Human reproduction

All the body cells (somatic cells) of a

human being are diploid (2n) i.e., have two
sets of each chromosome. For humans to
grow or to repair damaged tissues, the
somatic cells divide by mitosis. The new
cells produced by mitosis are identical to
the original cells which divided. Sexual
reproduction requires two parents. Both the
male and the female produce gametes (egg
and sperm) by a reduction division referred
to as meiosis. Meiosis ensures that the
gametes are haploid i.e., they have only one
set of chromosomes. When two gametes
fuse (a sperm and an egg) as a result of
fertilization, a diploid zygote is formed.
The zygote then divides by mitosis to form
a human.

The male reproductive system

As shown in Figure 2 below, the male reproductive system consists of …
 the main male sex organ – a pair of testes in the scrotum
 various ducts and tubules – seminiferous tubules, epididymis, vas deferens and the urethra
 accessory glands – prostate gland, Cowper’s gland and seminal vesicles
 the external genitalia – penis
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The testes contain seminiferous tubules (see Figure 3).

 The tubules are lined by germinal epithelium cells which produce sperm cells.
 Some of the cells develop into Sertoli cells which provide nutrients for the spermatids to become
mature sperm cells. The seminiferous tubules are surrounded by connective tissue that contain the Cells
of Leydig which produce testosterone.
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Testosterone has the following functions:

 development of the male secondary sexual characteristics
 stimulating the maturation of sperm cells
 It is vitally important that the testes are suspended on the outside of the body, as this allows for
temperature regulation to occur.
 The optimum temperature for sperm production is 2 to 3°C lower than normal body temperature.
 If the temperature in the scrotum is high, it interferes with the quality of the sperm resulting in
male infertility.
 By having the testes suspended in the scrotum, the temperature of the testes can be adjusted by
moving the testes closer to the body in cold conditions or further away from the body during
warm conditions.

The female reproductive system

The female reproductive structure consists of:
 the main female sex organ – the ovaries
 the ducts – fallopian tubes
 the accessory organs – the uterus and the vagina
 the external genitalia – the vulva
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 Human reproduction

Gametogenesis
Gametogenesis is the term used to describe the process by which gametes are produced from the
germinal epithelium in the sex organs.
It includes spermatogenesis and oogenesis.

Spermatogenesis
 Spermatogenesis is the production of male gametes (sperm cells) in the testes of the male. It occurs
in the germinal epithelium of the seminiferous tubules in the testes.
 This process happens under the influence of testosterone.
 During puberty the germinal epithelium contains a diploid number of chromosomes (46).
 These cells go through the process of meiosis forming haploid sperm cells with 23 chromosomes.
 The gametes may have (22 + X) or (22 + Y) chromosomes.

Spermatogenesis takes places as follows:

 Under the influence of testosterone, the diploid germinal epithelial cells (2n) lining the
seminiferous tubules go through meiosis.
 Each cell that goes through meiosis produces 4 haploid spermatids (n)
 Each spermatid matures to form a haploid sperm cell (see Figure 3 above) Figure 5 below shows
the structure of a human sperm cell. Each sperm cell is made up of a head, middle portion (neck)
and a long tail.
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 The head is mostly made up of the nucleus which contains 22 autosomes and one sex
chromosome (X or Y).
 The acrosome (also in the head) contains enzymes that dissolve the outer layer of the egg
allowing fertilisation to occur.
 The middle portion contains mitochondria which provide energy for the movement of the
sperm cell.
 The long tail allows the sperm cell to propel itself forward (to swim) through fluid.

Oogenesis
Oogenesis is the production of female gametes (ova / egg cells) in the ovaries of a female.
It occurs when the diploid germinal epithelium of the ovaries starts to produce follicles by mitosis.

Oogenesis takes place as follows:

 The diploid germinal epithelium cells (2n) of the ovaries go through the process of mitosis to form
many follicles.
 Every 28 days, the follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates one follicle.
 Only one cell inside of that follicle enlarges and goes through the process of meiosis.
 Out of the 4 (four) haploid cells produced through meiosis, only one cell will survive to form a
mature ovum.
 The other three cells from meiosis will degenerate.
Each ovum is made up of follicle cells, a layer of jelly, cytoplasm and a haploid nucleus.

The menstrual cycle

The menstrual cycle refers to changes that occur in the ovaries and uterus of a female over a period of
28 days. This cycle begins at puberty and ends at menopause. 80 The menstrual cycle is made up of two
separate cycles that happen at the same time: 1. Ovarian cycle 2. Uterine cycle
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1. Ovarian cycle
 The ovarian cycle refers to the development and release of an ovum (or egg cell).
 This takes place inside the ovary.
 The ovarian cycle begins when FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone) is secreted by the pituitary
gland. FSH is transported to the ovary by the blood.

1. FSH stimulates a primary follicle to become a Graafian follicle which contains a mature ovum (or
egg cell).
2. As the Graafian follicle develops, it produces the hormone oestrogen, increasing the oestrogen
levels in the blood.
3. Around Day 14, the Graafian follicle ruptures and releases an ovum in a process called ovulation.
Ovulation is stimulated by the Luteinising Hormone (LH) which is released by the pituitary gland.
4. LH causes the ruptured Graafian follicle to change into a structure called the corpus luteum. The
corpus luteum secretes the hormone progesterone increasing the levels of progesterone in the blood.
5. If fertilisation does not take place, the corpus luteum shrinks and stops producing progesterone. The
ovum passes down the fallopian tube, enters the uterus and leaves the body through menstruation.

