Gaelic Ireland

Gaelic Ireland (Irish: Éire Ghaelach) was the Gaelic political

and social order, and associated culture, that existed in Ireland Gaelic Ireland
from the prehistoric era until the early 17th century. Before the Éire Ghaelach
Norman invasion of 1169, Gaelic Ireland comprised the whole
island. Thereafter, it comprised that part of the country not 10,500 BC–1607
under foreign dominion at a given time, i.e. "The Pale". For
most of its history, Gaelic Ireland was a "patchwork"[1]
hierarchy of territories ruled by a hierarchy of kings or chiefs,
who were elected through tanistry. Warfare between these
territories was common. Occasionally, a powerful ruler was
acknowledged as High King of Ireland. Society was made up
of clans and, like the rest of Europe, was structured
hierarchically according to class. Throughout this period, the
economy was mainly pastoral and money was generally not
used.[2] A Gaelic Irish style of dress, music, dance, sport,
social gathering, architecture, and art can be identified, with
Irish art later merging with Anglo-Saxon styles to create
Insular art.

Gaelic Ireland was initially pagan and had an oral culture

maintained by the seanchaidhthe. Inscription in the ogham
alphabet began in the protohistoric period, perhaps as early as
the 1st century. The conversion to Christianity accompanied Provinces of Ireland in 900
the introduction of literature, and much of Ireland's rich pre-
Status
Christian mythology and sophisticated law code were Independent
preserved, albeit Christianized. In the Middle Ages, Ireland under the High
was an important centre of learning. Irish missionaries and King of Ireland
(846-1175)
scholars were influential in western Europe, and helped to
spread Christianity to much of Britain and parts of mainland Lordship of
Europe. Ireland
(1177-1542)

In the 9th century, Vikings began raiding and founding Capital

settlements along Ireland's coasts and waterways, which Hill of Tara,
became its first large towns. Over time, these settlers were County Meath
assimilated and became the Norse-Gaels. After the Norman (846-1177)

invasion of 1169–71, large swathes of Ireland came under the Dublin

control of Norman lords, leading to centuries of conflict with (1177-1607)

the native Irish. The King of England claimed sovereignty Government

over this territory – the Lordship of Ireland – and the island as Feudal
a whole. However, the Gaelic system continued in areas monarchy
outside Anglo-Norman control. The territory under English Tanistry
control gradually shrank to an area known as the Pale and, Monarch
outside this, many Hiberno-Norman lords adopted Gaelic • 846-860 Máel Sechnaill I
culture. (first historical High
King)
In 1542, the Lordship of Ireland was transformed into the • 1166-1198 Ruaidrí Ua
Kingdom of Ireland when Henry VIII of England was given Conchobair (last
the title of King of Ireland by the Parliament of Ireland. The High King)
• 1177-1216 John, King of
English then began to conquer (or re-conquer) the island. By
England (first Lord
1607, Ireland was fully under English control, bringing the of Ireland)
old Gaelic political and social order to an end. • 1509-1547 Henry VIII (last
Lord of Ireland)
Historical era Prehistoric Ireland
Contents to Late Middle
Ages
Culture and society • Permanent 10,500 BC
Religion and mythology recorded
Paganism human
Christianity settlement
• Flight of the September 1607
Social and political structure Earls
Law
Marriage, women and children Succeeded by
Settlements and architecture Kingdom of Ireland
Economy
Transport
Dress
Warfare
Arts
Visual art
Literature
Music and dance
Sport
Assemblies
Notable Irish kings
History
Before 400
400 to 800
800 to 1169
Anglo-Norman occupation
Invasion
Gaelic resurgence
Gaelic kingdoms during the period
Tudor conquest and aftermath A page from the Book of Kells, made by Gaelic
Modern monastic scribes in the 9th century

See also
References
Further reading

Culture and society

Gaelic culture and society was centred around the fine (explained below). Gaelic Ireland had a rich oral
culture and appreciation of deeper and intellectual pursuits. Filí and draoithe (druids) were held in high
regard during Pagan times and orally passed down the history and traditions of their people. Later, many of
their spiritual and intellectual tasks were passed on to Christian monks, after said religion prevailed from the
5th century onwards. However, the filí continued to hold a high position. Poetry, music, storytelling,
literature and other art forms were highly prized and cultivated in both pagan and Christian Gaelic Ireland.
Hospitality, bonds of kinship and the fulfilment of social and ritual responsibilities were highly important.

