirchhoff’s Laws

(85)
42. [G] According to Kirchhoff’s current law, the sum of currents entering a junction
is equal to the sum of currents exiting it:
2A+4A=x+3A
x=3A

(86)
43. [G] Kirchhoff’s voltage rule states that the sum of the potential difference in
series is equal to the potential difference across the whole branch.
V1 + V2 + V3 = 24 V (1)

Since resistors 2 and 3 are identical, then V2 = V3 = V.

In addition, V1 = 4V2 = 4V

Equation (1) becomes:

4V + V + V = 24 V
6V = 24 V
V = 4.0 V

The voltage across resistor 1 is 4V = 16 V and that across resistors 2 and 3 is

equal to 4.0 V.

Section 2.17 Grouping Generators (series and parallel)

(87)
44. [G] Calculate the emf of the grouping if the emf of each cell is 2.0 V.

a. 0 V
b. 8.0 V
c. 2.0 V

Section 2.18 Resistor V-I Relationship

(88)
45. Using V = E - rI, set up two equations in two unknowns:
5.5 = E - r
5 = E - 2r
Solve to get: E = 6 V and r = 0.5 Ω.

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(89)
46. Resistance depends on the resistivity, length and cross-sectional area of the
l
conductor, such that R =  . Unit of ρ is Ω.m
A
(90)
47. [G] The ratio of the potential difference across a conductor to the current through
it is a characteristic property of the conductor called its resistance usually denoted
by R.

(91)
48. [G] Applying Ohm’s law for an ohmic conductor:

V = RI
V
I=
R
12 V
I= = 0.24 A
50. 

(92)
49. [G] The length of the wire is given by:
RA
l=

( 0.655  ) ( 0.517 10−6 m2 )
l= = 19.7 m
1.72 10−8 .m

Section 2.19 Electric Power and Energy in a Resistor

(93)
50. Pt = IVt = mcΔT => (50)(110)(3600) = (100)(4.2 x 103)(ΔT) => ΔT= 47 °C
The water temperature will reach 30 + 47 = 77 °C

(94)
51. [G]
V2
P=
R
( 24.0 V )
2

P= = 38.4 W
15.0 

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(95)
52. [G] The energy dissipated by the resistor as heat is given by:
E = Pt (1)
2
V
where P = .
R

Equation (1) becomes:

V2
E= t
R
(10. V )
2

E= ( 30 min )( 60 s/min ) = 7.2 103 J

25 

Section 2.20 Resistors

(96)
53. Variable resistors are called rheostats or potentiometers. However,
A potentiometer is a three terminal variable resistor, but a rheostat is a two
terminal variable resistor.
Potentiometers are often used to vary voltage and rheostats are used to vary
current.

(97)
54. [G] When the wiper is set at point 1, the output voltage Vout at the terminals of
the potentiometer is zero. While at point 3, the output voltage at the terminals of
the potentiometer will be equal to the input voltage of 6 V. Therefore, for the
student to get 3 V at the output, she must place the wiper midway between point 1
and point 3 on the resistive track.

Section 2.21 Characteristic Curve I-V Graph

(98)
55. a)

b) i. The resistance increases.

ii. No, the lamp is not an ohmic conductor. It doesn't obey Ohm's law since its
resistance is not constant (V-I graph is not a straight line).

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(99)
56. [G] a. Component X is a diode.
b. When the poles of the diode are flipped, the current will stop flowing in
the circuit.

(100)
57. [G]
a. The current through an ohmic conductor is directly proportional to the p.d.
across its ends if the temperature and other conditions are constant. The I-V
graph of an ohmic conductor is a straight line passing through the origin.

b. At low currents, the characteristic of a filament lamp is a straight line passing

through the origin as shown below. As the current increases, more heat will be
produced and the temperature rise will increase its resistance and the slope of
the characteristic curve decreases.

c. A thermistor has a Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC), which means

that its resistance decreases as the temperature increases. An NTC thermistor
becomes a better conductor at higher temperatures, so the slope of the
characteristic curve increases.

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 Physics M

d. Diodes exhibit very high resistance in one direction and low resistance in the
other. In the forward direction (low resistance) a diode is nearly ohmic, but in
the reverse direction (high resistance) a very small current flows.

Section 2.22 Simple Circuits: Series and Parallel Resistors

(101)
58. a) The equivalent of the 2 resistances is: Req = 2 + 4 = 6 Ω.
V = IReq = 0.5 ×6 = 3 V.
b) Series combination of any number of cells in parallel. A parallel combination
of series pairs. The parallel combination of the first two.

(102)
59. a) V = IR, then I = V/R = 1.5/a3.5 = 0.43 A
b) V = IR = 6.25 × 17.6 = 110 V

(103)
60. [G] The equivalent resistance of the resistors in series:
Re = R1 + R2 + R3
Re = 15  + 25  + 50  = 90 

(104)
61. [G] The equivalent resistance of the resistors in parallel:
1 1 1 1
= + +
Re R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1 13 −1
= + + = 
Re 10  15  20  60
Re = 4.6 

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 Physics M

(105)
62. [G] Ohm’s law for resistors 1 and 2:
V1 = I12R1
V2 = I12R2
Based on Kirchhoff’s current law:
I12 = I – I3
The current flowing through R3 is:
I3 = E / R3
I3 = 4.50 V / 9.00  = 0.500 A
The current flowing through the circuit is:
I = E / Re
R1 and R2 are in series and their combination is in parallel with R3, then:
R R
Re = 12 3
R12 + R3

Re =
( R1 + R2 ) R3
R1 + R2 + R3

Re =
( 2.00  + 4.00  )( 9.00  ) = 3.60 
2.00  + 4.00  + 9.00 
I = 4.50 V / 3.60  = 1.25 A
I12 = 1.25 A – 0.500 A = 0.750 A
V1 = (2.00 )(0.750 A) = 1.50 V
V2 = (4.00 )(0.750 A) = 3.00 V

Section 2.23 Designing Electrical Measuring Instruments

(106)
63. [G]
I fs
Rs = RC
I − I fs
 1.0  10−3 A 
Rs =  −3  ( 500  ) = 0.1 
 5.0 A − 1.0 10 A 

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(107)
64. [T]
a. P = IV , P = ( 3.2 A )( 24 V ) = 77 W

b.
Pout
i.  =  100%
Pin

Pout =
Pin (80% )( 77 W ) = 62 W
, Pout =
100% 100%

ii. Heat dissipated in wires. Heat dissipated due to friction

c. GPE = mgh = wh
E = Pt
wh
t =
Pout

(108)
65. [T]
a. Resistances in series: R =  Ri , Resistances in parallel:
1 1
=
R Ri
Rbulb Rbulb ( 20  )( 20  ) = 50 
Req = Rresistor + , Req = 40  +
Rbulb + Rbulb 20  + 20 

b.
 3.0 V
i. I = , I= = 60 mA
Req 50 

ii. By Kirchhoff's law, for currents through parallel branches: I =  Ii

Since the bulbs are identical IA = IC = I/2 = 30 mA

iii. IC = 30 mA

c.
i. V = I A Rbulb , V = ( 0.03 A )( 20  ) = 0.6 V
ii. V = IRresistor , V = ( 0.06 A )( 40  ) = 2.4 V

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(109)
66. [T]
a. Electrons move towards the side of the ball that faces the sphere.

b.
i. The ball tilts towards the sphere, touches it, and then deflects back.
ii. Initially the induced charge on the side of the ball facing the sphere leads to an attraction
force between the sphere and the ball. Once the objects touch, some of the electrons move
into the sphere, making the ball positively charged. Once both objects are positively
charged they repel each other.