NOTE:  If the ovum is fertilised, the corpus luteum remains active and continues secreting
progesterone  Oestrogen and progesterone produced by the ovaries during the ovarian cycle
influence the uterine cycle
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2. Uterine cycle
The Uterine cycle shows the changes that occur in the uterus wall as it gradually thickens and
becomes more vascular (richly supplied with blood vessels) over a period of 28 days.

1. The endometrium breaks down and is released (menstruation). This lasts for approximately 4 to 7
days.
2. The endometrium is stimulated by oestrogen to become thicker and develop more blood vessels
and glands.
3. Progesterone stimulates the endometrium to become even thicker and develop more blood
vessels and glands. This happens in preparation for possible implantation of the fertilised ovum.
4. If fertilisation does not take place, the endometrium tears away resulting in menstruation.
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Hormonal control of the menstrual cycle

The menstrual cycle is controlled by hormones. The ovarian cycle is influenced by follicle
stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone while the uterine cycle is influenced by oestrogen
and progesterone. The levels of the hormones change during the different stages of the
menstrual cycle and have an influence on each other.

The hormonal control of the menstrual cycle takes place as follows:

1. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) released by the pituitary gland stimulates the
development and maturation of a primary follicle in one of the ovaries.
2. As the follicle develops into a mature Graafian follicle it releases oestrogen
3. The increasing oestrogen levels stimulate the pituitary gland to release luteinising hormone
(LH)  The increase in luteinising hormone (LH) causes ovulation to occur.
4. After ovulation occurs the Graafian follicle is changed into the corpus luteum which secretes
progesterone
5. The increased amount of progesterone prevents the release of follicle stimulating hormone
and luteinising hormone (it inhibits them)
6. As the corpus luteum breaks down the level of progesterone decreases, causing the
endometrium to break down.
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7. The endometrium and unfertilised ovum are released through the vagina as blood during
menstruation.
8. Due to the decreased level of progesterone, the follicle stimulating hormone and the
luteinising hormone are no longer inhibited. They are produced by the pituitary gland and the
cycle begins again.

Negative feedback mechanism between progesterone and FSH A negative feedback system
occurs in the menstrual cycle.
 A negative feedback mechanism is an interaction between two hormones, where an
increase in one hormone stimulates an increase in the other hormone, which inhibits the
first hormone, thus restoring balance.
 The negative feedback system can be seen in the hormonal control of the menstrual cycle
where progesterone influences the secretion of follicle stimulating hormone.
 If the ovum is fertilised, the corpus luteum remains active and continues secreting
progesterone. Increased levels of progesterone in the blood inhibit the secretion of the
follicle stimulating hormone.
 As a result, no further development of the follicle occurs. Ovulation does not take place.

Fertilisation & development of zygote to blastocyst

 During copulation (sexual intercourse) the penis is inserted into the vagina and sperm
cells are released through ejaculation close to the cervix.
 The sperm cells swim through the cervix up into the uterus and through the fallopian
tubes.
 The haploid ovum released during ovulation enters the fallopian tubes.
 If an ovum (haploid) is present in the fallopian tubes, one sperm cell (haploid) may
penetrate through the jelly layer and fertilise the ovum resulting in a diploid zygote.
 The nucleus of the ovum and the nucleus of the sperm cell fuse resulting in fertilisation.
 The zygote divides by mitosis as it moves down the fallopian tube towards the uterus.
 Mitosis continues and a solid ball of cells known as the morula is formed.
 The morula develops into a hollow fluid-filled ball of cells called the blastocyst.
 Once the ovum is fertilised it takes approximately 5 days to form the blastocyst.
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Implantation of the blastocyst and gestation

The blastocyst moves from the fallopian tube into the uterus where it embeds itself into the
endometrium. This is known as implantation and takes place as follows:
 The outer cells of the blastocyst secrete enzymes which break down a small portion of the
thickened uterine wall causing it to become softer.
 The blastocyst sinks into this softer area and the outer layers develop into two extra-embryonic
membranes called the amnion and the chorion.
 The chorion extends finger-like outgrowths called the chorionic villi into the endometrium and
form part of the placenta which secretes progesterone.
 The blastocyst is now called the embryo.

The gestation period, also known as pregnancy, is the time in which the embryo develops inside
the uterus. Gestation and the development of the embryo lasts for about 40 weeks or 280 days.
After 12 weeks the embryo is known as a foetus.
The foetus contains extra-embryonic membranes and other structures which aid in the
development of the embryo.
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The chorion, on the outside, forms the chorionic villi. The inner membrane, the
amnion, becomes filled with amniotic fluid to form the amniotic sac. The amniotic
fluid has the following functions:
 Protects the foetus against mechanical injury (shock-absorber)
 Prevents dehydration.
 Maintains the temperature of the foetus.
 Allows for free movement of the foetus as it grows and develops.

The umbilical cord attaches the foetus to the placenta, and it contains umbilical blood vessels:
 Two umbilical arteries which carry deoxygenated blood and waste products from the foetus to
the placenta.
 One umbilical vein which carries oxygenated blood, nutrients, water and other substances
from the placenta to the foetus.
The placenta is a temporary organ that forms in the area where the blastocyst implants. It allows
for substances to be transferred by diffusion between the mother and foetus without any blood
being in direct contact. This means that the mother and foetus’ blood never actually mix.
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The placenta has the following functions:

 It is the point of attachment of the foetus to the mother.
 It allows for diffusion of nutrients from the mother to the foetus.
 It allows for the diffusion of oxygen from the mother to the foetus and for the
 diffusion of carbon dioxide from the foetus to the mother (gas exchange)
 It allows for the diffusion of waste products from the foetus to the mother.
 After 12 weeks, the placenta secretes progesterone to maintain the pregnancy.