Like Britain, Gaelic Ireland consisted not of one single unified kingdom, but several. The main kingdoms
were Ulaid (Ulster), Mide (Meath), Laigin (Leinster), Muma (Munster, consisting of Iarmuman,
Tuadmumain and Desmumain), Connacht, Bréifne (Breffny), In Tuaiscert (The North), and Airgíalla
(Oriel). Each of these overkingdoms were built upon lordships known as túatha (singular: túath). Law
tracts from the early 700s describe a hierarchy of kings: kings of túath subject to kings of several túatha
who again were subject to the regional overkings.[3] Already before the 8th century these overkingdoms
had begun to replace the túatha as the basic sociopolitical unit.[3]

Religion and mythology

Paganism

Before Christianization, the Gaelic Irish were polytheistic or

pagan. They had many gods and goddesses, which generally
have parallels in the pantheons of other European nations.
Two groups of supernatural beings who appear throughout
Irish mythology—the Tuatha Dé Danann and Fomorians—are
believed to represent the Gaelic pantheon. They were also
The Tuatha Dé Danann as depicted in
animists, believing that all aspects of the natural world
John Duncan's "Riders of the Sidhe"
contained spirits, and that these spirits could be communicated
(1911)
with.[4] Burial practices—which included burying food,
weapons, and ornaments with the dead—suggest a belief in
life after death.[5] Some have equated this afterlife with the
Otherworld realms known as Magh Meall and Tír na nÓg in Irish
mythology.[6] There were four main religious festivals each year,
marking the traditional four divisions of the year – Samhain,
Imbolc, Bealtaine and Lughnasadh.[7]

The mythology of Ireland was originally passed down orally, but

much of it was eventually written down by Irish monks, who
Christianized and modified it to an extent. This large body of work
is often split into three overlapping cycles: the Mythological Cycle,
the Ulster Cycle, and the Fenian Cycle. The first cycle is a pseudo-
history that describes how Ireland, its people and its society came to
be. The second cycle tells of the lives and deaths of Ulaidh heroes
and villains such as Cúchulainn, Queen Medb and Conall Cernach. A reconstruction of an early Irish
The third cycle tells of the exploits of Fionn mac Cumhaill and the Christian chapel and high cross
Fianna. There are also a number of tales that do not fit into these
cycles – this includes the immrama and echtrai, which are tales of
voyages to the 'Otherworld'.

Christianity
The introduction of Christianity to Ireland dates to sometime before the 5th century, with Palladius (later
bishop of Ireland) sent by Pope Celestine I in the mid-5th century to preach "ad Scotti in Christum"[8] or in
other words to minister to the Scoti or Irish "believing in Christ".[9] Early medieval traditions credit Saint
Patrick as being the first Primate of Ireland.[10] Christianity would eventually supplant the existing pagan
traditions, with the prologue of the 9th century Martyrology of Tallaght (attributed to author Óengus of
Tallaght) speaking of the last vestiges of paganism in Ireland.[11]

Social and political structure

In Gaelic Ireland each person belonged to an agnatic kin-group known as a fine (plural: finte). This was a
large group of related people supposedly descended from one progenitor through male forebears. It was
headed by a man whose office was known in Old Irish as a cenn fine or toísech (plural: toísig). Nicholls
suggests that they would be better thought of as akin to the modern-day corporation.[12] Within each fine,
the family descended from a common great-grandparent was called a derbfine (modern form dearbhfhine),
lit. "close clan". The cland (modern form clann) referred to the children of the nuclear family.