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 Physics M

Chapter 3 – Magnetism

Section 3.1 Magnets and Ferromagnetic Materials

(110)
1. a) Magnetism is the name given to a class of physical phenomena in which matter
exhibits interactions similar to those observed between magnets.
b) Ferromagnetic materials are materials that are strongly attracted by magnets.
c) Permanent magnets can lose their magnetism by a mechanical shock, strong
heating and the proximity of other, stronger magnets.

(111)
2. [G] Ferromagnetic (or simply magnetic) materials are materials that are strongly
attracted by magnets. These include cobalt, nickel, steel (which is mostly iron),
and certain materials called ceramics made by pressurizing powders to form solid
bodies.

Section 3.2 Poles of a Magnet

(112)
3. Approach the end of one rod to the middle of the other rod. If the rods attract,
then the end is a magnetic pole. If the rods don't attract, then the end is just iron.

(113)
4. The two poles of a magnet are the north pole and the south pole.
Freely suspend a magnet and the extremity pointing north is the north pole and the
other would be the south.

(114)
5. No. Breaking a bar magnet results in two other magnets. Isolating a pole is not
possible (monopoles do not exist).

(115)
6. [G] Like poles repel each other while unlike poles attract each other.

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Section 3.3 Magnetic Induction

(116)
7. [G]

(117)
8. [G] When a magnet attracts an object made of ferromagnetic material, the latter
behaves like a magnet. This is to say, magnets can turn magnetic objects into
magnets. This phenomenon is called magnetic induction. Magnetic materials are
divided into two classes, commonly known as soft and hard ferromagnetic.

Section 3.4 Magnetic Field and the Theory of Magnetism

(118)
9. a) Since P is a north pole, then the direction of the magnetic field is taken as the
direction of the force exerted on it, therefore:
tan q = 3/4
Thus, q = 37o
Or, E 37o N

b) Since P is a south pole, the direction of the magnetic field is opposite to the given
directions of the forces, therefore
tan q = 3/4, hence q = 37o
Or, W 37o S.

Level M | 28
 Physics M

(119)
10. [G] A magnetic field is the space around the pole of a magnet that exerts a force
on any magnet placed in that region of space. The direction of a magnetic field at
a point is the direction of the force it produces on a north pole placed at that point.

Section 3.5 Magnetic Field lines

(120)
11. The direction of the magnetic field at that point is westward.

(121)
12. [G] Every field line is a smooth curve starting at a north pole and ending at a
south pole. Very close to the poles, the lines are close together, and the field is
very strong. As you move away from the magnet along its axis, the lines become
farther apart, which means that the field becomes weaker.

Section 3.6 Flux Patterns

(122)
13.

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(123)
14. [G]

Section 3.7 Magnetic Shielding

(124)
15. At any point, we can have only one resultant magnetic field. If field lines
intersect at a point, then at that point the field will have TWO different directions
(a plotting compass will point in two directions at the same time), which is
impossible.

(125)
16. 1. Place a plotting compass at the point through which it is desired to plot the
line, such that the point is just at the tip of the north pole of the needle. Draw a
little arrow showing the direction in which the north pole points.
2. Move the plotting compass such that the end of the south pole is on the little
arrow just drawn, and draw another little arrow where the tip of the north pole
now is.
3. Move the compass to the new arrow drawn in step 2 and draw a new arrow as
you did before. Continue with this procedure until you reach a point at which you
wish to stop. If you approach a pole slowly, ensuring that the needle pivots freely,
you will not reverse its magnetism. It is however dangerous to thrust a magnetic
needle rapidly towards a pole.
4. Join all the little arrows with a smooth curve. This curve is approximately the
required magnetic field line. It is not exact because the small errors in each step
accumulate and add up to an appreciable error.
5. By starting at different points near the north pole of a bar magnet, different
filed lines can be drawn.

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(126)
17. The magnetic field of the magnet overcomes that of the earth. The compass will
align with the magnet's field.

Section 3.8 Radial Magnetic Fields

(127)
18. The field of a U-shaped magnet can be shaped by adding two rounded soft iron
armatures to the poles and inserting a cylinder of soft iron into the gap. The
armatures (curved in shape) of the U-shaped magnet creates a radial magnetic
field that is shunted inside a soft iron cylinder placed in the circular gap between
the armatures. This creates a field of the type plane-symmetric radial field. Such a
field can exert a sideways tangential push on a current-carrying wire, placed in the
annular gap, parallel to the central axis of the field.

(128)
19. A circular magnet that looks like a hollow cylinder is used.
The magnet is fitted over a bolt-shaped armature that shunts the lines of force into
it, and directs them to the cylindrical tip of the bolt, which acts as a south pole.
The second armature is shaped like a hollow cylinder of the same dimensions as
the permanent magnet, and sits on top of it. This armature acts as the north pole.
This combination creates an axially symmetric radial magnetic field which is able
to pull into it or push out of it the coil carrying a current. As the current varies
rapidly, the coil moves in and out of the radial field, vibrating the cone attached to
it, causing it to give sound.
Section 3.9 Storing Magnets
(129)
20. [G]
• Storing a magnet without a soft iron keeper.
• Heating a magnet to a high temperature.
• Dropping a magnet.
• An alternating current in an electromagnet can be used to demagnetize magnets.

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Section 3.10 Magnetic Field by a Straight Current

(130)
21.
a) Support a wire through a stiff card and pass a current through the wire. Sprinkle
some iron fillings over the card and increase the current. Watch the iron fillings'
concentration increase along the concentric circles around the wire.
b) When the direction of the current is reversed, a plotting compass near the wire
will point in the opposite direction

(131)
22. [G]

current into the page

× magnetic field in clockwise direction

The right hand rule can be used to determine the direction of the magnetic field
around a current-carrying wire.

(132)
23. [G] The current flowing through the wire and the distance from the wire.

Section 3.11 Magnetic Field of a Circular Current

(133)
24. a) According to the right hand rule, the magnetic field comes out from the right
side and sinks in the left side. Hence the right side of the solenoid represents the
north N and the left is the south S.
b)

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(134)
25. [G] Based on the right hand grip rule, the magnetic field created by the solenoid
is directed to the right.

Section 3.12 Electromagnets

(135)
26. When a current passes through the solenoid, it induces magnetic field. The
solenoid acts like a magnet that in turn magnetizes the iron core by magnetic
induction.

(136)
27.
(a) doubling the current
(b) double the number of loops per unit of length

(137)
28. [G] The magnetic field created by an electromagnet can effectively be switched
on and off. Electromagnets can be shaped like bars, horseshoes or other shapes.
Electromagnets can create much stronger fields than permanent magnets.

(138)
29. [G] Some applications of electromagnets are:

1. tape recorders
2. electric bells
3. relay switches
4. reed switches

Section 3.13 Electromagnetic Force

(139)
30. Design a circuit in the form of a swing and placed in between the poles of a U-
shaped magnet such that its magnetic field is vertical and perpendicular to the
wire. Allow current to pass and observe how wire moves. Change the direction of
the current by exchanging the connection at the terminals of the battery and
observe how the wire moves. Change the direction of the field by exchanging the
poles of the magnet (i.e. by turning the magnet upside down) and observe how the
wire moves.

Level M | 33
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(140)
31. Design a circuit in the form of a swing and placed in between the poles of a U-
shaped magnet such that its magnetic field is vertical and perpendicular to the
wire. Vary current using a rheostat and measure force using a dynamometer
attached to the wire. Use a bigger/weaker magnet and measure the force again.
You will notice that the larger the current/field the larger is the force.

(141)
32.
a)
i. The size of the force is not affected.
ii. The direction is reversed.
b) To increase the force on the wire we can either increase the current or increase
the magnetic field

(142)
33. [G] The “right hand rule” used to determine the direction of the force: Direct
your thumb along the current, your index along the magnetic field, and your third
finger will show the direction of the force.
The Motor Force Rule: If you curl the fingers of the right hand in the sense of the
smallest rotation from the direction of the conventional current to the direction of
the magnetic field, the thumb points in the direction of the force.
The Right-Handed Screwdriver Rule: if a right-handed screw is turned by a
screwdriver so that the notch in the screw head rotates from I to B, the screw
advances in the direction of F.

Section 3.14 Magnetic Flux

(143)
34. The flux through a loop is maximum when the magnetic field lines are
perpendicular to the plane of the loop and is zero when the field lines are parallel
to the plane of the loop.

(144)
35. [G] The magnetic flux depends on the strength of the magnetic field, the area of
the loop, and the orientation of the loop with respect to the magnetic field.

Section 3.15 Force exerted on a current-carrying loop by an external magnetic field

(145)
36. (a) same sense: attraction
(b) opposite sense: repulsion

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Section 3.16 The Principle of the Moving Coil Galvanometer

(146)
37. [G] When a coil is in a radial magnetic field, the torque exerted by the motor force
on the coil is always maximum. But if the field is uniform, the moment decreases
to zero when the coil is perpendicular to the field. A coil with n turns will have
same current in each turn as well as same motor force. Therefore, if the motor force
on one turn is F, the motor force on n turns is n.F. Hence, the turning effect on a
current-carrying coil is directly proportional to the number of turns in the coil.

A galvanometer is more sensitive if it gives the same deflection for smaller currents.
This means that a more sensitive galvanometer gives a bigger deflection for the
same current. One way of doing this is to use a spring with a smaller constant.
Another way is to get more turning effect out of the current. One way of getting a
bigger torque is to increase the number of turns in the coil. The other way is to use
a stronger magnet.

Section 3.17 The principle of the Direct Current Electric Motor

(147)
38. [G] The DC electric motor is a device that can turn through many full
revolutions under the action of the motor force, where a DC supply is connected
to a coil in such that (i) the wires that lead to the coil can remain at rest (ii) the
torque due to the motor force is always in the same sense. This is the function of
the split-ring commutator. The working principle is described as follows:

1. A current carrying coil placed in a uniform magnetic field can make a half
revolution under the action of a couple of electromagnetic forces.
2. By reversing the current in the coil when the coil becomes perpendicular
to the field, the new electromagnetic forces will turn the coil (another) half
revolution. (The torque due to the new motor forces will be in the same sense as
before, so the coil will rotate in the same direction as before.)
3. A continuous rotation of the coil in one direction (half revolution after half
revolution) is acquired by reversing the sense of the current through it, after every
half revolution.

Section 3.18 Where Does the Energy come from?

(148)
39. a) The energy comes from the electric current.
b) Part of the energy goes as useful energy (for example, to rotate a motor) and
the rest is dissipated as heat due to resistance in the wires and in the motor.

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(149)
40. The most favorable is the position where the torque on the coil is nearly zero,
i.e. where the coil is facing the magnets.

(150)
41. [T]
1.
a. ABCD

b. Clockwise

c. By right hand rule, when we curl fingers from the direction of current towards the
direction of the magnetic field, the thumb points in the direction of the force exerted on
charges moving in the magnetic field.
The magnetic field exerts an upward force on part AB and a downward force on part CD.

d. current in the loop, magnitude of the magnetic field

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Chapter 4 – Induced and Alternating Currents

Section 4.1 Induced Currents

(151)
1. Place a pendulum shaped wire in a magnetic field, as shown in the adjacent
figure, and start swinging it. Positive and negative charges in the moving wire
will be subjected to opposite forces, hence a separation of charge will take place.
The charges will keep separating until their electrostatic attractive forces balance
the electromagnetic separating forces. Meanwhile, the motion of the wire induces
a current in it. Furthermore, if we hook up, across the terminals A and B, a micro-
ammeter, it will register a current.

(152)
2. Set up the swing (pendulum) circuit equipped with a horse-shoe magnet. We
observe that moving the wire by hand towards the left, produces an e.m.f. such
that positive charge flows from A towards B. Using the right-hand rule, the motor
force on a conventional current in this sense is to the right, that is opposing the
change of flux. This explains why the pendulum mentioned above loses energy
more rapidly if it induces currents than if it swings freely.

(153)
3. [G] The charge must be moving in a magnetic field.

(154)
4. [G] Based on the right hand rule, the magnetic force acts into the page.

Level M | 37
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(155)
5. [G] The induced emf can be increased by:
- using a stronger magnet
- rotating the wire faster
- using a wire with a bigger surface area
- increasing the number of turns in the wire

(156)
6. [G]
a. Faraday’s law states that the induced emf in a circuit is directly
proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux through any surface
bounded by that circuit.

b. The actions that increase the induced emf are:

- The faster the magnet is moved relative to the coil, the larger the induced
emf.
- If, for the same speed, a more powerful magnet is used, the induced emf
will be larger.
- If there are more turns in the coil, the induced emf will be larger.

(157)
7. [G]
a. Lenz’s law states that an induced e.m.f. tends to oppose the change in the flux
producing it.

b. As the coil is pushed in, the flux increases. According to Lenz's law, the
induced magnetic field should oppose the increase in flux, hence it should be
directed outward. By the right hand rule, the current traverses the loop in an
anticlockwise direction.