Succession to the kingship was through tanistry. When a man

became king, a relative was elected to be his deputy or 'tanist'
(Irish: tánaiste, plural tanaistí).[13] When the king died, his tanist
would automatically succeed him.[13][14] The tanist had to share
the same derbfine and he was elected by other members of the
derbfine. Tanistry meant that the kingship usually went to
whichever relative was deemed to be the most fitting.[13]
Sometimes there would be more than one tanist at a time and they
A scene from The Image of Irelande would succeed each other in order of seniority.[13] Some Anglo-
(1581) showing a chieftain at a feast Norman lordships later adopted tanistry from the Irish.[13]
being entertained by a fili and a
harper Gaelic Ireland was divided into a hierarchy of territories ruled by a
hierarchy of kings of chiefs. The smallest territory was the túath
(plural: túatha), which was typically the territory of a single kin-
group. It was ruled by a rí túaithe (king of a túath) or toísech túaithe (leader of a túath). Several túatha
formed a mór túath (overkingdom), which was ruled by a rí mór túath or ruirí (overking). Several mór
túatha formed a cóiced (province), which was ruled by a rí cóicid or rí ruirech (provincial king). In the
early Middle Ages the túatha was the main political unit, but over time they were subsumed into bigger
conglomerate territories and became much less important politically.[3][15]

Gaelic society was structured hierarchically, with those further up the hierarchy generally having more
privileges, wealth and power than those further down.

The top social layer was the sóernemed, which included kings, tanists, ceann finte, fili,
clerics, and their immediate families. The roles of a fili included reciting traditional lore,
eulogizing the king and satirizing injustices within the kingdom.[16] Before the
Christianization of Ireland, this group also included the druids (druí) and vates (fáith).
Below that were the dóernemed, which included professionals such as jurists (brithem),
physicians, skilled craftsmen, skilled musicians, scholars, and so on. A master in a particular
profession was known as an ollam (modern spelling: ollamh). The various professions—
including law, poetry, medicine, history and genealogy—were associated with particular
families[17] and the positions became hereditary. Since the poets, jurists and doctors
depended on the patronage of the ruling families, the end of the Gaelic order brought their
demise.[16]
Below that were freemen who owned land and cattle (for example the bóaire).
 Below that were freemen who did not own land or cattle, or who owned very little.
Below that were the unfree, which included serfs and slaves. Slaves were typically criminals
(debt slaves) or prisoners of war.[18] Slavery and serfdom was inherited, though slavery in
Ireland had died out by 1200.
The warrior bands known as fianna generally lived apart from society. A fian was typically
composed of young men who had not yet come into their inheritance of land.[19] A member
of a fian was called a fénnid and the leader of a fian was a rígfénnid.[20] Geoffrey Keating, in
his 17th-century History of Ireland, says that during the winter the fianna were quartered and
fed by the nobility, during which time they would keep order on their behalf. But during the
summer, from Bealtaine to Samhain, they were beholden to live by hunting for food and for
hides to sell.[21]

Although distinct, these ranks were not utterly exclusive castes like those of India.[22] It was possible to rise
or sink from one rank to another. Rising upward could be achieved a number of ways, such as by gaining
wealth, by gaining skill in some department, by qualifying for a learned profession, by showing
conspicuous valour, or by performing some service to the community.[22] An example of the latter is a
person choosing to become a briugu (hospitaller). A briugu had to have his house open to any guests,
which included feeding no matter how big the group. For the briugu to fulfill these duties, he was allowed
more land and privileges,[14] but this could be lost if he ever refused guests.[23]