Section 4.2 Alternating Currents

(158)
8. The current is periodic since it repeats itself over constant time interval, called
period, which is 2 seconds in this case.

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(159)
9. [G]

When the loop ABCD is rotated inside the magnetic field, the flux entering the
loop will vary with time. Hence, this change in flux will create an induced current
that will traverse the loop and will change its direction depending on the
orientation of the loop with respect to the magnetic field.

(160)
10. [G]
a. The maximum value of the current is 5 A.
b. The current has a maximum value at 25 ms and 125 ms.
c. The current is zero at 50 ms and 100 ms.
d. The current changes its sense at 50 ms.
e. The period is 100 ms.
Then the frequency is 1/100 ms
f = 10 Hz

(161)
11. [G] The r.m.s. current is:
I
I rms = m
2
3.0 A
I rms = 2.1 A
2

Level M | 39
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(162)
12. [G] Two different methods of generating electricity as illustrated below. The
coils rotate in between the magnets to produce electricity.

Illustration A is an alternating current generator; it uses a slip ring at the output of

the generator. The current changes direction in the coil continuously as it rotates.
Illustration B is a direct current generator; it uses a split ring commutator at the
output of the generator. The current keeps one direction in the rotating coil at all
times.

(163)
13. [G] A loop of wires able to rotate is placed in between the arms of a horseshoe
magnet. As it rotates, the magnetic flux through it changes continuously, thus
inducing a continuous current. When the loop becomes parallel to the field, the
flux becomes zero. Beyond this point, the flux through the left face starts
increasing. The induced current in the loop tends to oppose the change in flux; as
long as the change in flux is taking place in one sense, the direction of current in
the loop does not change. However, as the loop shoots beyond the position in
which it is normal to the field, the flux through the upper face starts decreasing
and the current changes direction. The current is taken out of the rotating coil
through a twin-ring or slip-ring commutator.

(164)
14. [G] An AC generator can be transformed into a DC generator if the slip rings, in
the former, are replaced by a commutator like that in a DC motor. In that case, the
two brushes are arranged so that as the coil goes through the vertical, an exchange
of contact occurs from one half of the split ring of the commutator to the other.
This way, the emf induced in the coil reverses every half a cycle, hence one brush
remains positive and the other negative, which is equivalent to say that the
induced current flows without changing its sense with time; AC is thus converted
to DC.

Level M | 40
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(165)
15. [G] The induced emf is maximal when the surface of the loop is perpendicular
to the magnetic field. Therefore, at points B and D, the surface of the loop is
perpendicular to the magnetic field.
The induced emf is zero when the surface of the loop is parallel to the magnetic
field. Therefore, at points A and C, the surface of the loop is parallel to the
magnetic field.

Section 4.3 Transformers

(166)
16.
a) The operation of transformers requires ac. to produce an alternating magnetic
field hence a continuously changing flux, needed to induce an alternating e.m.f.,
is established.
b) Iron is ferromagnetic so it ensures good magnetic linkage between the primary
and secondary coils.
c) Vout/Vin = Ns/Np, then Vout = (2000/4800) × 240 = 100 V.
d) 50 Hz

(167)
17.
a) Vout/Vin = Ns/Np, then Ns = (6/120) × 960 = 48 turns.
b) Since Vout < Vin, then this is a step down transformer.

(168)
18.
a) Perfect magnetic linking and no energy dissipation.
b) (i) P = IV, then I = 48/12 = 4 A.
(ii) No power loss, then Pin = 48W, so P = IV gives I = 48/240 = 0.2 A

(169)
19. [G] The alternating current in the primary coil produces a variable magnetic
field. The magnetic field is led by the ferromagnetic path (the soft iron core) from
inside the primary coil to inside the secondary coil, with only a small (ideally
none) decrease in strength.
The variable magnetic field in the secondary coil induces an alternating current in
the secondary coil of the same frequency as the one in the primary coil.
A laminated core is used in order to have less energy loss by eddy currents in the
core.

Level M | 41
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(170)
20. [G]
a. A step-up transformer is used to increase the output voltage, where the
secondary coil has more turns than the primary coil, i.e. Ns/Np > 1.
A step-down transformer is used to decrease the output voltage of an alternating
current. In this case, the secondary coil has less turns than the primary coil, i.e. Ns/Np
< 1.
b.
V2 N 2
=
V1 N1
V2 2000 turns
=
240 V 4800 turns
V2 = 100 V

(171)
21. [G] The efficiency of the transformer is given by:
P
efficiency = out 100
Pin
1500 W
efficiency =  100 = 75%
2000 W

(172)
22. [G]
a.
NS Vout
=
N P Vin
100 12 V
=
N P 240 V
N P = 2, 000
b.
P = IU
P = 3.0 A  240V
P = 720 W
c.
Pout
efficiency = 100
Pin
95 Pout
=
100 720 W
Pout = 684 W

Level M | 42
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Section 4.4 Power Stations and Transmission of Electrical Power

(173)
23.
a) i. Reduce losses, (ii) transformers can be used to manipulate voltages.
b) i. Vout/Vin = Ns/Np, then Ns = (6/240) × 800 = 20 turns.
ii. Pin = Pout, then Pin = VI, so I = 24/240 = 0.1 A
c) i. The total voltage would be 12 V, hence the number of turns have to be
doubled, i.e. 40 turns.
ii. In parallel, voltage is the same, hence Vout remains 6 V. The number of turns in
this case should not be altered.

(174)
24. [G] By using high voltages, the transmitted current can be reduced which in turn
will reduce the power lost in the cables.

Section 4.5 The principles of Household Wiring

(175)
25. First, read the power requirement P of the appliance (in watts) from its
specification plate, label, or manual. Then use P = IV to calculate I, the current
requirement. Finally, select a fuse from the values available commercially so that
the current at which it blows is the closest value to I but greater than it.

(176)
26. This applies to appliances that have (i) a tough plastic chassis instead of a metal
one and (ii) no metal parts protruding from the inside of the plastic chassis to the
outside.

(177)
27. A transformer should be switched and fused at the live wire of the primary coil.
It should also be earthed: The earth wire should be connected to the core of the
transformer and to the outer chassis (where it exits).

(178)
28. Do switch off and disconnect all devices when you are not using them.
Do replace fuse wire with the correct rating wire, never with ordinary wire.
Do learn how to connect plugs correctly.
Do not expose any wiring unless it is disconnected.
Do not take high rated power appliances like hairdryers into wet areas like
bathrooms because the risk of getting an electric shock is high.
Do not use plugs which are damaged and have no cable grip.

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(179)
29. [G] Fuses are wires of higher resistance than the wires they protect and
preferably a lower melting point that connected in series with the circuit they are
supposed to protect. If the current suddenly rises in the circuit, enough heat will
be produced in the fuse to melt the fuse, thus breaking the circuit. Fuses must
always be placed on the live wire.

(180)
30. [G] A suitable fuse for this hairdryer is a 2.0 A rating fuse. A fuse lower that 1.5
A will break before the hairdryer reaches its normal operating capacity and a fuse
much greater than 1.5 A will not serve its purpose of protecting the device from
over current.

(181)
31. [T]
a.
i. Current
ii. Alternating current
iii. Pmax = VmaxImax, P = (250 V)(13 A) = 3.25 kW

b.

c.
A fuse should be connected to a live wire

d. A fuse protects from over-currents that can:

– overheat the wires causing fire
– damage a sensitive appliance

(182)
32. [T]
a. They accelerate electrons through the tube.

b. It produces light wherever electrons strike it.

c.
i. 12 mV
ii. For using three cycles to determine the period of the oscillations
T=
( 20 div )(1 ms/div ) = 6.7 ms
3
1 1
f = , f = −3
= 1.5 102 Hz
T 6.7 10 s

Level M | 44
 Physics M

(183)
33. [T]
a. To eliminate eddy currents, and decrease power losses in the transformer

Vp Np Ns  40 turns 
b. = , Vs = Vp , Vs =   ( 240 V ) = 16 V
Vs Ns Np  600 turns 

c. The alternating current in the primary coil generates alternating magnetic field (and
flux)
Only a variable magnetic field can generate e.m.f. in the secondary coil.

d. In the ideal transformer Pin = Pout

I pVp = I sVs
I pVp
Is =
Vs
0.05 A  240 V
Is = = 0.75 A
16 V

(184)
34. [T]
a.
i. A
BCD
ii. increases

b. 0.5 Hz.

c. Any two of the following: increase the speed of rotation, use stronger magnet, use a loop
of a greater area.

Level M | 45
 Physics M

(185)
35. [T]
a. slip-rings and brushes

b. i.
T

ii.
iii. - smaller period
- greater amplitude

c. diode or rectifier

Level M | 46
 Physics M

Chapter 5 – Electronics

Section 5.1 Semiconductors

(186)
1. a) In the forward bias regime. That is, when the positive pole of the battery is
connected to the p-side and the negative pole to the n-side.
b) In forward biasing, the +ve pole, now connected to the p-side, pushes the holes
towards the junction. The –ve pole does the same with the electrons, the junction
becomes rich in carriers and an electric current flows. The electrons crossing the
junction are taken up by the positive terminal of the generator and circulated to the
other pole where they re-enter the junction maintaining an electric current in it.

(187)
2. An ideal diode has zero resistance when forward biased and infinite resistance
when reverse-biased. Thus, the ideal diode is either a short circuit or an open
circuit.

(188)
3. V = VD + VR then VR = 6 - 0.6 = 5.4 V
Ohm's law: VR = RI gives I = 5.4/600 = 0.009 A = 9 mA.

(189)
4. [G] Semiconductors are used to build electronic devices, since these materials,
under standard conditions, have intermediate conductivity between good
conductors and insulators. The conductivity of semiconductors depends on
temperature, illumination, and the degree of impurity they have.

(190)
5. [G] Consider pure silicon, which has four valence electrons. By adding impurities,
or dopants, from group 15, which have five valence electrons, more free electrons
will be available to move around in the semiconductor. This type of material is
called an n-type semiconductor because the main charge carriers are the negative
electrons.

Similarly, by adding impurities to pure silicon from group 13, which have three
valence electrons, an excess of holes will exist inside the material. Therefore, in
p-type semiconductor, the majority carriers are holes and electrons are the
minority.

Level M | 47
 Physics M

(191)
6. [G] If the voltage is applied with the low potential to the p-type side and the high
potential to the n-type side the pn-junction is said to be reverse biased.

(192)
7. [G] In order to be forward-biased, a silicon junction diode should be connected:
a) with p at a higher potential than n,
b) across a potential difference greater than 0.6 V, below which it does not
conduct,
c) in series with a resistor to protect it from overcurrent.

Section 5.2 Rectification

(193)
8. When an AC voltage is applied across a diode, current passes in the forward bias
(first half-cycle) only when the voltage reaches a value greater than 0.6 V. In the
second half-cycle, the diode is blocking (reverse bias). Thus, the current passes
through the circuit only in one sense with a voltage 0.6 V being wasted.

(194)
9. Through rectification, an alternating current is converted into a direct current.

(195)
10.

The four-diode full-wave rectifier works by providing two alternative paths for
the current: one path for the positive half-cycle, and one for the negative half-
cycle such that the current flows each time with the same sense in the output
device.

Level M | 48
 Physics M

Section 5.3 Capacitors

(196)
11.

(197)
12. Step-down transformer: steps the voltage down to a suitable value. Bridge
rectifier: converts AC to pulsating DC. Smoothing capacitor: smoothens out
pulsating DC to regular DC.

(198)
13.
a) Diodes are reverse biased with respect to the capacitor.
b) The voltage would be constant, for the unloaded capacitor doesn't discharge.
c) Yes. The greater the load resistor the smoother the output voltage is.

(199)
14. When the terminals of the capacitor are connected to a DC voltage supply, a
current, called transient current, momentarily passes through the circuit. In the
capacitor, one plate becomes positively charged and the other plate becomes
negatively charged. If the battery is then disconnected from the circuit, the charge
will flow from one plate to the other creating a momentary current which starts as
a large current but decreases to zero as the opposite charges on the plates
neutralize each other. This process is called discharging.

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 Physics M

Section 5.4 Transistors

(200)
15. The two types of a bipolar junction transistor are: npn and pnp transistors.
The corresponding terminals are: collector, base and emitter.

(201)
16.
a) V = RBVcc/(RA + RB) gives: 1 = 6RB/(450 + RB). Carrying out the calculation, gives
RB = 90 Ω.
b) V = RBVcc/(RA + RB) gives: 6RB/(450 + RB) < 0.6, it follows that RB < 50 Ω.
The transistor is OFF in this case.

(202)
17. As an amplifier:
When a small current passes through the base, b, it will permit a much larger
current to pass through from the emitter, e, to the collector, c. The current Ic is
controlled by the current Ib and the ratio Ic/Ib is constant for a given transistor.
However, if the transistor is fully on, Ic becomes independent of the current Ib.

(203)
18. 1. A base resistor has to be connected to the base in series. This resistance
serves as a current limiter to limit the current in the base emitter diode of the
transistor to a few tens of microamperes because a much larger current can heat up
and destroy the transistor.

2. A load resistor must be connected before the collector in series. This resistance
serves as a current limiter to limit the current into the collector to a few tens of mA
because a much larger current can destroy the transistor.

3. An input voltage has to be connected across the base resistor and emitter. This
voltage sends the required small current into the base.

4. A collector voltage has to be connected across the load resistor and the emitter.
This voltage supplies the large current for the collector.