A freeman could further himself by becoming the client of one or more lords. The lord made his client a
grant of property (i.e. livestock or land) and, in return, the client owed his lord yearly payments of food and
fixed amounts of work. The clientship agreement could last until the lord's death. If the client died, his heirs
would carry on the agreement. This system of clientship enabled social mobility as a client could increase
his wealth until he could afford clients of his own, thus becoming a lord. Clientship was also practised
between nobles, which established hierarchies of homage and political support.[24]

Law

Gaelic law was originally passed down orally, but was written
down in Old Irish during the period 600–900 AD. This
collection of oral and written laws is known as the
Fénechas[25] or, in English, as the Brehon Law(s). The
brehons (Old Irish: brithem, plural brithemain) were the jurists
in Gaelic Ireland. Becoming a brehon took many years of
training and the office was, or became, largely hereditary.
Most legal cases were contested privately between opposing
parties, with the brehons acting as arbitrators.[15] Ruins of the O'Davoren law school at
Cahermacnaghten, County Clare
Offences against people and property were primarily settled by
the offender paying compensation to the victims. Although
any such offence required compensation, the law made a distinction between intentional and unintentional
harm, and between murder and manslaughter.[26] If an offender did not pay outright, his property was
seized until he did so. Should the offender be unable to pay, his family would be responsible for doing so.
Should the family be unable or unwilling to pay, responsibility would broaden to the wider kin-group.
Hence, it has been argued that "the people were their own police".[26] Acts of violence were generally
settled by payment of compensation known as an éraic fine;[24] the Gaelic equivalent of the Welsh galanas
and the Germanic weregild. If a free person was murdered, the éraic was equal to 21 cows, regardless of
the victim's rank in society.[24] Each member of the murder victim's agnatic kin-group received a payment
based on their closeness to the victim, their status, and so forth. There were separate payments for the kin-
group of the victim's mother, and for the victim's foster-kin.[24]

Execution seems to have been rare and carried out only as a last resort. If a murderer was unable or
unwilling to pay éraic and was handed to his victim's family, they might kill him if they wished should
nobody intervene by paying the éraic. Habitual or particularly serious offenders might be expelled from the
kin-group and its territory. Such people became outlaws (with no protection from the law) and anyone who
sheltered him became liable for his crimes. If he still haunted the territory and continued his crimes there, he
was proclaimed in a public assembly and after this anyone might lawfully kill him.[26]

Each person had an honour-price, which varied depending on their rank in society. This honour-price was
to be paid to them if their honour was violated by certain offences.[24] Those of higher rank had a higher
honour-price. However, an offence against the property of a poor man (who could ill afford it), was
punished more harshly than a similar offence upon a wealthy man. The clergy were more harshly punished
than the laity. When a layman had paid his fine he would go through a probationary period and then regain
his standing, but a clergyman could never regain his standing.[26]

Some laws were pre-Christian in origin. These secular laws existed in parallel, and sometimes in conflict,
with Church law. Although brehons usually dealt with legal cases, kings would have been able to deliver
judgments also, but it is unclear how much they would have had to rely on brehons.[27] Kings had their
own brehons to deal with cases involving the king's own rights and to give him legal advice.[15] Unlike
other kingdoms in Europe, Gaelic kings—by their own authority—could not enact new laws as they
wished and could not be "above the law".[28] They could, however, enact temporary emergency laws. It
was mainly through these emergency powers that the Church attempted to change Gaelic law.[24]

The law texts take great care to define social status, the rights and duties that went with that status, and the
relationships between people. For example, ceann finte had to take responsibility for members of their fine,
acting as a surety for some of their deeds and making sure debts were paid. He would also be responsible
for unmarried women after the death of their fathers.[29]