(204)
19. If Vin < 0.6 V the transistor remains off.

If 0.6 < Vin < 1.4V, the transistor will be on: When Vin increases from about 0.6 V
upwards, the current Ib starts increasing from zero upwards. The voltage Vcc
causes a current Ic to increase from zero upwards and the transistor will be
switched on. As Vin increases, the current Ib increases and the current Ic increases
proportionally.

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If Vin = 1.4 V, the transistor will be fully on: When Vin reaches some upper limit,
for instance about 1.4 V, the current Ib reaches a limiting value. The resistance
across ce will become almost zero and the voltage Vcc and the resistance RL
determine the current Ic. The transistor will be fully on or saturated.

If Vin increases to 6 or 7 volts, Ic becomes independent of Ib. The current Ib

increases but Ic will not and will remain dependent only on Vcc and RL. Vin must
not go too high though, otherwise the transistor will be destroyed.

(205)
20. The gain of a transistor is the ratio of the collector current to the base
current.

The transistor is fully on, hence Vcc = RLIc

12 V = (2.0 × 103 )Ic
Ic = 6.0 mA

The potential difference across the base resistor and base-emitter diode is 1.4 V.
The bias voltage is 0.60 V, hence the potential difference across the load resistor
is 0.80 V.
0.8 V = (8.0 × 103 )Ib
Ib = 0.10 mA.

Therefore, the gain is

I 6.0 10−3 A
= c= = 60
I b 0.10 10 −3 A

Section 5.5 Other Semiconducting Devices

(206)
21. When light shines on the LDR, its resistance decreases and so does the base-
emitter voltage. Transistor turns off and so does the bulb.

Level M | 51
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(207)
22. First, capacitor C is short-circuited by the closed switch. Both of its plates and
the transistor input are at a ‘high’ voltage (+6 V). The transistor is ON. Now open
the switch: Capacitor C will slowly start to charge. As the voltage of the transistor
input approaches 0 V, a time comes when it drops below 0.6 V, at which time the
transistor and the lamp go OFF. Thus, there is a time delay between opening the
switch and the lamp going off.

(208)
23. [G]

Section 5.6 Digital Electronics

(209)
24.

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(210)
25. This is the logic gate equivalent to the following De Morgan identity:
NOT (C AND NOT (A AND B)) = (NOT C) OR (A AND B)).

(211)
26.
a.
- NOT logic gate

- AND logic gate

- OR logic gate

- NOR logic gate

- NAND logic gate

b.
Input A Input B Output Y
1 1 0

Level M | 53
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(212)
27.
We have three inputs in our system; 2 lift-operating buttons and the status of the
door. Hence, the shape of our system should look similar to this:

The motor should receive at Y a high output (1) in order to operate. Based on
what we learned, the first logic gate should be a XOR logic gate, while the second
should be an AND logic gate.
Therefore, the truth table is as follows:

A (button) B (button) X D (door) Y (output)

0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0

As a conclusion, the motor will switch on (output 1) only when one of the buttons
is pressed and the door is closed.

(213)
28. [T]
a.
i. thermistor
ii. Initially the p.d. across A is high and that across B is low, and the transistor is off.
As the temperature increases, the p.d. across A decreases and the transistor is turned on at
some point turning the buzzer on.

b. Fire alarm / overheating alarm

c. We can regulate the minimum temperature at which the buzzer turns on.

Level M | 54
 Physics M

(214)
29. [T]
a. capacitor

b.
V 12 V
i. I = , I= = 0.12 A
R 100 
ii. P = IV , P = ( 0.12 A )(12 V ) = 1.44 W

c. exponential decrease to zero

(215)
30. [T]
a. LDR / light dependent resistor

b. resistance of LDR increases

c. The buzzer can be set to activate at a certain illumination.

d. NOT gate

e. low

f. burglar alarm. When the perpetrator blocks the light incident on the LDR, the potential
difference across it becomes high, then the potential difference across the resistor B, and
thus the NOT gate becomes low, and the current flows through the buzzer.

Level M | 55
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(216)
31. [T]
a.i
NAND
ii
A B C
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

b.
i. The light will be on whenever it is dark outside or when the switch is turned on, regardless
of the illumination.

ii.
Switch Light After not Output
detector gate
0 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1

(217)
32. [T]
a.
i. capacitor
ii. transistor

b. it stores energy

c. an amplifier and a switch

d. Before the switch is opened, the transistor is on and the lamp is on.
When the switch is opened, the capacitor begins to discharge.
When the potential difference across the capacitor falls beneath a certain threshold value,
the transistor turns off and the light bulb turns off.

Level M | 56
 Physics M

Chapter 6 – Waves

Section 6.1 Pulses and Waves

(218)
1. A pulse is a disturbance that travels through a medium or space from one location
to another location. A wave is a train of pulses.

(219)
2. [G] A wave transmits energy as it travels but not matter.

(220)
3. [G] Compression is a region in a longitudinal wave where the particles are closest
together. Rarefaction is a region in a longitudinal wave where the particles
are furthest apart.

(221)
4. [G]
a) A transverse wave is a wave in which the particles of the medium move in a
direction normal to the direction of propagation of the wave.
Example: water waves and electromagnetic waves.

b) A longitudinal wave is a wave in which the particles of the medium move in a

direction parallel to the direction of propagation of the wave.
Example: sound waves

Section 6.2 Sound Waves

(222)
5. As a sound wave propagates through air it compresses the air molecules which
relax as the wave advances. Regions of compression and rarefaction are formed,
where pressure is maximum in compression regions and minimum in rarefaction
regions.

(223)
6. Sound waves are mechanical waves.
Light waves are electromagnetic waves.

(224)
7.
a) Sound is produced by a mechanical disturbance.
b) Sound can be defined as a longitudinal wave motion.
The sound source vibrates air molecules in the same direction as the wave
propagation.

Level M | 57
 Physics M

(225)
8. [G] Sound can be defined as a longitudinal wave motion, and since it is
mechanical, it needs a medium to travel through.

Section 6.3 Speed of Propagation of a Wave

(226)
9. The sound waves in the first can vibrate the bottom of the can back and forth.
These vibrations propagate through the string, pulling the string back and forth.
Therefore, the bottom of the second can will start to vibrate back and forth at
the same rate of the bottom of the first can. Hence producing the same sound as
that in the first can.

Section 6.4 Periodic Progressive Waves

(227)
10.
a) T = 1/2 = s
b) f = 1/T = 1/(4 × 10-3) = 250 Hz
c) f = 1/T = 1/(100 × 106) = 1 × 10-8 Hz

(228)
11.

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(229)
12.

(230)
13. [G]
wavelength the length of a wave from one peak to the next
frequency the number of cycles completed per second
amplitude the maximum displacement of a particle from its rest position
speed the distance traveled per unit of time

(231)
14. [G]
v = λf
v = ( 750 10−9 m )( 4.0 1014 Hz ) = 3.0 108 m/s

Section 6.5 Characteristics of Sound Waves

(232)
15. a) Loud and quiet sounds travel at the same speed in the same medium. The
speed of propagation of sound does not depend on the amplitude, it only
depends on the medium in which sound is propagating.
b) Both sounds travel at the same speed in the same medium.

(233)
16. [G]
a. The pitch of A decreases in W and increases in Z.
b. The loudness of A increases in X and decreases in Y.

Section 6.6 Principle of Superposition of Waves

(234)
17. a) No, if two loudspeakers are placed facing each other and a microphone is
allowed to move between them, then the microphone will detect regions of
amplified sound and regions of little or no sound at all.
b) No, under certain conditions, they undergo interference.

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(235)
18. [G] Constructive interference:

Destructive interference:

Section 6.7 Boundary Behavior of a Pulse (Wave)

(236)
19. Yes, Sound is transmitted and reflected at the same time. You will hear the echo
of the clap and the people inside the building can hear the clap as well.

(237)
20. [G] a. Once the pulse reaches the fixed end, it will bounce off the pole with an
inverted reflection.

b. Once the pulse reaches the free end, it will get reflected in the same orientation.

Section 6.8 Waves in Two Dimensions

(238)
21. [G]

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(239)
22. [G]
a. wave refraction
b. The diagram shows the wavelength of the waves in deep water to be longer than
the wavelength of the waves in shallow water. Since the wavelength increased, then
the speed must increase as well since the frequency remains the same.

Section 6.9 Diffraction and Interference

(240)
23. Spacing between fringes is directly proportional to the wavelength.

(241)
24. Place a cardboard with two small slits separated by a small distance in front of a
screen. Shine a monochromatic laser beam on the two slits and observe the
screen in a dark room. A system of alternating bright and dark fringes that
are equidistant and parallel to the slits is formed.

(242)
25. [G] diffraction

(243)
26. [G] If the size of the hole is of the same order of size as the wavelength of the
water waves, then the waves will spread out, or “diffract”. The smaller the hole
with respect to the wavelength the more will the waves spread out, or diffract.
Therefore, in order to make the waves spread out more, Michael can:
1. reduce the size of the barrier or
2. increase the wavelength of the incident waves.

Section 6.11 Standing Waves

(244)
27. a) The distance between two adjacent nodes is half a wavelength.
b) Anti-nodes are situated midway between two adjacent nodes, i.e. at quarter of a
wavelength from a neighboring node.

(245)
28. The nth harmonic and the fundamental frequency are related by:
f n = nf1
f
f1 = n
n
The string resonates with three loops which means that the 3rd harmonic is f3 =
150 Hz. The fundamental frequency is then:

Level M | 61
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f3
f1 =
3
150 Hz
f1 = = 50 Hz
3
The 5th harmonic is:

f5 = 5 f1 .
f5 = 5 ( 50 Hz ) = 250 Hz
(246)
29. Factors affecting the resonant frequency:
- length of the string.
- tension in the string.
- mass per unit length of the string.

(247)
30. [G] The wavelength of the third harmonic in an open-end pipe is given by:
2
λ3 = l
3
2
λ3 = ( 0.60 m ) = 0.40 m
3

The frequency of the third harmonic is then:

v
f3 =
λ3
340 m/s
f3 = = 850 Hz
0.40 m

(248)
31. The wavelength of the third harmonic in an closed-end pipe is given by:
4
λ3 = l
3
4
λ3 = ( 0.600 m ) = 0.800 m
3

The frequency of the third harmonic is then:

v
f3 =
λ3
340. m/s
f3 = = 425 Hz
0.800 m

Level M | 62
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(249)
32. [T]
a. Using the distance between several peaks to determine the wavelength.
0.46 m
= = 0.153 m
e.g. 3

b. The peaks would be closer together.

c. longitudinal

d.
v = f  , v = (1500 Hz )( 0.153 m ) = 230 m/s

e.
l = vt
0.40 m
t= = 1.74 10 −3 s
230 m/s

(250)
33. [T]
a. refraction

b.

12 cm
c.  = = 3.0 cm
4

0.24 m/s
d. f = = 8.0 Hz
0.03 m

v1 v2
e. frequency remains constant, so =
1 2
2 = (1.5)( 0.03 m ) = 0.045 m

Level M | 63
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(251)
34. [T]
a. diffraction

b.
i.

x is increased x remains the same x is decreased

using a laser light with a lower 
frequency
using a grating with thinner 
slits
immersing the setup in water 

c 3 108 m/s
c. c = f  , f = , f = −9
= 4.3 1014 Hz
 700  10 m

d. IR, microwave radiation, radio waves

Level M | 64
 Physics M

Physics Outer Space- Bsic Questions Solutions

Section 1

(252)
1. The Earth takes approximately 24 hours to rotate once around its axis and 365.26
days to revolve once around the sun.

(253)
2. a. The axis of rotation of Earth is tilted at an angle of 23.5°.
b. If the Earth was not titled, every point on Earth would experience 12 hours of sunlight.

(254)
3. The axis of rotation of Earth is titled. When the Northern Hemisphere is titled away
from the sun, the Northern Hemisphere experiences winter. At the same time, the Southern
Hemisphere is tilted toward the sun; therefore, the Southern Hemisphere experiences
summer, as shown below.

Northern Hemisphere

Southern Hemisphere
Sun Earth
(255)
4. a. The moon appears to move from east to west due to Earth’s rotation about its
axis.
b. The moon takes 27.3 days to revolve once around Earth.

(256)
5. a. During the new moon phase, the moon lies directly between Earth and the sun.
Therefore, the far side of the moon is lit while the side facing Earth is dark.

Moon
Sun

Earth

b. The time for a complete lunar cycle is 29.5 days. Therefore, the duration between
consecutive new moons is 29.5 days.

Level M | 65
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(257)
6. [G]
a. 365.26 days
b. winter
c. December

(258)
7. [G] New moon, waxing crescent, first quarter, waxing gibbous, full moon, wanning
gibbous, last quarter, wanning crescent.

Section 2

(259)
8. a. The five regions of the solar system are: inner solar system, asteroid belt, outer
solar system, Kuiper Belt, Oort Cloud.

b. The inner solar system includes the area that contains the four planets closest to the sun
(Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars); they are rocky planets. The outer solar system includes
the orbits of the four planets farthest from the sun (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune); they
are gaseous planets. Between the inner and outer planets lies the asteroid belt, a region of
thousands of large rocks. Way beyond the outer planets is a region called the Kuiper Belt.
Like the asteroid belt, but much larger in size, it is also a region of large rocks and comets.
Far beyond the Kuiper Belt lies a theoretical region known as the Oort Cloud, which may
contain more than one trillion comets.

(260)
9. Proxima Centauri is 4.0 × 1016 meters away from Earth.

distance
time =
speed

Light travels at the speed of light c = 3.0 × 108 m/s.