Marriage, women and children

Ancient Irish culture was patriarchal. The Brehon law excepted

women from the ordinary course of the law so that, in general,
every woman had to have a male guardian.[30] However, women
had some legal capacity. By the 8th century, the preferred form of
marriage was one between social equals, under which a woman
was technically legally dependent on her husband and had half his
honor price, but could exercise considerable authority in regard to
the transfer of property. Such women were called "women of joint
dominion".[31] Thus historian Patrick Weston Joyce could write
that, relative to other European countries of the time, free women in
Gaelic Ireland "held a good position" and their social and property
rights were "in most respects, quite on a level with men".[32]
Irish Gaels, c. 1575
Gaelic Irish society was also patrilineal, with land being primarily
owned by men and inherited by the sons. Only when a man had no
sons would his land pass to his daughters, and then only for their lifetimes.[24] Upon their deaths, the land
was redistributed among their father's male relations.[24] Under Brehon law, rather than inheriting land,
daughters had assigned to them a certain number of their father's cattle as their marriage-portion.[30][31] It
seems that, throughout the Middle Ages, the Gaelic Irish kept many of their marriage laws and traditions
separate from those of the Church.[33] Under Gaelic law, married women could hold property independent
of their husbands,[33][34] a link was maintained between married women and their own families,[33][35]
couples could easily divorce or separate,[33][34] and men could have concubines (which could be lawfully
bought).[33][35] These laws differed from most of contemporary Europe and from Church law.

The lawful age of marriage was fifteen for girls and eighteen for boys, the respective ages at which
fosterage ended.[35] Upon marriage, the families of the bride and bridegroom were expected to contribute
to the match. It was custom for the bridegroom and his family to pay a coibche (modern spelling: coibhche)
and the bride was allowed a share of it. If the marriage ended owing to a fault of the husband then the
coibche was kept by the wife and her family, but if the fault lay with the wife then the coibche was to be
returned.[33] It was custom for the bride to receive a spréid (modern spelling: spréidh) from her family (or
foster family) upon marriage. This was to be returned if the marriage ended through divorce or the death of
the husband. Later, the spréid seems to have been converted into a dowry.[33] Women could seek
divorce/separation as easily as men could and, when obtained on her behalf, she kept all the property she
had brought her husband during their marriage.[35] Trial marriages seem to have been popular among the
rich and powerful, and thus it has been argued that cohabitation before marriage must have been
acceptable.[33] It also seems that the wife of a chieftain was entitled to some share of the chief's authority
over his territory. This led to some Gaelic Irish wives wielding a great deal of political power.[33]

Before the Norman invasion, it was common for priests and monks to have wives. This remained mostly
unchanged after the Norman invasion, despite protests from bishops and archbishops. The authorities
classed such women as priests' concubines and there is evidence that a formal contract of concubinage
existed between priests and their women. However, unlike other concubines, they seem to have been
treated just as wives were.[33]

In Gaelic Ireland a kind of fosterage was common, whereby (for a certain length of time) children would be
left in the care of others[35] to strengthen family ties or political bonds.[34] Foster parents were beholden to
teach their foster children or to have them taught. Foster parents who had properly done their duties were
entitled to be supported by their foster children in old age (if they were in need and had no children of their
own).[35] As with divorce, Gaelic law again differed from most of Europe and from Church law in giving
legal standing to both "legitimate" and "illegitimate" children.[35]

Settlements and architecture

For most of the Gaelic period, dwellings and farm buildings were
circular with conical thatched roofs (see roundhouse). Square and
rectangle-shaped buildings gradually became more common, and
by the 14th or 15th century they had replaced round buildings
completely.[36] In some areas, buildings were made mostly of
stone. In others, they were built of timber, wattle and daub, or a mix
of materials. Most ancient and early medieval stone buildings were
of dry stone construction. Some buildings would have had glass
windows.[37] Among the wealthy, it was common for women to A reconstructed roundhouse and ráth
have their own 'apartment' called a grianan (anglicized "greenan") at Craggaunowen, County Clare
in the sunniest part of the homestead.[37]

The dwellings of freemen and their families were often surrounded by a circular rampart called a
"ringfort".[34] There are two main kinds of ringfort. The ráth is an earthen ringfort, averaging 30m
diameter, with a dry outside ditch.[38] The cathair or caiseal is a stone ringfort. The ringfort would typically
have enclosed the family home, small farm buildings or workshops, and animal pens.[39] Most date to the
period 500–1000 CE[38] and there is evidence of large-scale ringfort desertion at the end of the first
millennium.[39] The remains of between 30,000 and 40,000 lasted into the 19th century to be mapped by
Ordnance Survey Ireland.[38] Another kind of native dwelling was the crannóg, which were roundhouses
built on artificial islands in lakes.

There were very few nucleated settlements, but after the 5th century some monasteries became the heart of
small "monastic towns".[34][39] By the 10th century the Norse-Gaelic ports of Dublin, Wexford, Cork and
Limerick had grown into substantial settlements,[38] all ruled by Gaelic kings by 1052. In this era many of
the Irish round towers were built.

In the fifty years before the Norman invasion, the term "castle" (Old Irish: caistél/caislén) appears in Gaelic
writings, although there are few intact surviving examples of pre-Norman castles.[39] After the invasion, the
Normans built motte-and-bailey castles in the areas they occupied,[40] some of which were converted from
ringforts.[39] By 1300 "some mottes, especially in frontier areas, had almost certainly been built by the
Gaelic Irish in imitation".[40] The Normans gradually replaced wooden motte-and-baileys with stone castles
and tower houses.[40] Tower houses are free-standing multi-storey stone towers usually surrounded by a
wall (see bawn) and ancillary buildings.[38] Gaelic families had begun to build their own tower houses by
the 15th century.[39] As many as 7000 may have been built, but they were rare in areas with little Norman
settlement or contact.[39] They are concentrated in counties Limerick and Clare but are lacking in Ulster,
except the area around Strangford Lough.[38]

In Gaelic law, a 'sanctuary' called a maighin digona surrounded each person's dwelling. The maighin
digona's size varied according to the owner's rank. In the case of a bóaire it stretched as far as he, while
sitting at his house, could cast a cnairsech (variously described as a spear or sledgehammer). The owner of
a maighin digona could offer its protection to someone fleeing from pursuers, who would then have to
bring that person to justice by lawful means.[26]

Carrigaphooca tower Grianan of Aileach stone Reconstructed crannóg

house ringfort (see inside) on Loch Tay
 Glendalough round
tower

Economy

Gaelic Ireland was involved in trade with Britain and mainland Europe from ancient times, and this trade
increased over the centuries. Tacitus, for example, wrote in the 1st century that most of Ireland's harbours
were known to the Romans through commerce.[41] There are many passages in early Irish literature that
mention luxury goods imported from foreign lands, and the fair of Carman in Leinster included a market of
foreign traders.[42] In the Middle Ages the main exports were textiles such as wool and linen while the
main imports were luxury items.[34]

Money was seldom used in Gaelic society; instead, goods and services were usually exchanged for other
goods and services (barter). The economy was mainly a pastoral one, based on livestock (cows, sheep,
pigs, goats, etc.) and their products.[13] Cattle was "the main element in the Irish pastoral economy" and the
main form of wealth, providing milk, butter, cheese, meat, fat, hides, and so forth.[13] They were a "highly
mobile form of wealth and economic resource which could be quickly and easily moved to a safer locality
in time of war or trouble".[13] The nobility owned great herds of cattle that had herdsmen and guards.[13]
Sheep, goats and pigs were also a valuable resource but had a lesser role in Irish pastoralism.[13]

Horticulture was practised; the main crops being oats, wheat and barley, although flax was also grown for
making linen.