4.0  1016 m
time = = 1.3  108 s = 4.1 years
3.0  10 m/s
8

Light needs 4.1 Earth years to travel from Earth to Proxima Centauri.

(261)
10. a. The size and density are consistent with a rocky planet. Additionally, it lies
between Earth and the sun at 0.50 AU. Hence, it is mostly likely to be a terrestrial planet.

b. The new planet’s day is longer (86 hours instead of 24 hours), but its year is shorter
(129 days instead of 365 days).

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c. The seasonal changes must be less because the planet’s axis is tilted only 2°, whereas
Earth’s tilt is 23.5°.

d. The orbital speed should be greater because the planet is closer to the sun; planets
closer to the sun move faster around it.

e. The eccentricity of the planet (0.25) shows that the orbit of the planet is elliptical. As the
planet moves farther away from the sun, the planet’s kinetic energy decreases and its
gravitational potential energy increases. The kinetic energy reaches its minimum at the
aphelion. When the planet approaches the sun, the planet’s kinetic energy increases and its
gravitational potential energy decreases. The kinetic energy reaches its maximum at the
perihelion.

The planet orbits the sun because of the force of gravity between the planet and the sun.

(262)
11. [G] a. The orbital speed of Venus is 1.25 × 105 km/h.
b. The orbital speed decreases.

(263)
12. [G] There are five main regions of the solar system. The inner solar system
includes the area that contains the four planets closest to the sun (rocky planets). The outer
solar system includes the orbits of the four planets farthest from the sun (gaseous planets).
Between the inner and outer planets lies the asteroid belt, a region of thousands of large
rocks. Way beyond the outer planets is a region called the Kuiper Belt. Like the asteroid
belt, but much larger in size, it is also a region of large rocks and comets. Far beyond the
Kuiper Belt lies a theoretical region known as the Oort Cloud, which may contain more
than one trillion comets.

(264)
13. [G]
a. Venus
b. Mercury
c. Venus
d. Jupiter

(265)
14. [G] a. The mass of the solar system is mainly concentrated in the sun.
b. The planets orbit the sun because of the force of gravity of the sun.
c. The orbital velocity of planets increases as their distance to the sun decreases.

(266)
15. [G] When the planet is nearest to the sun, it has maximum kinetic energy— planet
at its maximum orbital speed—and minimum gravitational potential energy. On the other

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hand, when the planet is farthest from the sun, it has minimum kinetic energy, least orbital
speed, and maximum gravitational potential energy.

Section 3

(267)
16. The sun makes up around 99.8% of all the mass in the solar system. The sun is
primarily made up of hydrogen and helium. Therefore, these two elements make up most
of the mass of the solar system.

(268)
17. [G] Because of the extremely high temperatures, hydrogen atoms in the core are
moving at extremely high speeds. They move so fast and are under so much pressure that
when they crash into each other, they combine to form new types of atoms and give off
energy. This process is known as nuclear fusion. In the sun, hydrogen atoms fuse together
to form helium atoms. The energy we see and feel from the sun originates from fusion of
hydrogen in its core.

18. Scientists noticed a dark line in the spectrum of the sun that didn’t correspond to
(269)

any known element. They inferred that there must be an undiscovered element in the sun.

Section 4

(270)
19. A stable star can fuse hydrogen into helium, while a protostar can’t. A stable star
is at equilibrium, while a protostar is not very stable because of the numerous reactions
occurring within its core. A stable star’s core is hotter than that of a protostar.

(271)
20. Arcturus falls within the range of 0.5 to 1.4 solar masses. Therefore, the star is a
medium-mass star. In the future, the star will grow in size and become redder. The star will
become a red giant. Eventually the star will blow off to space and form planetary nebula.
What remains of the star will become a white dwarf that slowly loses its energy and dies.

(272)
21. When layers of gas shed off a star to form a planetary nebula, or when a star
explodes as a supernova, gas and dust from the star spread out into space. A new nebula of
dust and gas forms. This new nebula may eventually collapse to form a new star.

(273)
22. Some thought they were stars too faint to see; some thought they were clouds of
dust and gas; some thought they were star systems in the process of forming.

(274)
23. No. The arms of the galaxy move around the center of the galaxy at a speed
different than that of our solar system. Hence, with time, our solar system will move outside
of the Orion Arm.

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(275)
24. [G] protostar → main sequence star → red supergiant → supernova → black hole

Section 5

(276)
25. The star is moving away from Earth.
(277)
26. By examining the star’s absorption lines. If the star is moving away from Earth,
the pattern of lines moves. (Note: although the light appears redder, you would not notice
it with your eyes in the same way that you can notice color differences due to temperature.)

(278)
27. In general, galaxies in the universe are moving away from each other at an
increasing speed. This means that the universe is expanding.

(279)
28. At first, the temperature of the universe was very high. This meant that only
hydrogen ions could be present at the time, which scatter light or hinder the photons from
passing through. So, light could not have reached us until it stopped scattering. That
happened when the temperature was about 3,000 K and neutral atoms started to form and
the cosmic microwave background radiation was released into the vast universe.

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29. a. The speed-distance graph is shown below.

b. The Hubble constant is the slope of graph.

The slope of the line of best fit is approximately 20 km/s per million light-years.

Since 1 light-year = 9.46 × 1012 km, so Hubble constant = 2.1 × 10−18 s−1.

c. Using Hubble’s law, we write

Level M | 69
 Physics M

v
d=
H0
84, 000 km/s
= ,
2.1  1018 s −1
= 4.0  1022 km

or about 4.23 billion light-years.

d. The age of the universe can be estimated by finding the inverse of Hubble’s constant.
1
tuniverse =
H0
1
=
2.1  10−18 s −1
= 4.8  1017 s

or about 15 billion years.

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30. [G] a. It is redshifted.
b. The galaxy is moving away from us.
c. Galaxy X is faster.
d. Galaxy X
^
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31. [G] Big bang theory
^
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32. [G] The universe began as a very hot and dense singularity that rapidly expanded.
Due to its very high temperature, only hydrogen ions could be formed. Because charged
particles scatter off light, all emitted light was “trapped” in the very early stages of the
universe. After about 379,000 years from the big bang and due to the expansion of the
universe, the temperature dropped to about 3,000 K, allowing atoms to form and,
consequently, light to be freed and able to travel unobstructed into the vast universe. It is
this light, from 379,000 years after the birth of the universe, that we now see as the CMBR.
As the universe expanded, the wavelengths of the emitted background radiation redshifted
to longer and longer wavelengths that correspond to lower temperatures until obtaining the
background radiation we observe today.
^
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33. [G] a. Hubble’s constant can be found by calculating the slope of the best-fit
line.
b. Hubble’s constant is currently estimated to be 2.2 × 10−18 s−1.
c. The estimated age of the universe is 14.4 billion years.

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