Transhumance was also practised, whereby people moved with their livestock to higher pastures in summer
and back to lower pastures in the cooler months.[34][43] The summer pasture was called the buaile
(anglicized as booley) and it is noteworthy that the Irish word for boy (buachaill) originally meant a
herdsman.[43] Many moorland areas were "shared as a common summer pasturage by the people of a
whole parish or barony".[43]

Transport

Gaelic Ireland was well furnished with roads and bridges. Bridges were typically wooden and in some
places the roads were laid with wood and stone. There were five main roads leading from Tara: Slíghe
Asail, Slíghe Chualann, Slíghe Dála, Slíghe Mór and Slíghe Midluachra.[44]
Horses were one of the main means of long-distance transport.
Although horseshoes and reins were used, the Gaelic Irish did not
use saddles, stirrups or spurs. Every man was trained to spring from
the ground on to the back of his horse (an ech-léim or "steed-leap")
and they urged-on and guided their horses with a rod having a
hooked goad at the end.[45]

Two-wheeled and four-wheeled chariots (singular carbad) were

used in Ireland from ancient times, both in private life and in war.
They were big enough for two people, made of wickerwork and
wood, and often had decorated hoods. The wheels were spoked,
shod all round with iron, and were from three to four and a half feet
high. Chariots were generally drawn by horses or oxen, with horse- A horse rider from the Book of Kells
drawn chariots being more common among chiefs and military
men. War chariots furnished with scythes and spikes, like those of
the ancient Gauls and Britons, are mentioned in literature.[46]

Boats used in Gaelic Ireland include canoes, currachs, sailboats and Irish galleys. Ferryboats were used to
cross wide rivers and are often mentioned in the Brehon Laws as subject to strict regulations. Sometimes
they were owned by individuals and sometimes they were the common property of those living round the
ferry. Large boats were used for trade with mainland Europe.[47]

Dress

Throughout the Middle Ages, the common clothing amongst the

Gaelic Irish consisted of a brat (a woollen semi circular cloak)
worn over a léine (a loose-fitting, long-sleeved tunic made of
linen). For men the léine reached to their ankles but was hitched up
by means of a crios (pronounced 'kriss') which was a type of
woven belt. The léine was hitched up to knee level.[48] Women
wore the léine at full length. Men sometimes wore tight-fitting
trews (Gaelic triúbhas) but otherwise went bare-legged.[49] The
brat was simply thrown over both shoulders or sometimes over
only one. Occasionally the brat was fastened with a dealg (brooch),
with men usually wearing the dealg at their shoulders and women
at their chests.[50] The ionar (a short, tight-fitting jacket) became
popular later on. In Topographia Hibernica, written during the
1180s, Gerald de Barri wrote that the Irish commonly wore hoods
at that time[51] (perhaps forming part of the brat), while Edmund
Spenser wrote in the 1580s that the brat was (in general) their main
Irish Gaels in a painting from the
item of clothing. Gaelic clothing does not appear to have been
16th century
influenced by outside styles.

Women invariably grew their hair long and, as in other European

cultures, this custom was also common among the men.[49][51][52] It is said that the Gaelic Irish took great
pride in their long hair—for example, a person could be forced to pay the heavy fine of two cows for
shaving a man's head against his will.[26] For women, very long hair was seen as a mark of beauty.[52]
Sometimes, wealthy men and women would braid their hair and fasten hollow golden balls to the
braids.[52] Another style that was popular among some medieval Gaelic men was the glib (short all over
except for a long, thick lock of hair towards the front of the head). A band or ribbon around the forehead
was the typical way of holding one's hair in place. For the wealthy, this band was often a thin and flexible
band of burnished gold, silver or findruine.[52] When the Anglo-Normans and the English colonized
Ireland, hair length came to signify one's allegiance. Irishmen who cut their hair short were deemed to be
forsaking their Irish heritage. Likewise, English colonists who grew their hair long at the back were
deemed to be giving in to the Irish life.[53]

Gaelic men typically wore a beard[49][51] and mustache,[52] and it was often seen as dishonourable for a
Gaelic man to have no facial hair. Beard styles varied – the long forked beard and the rectangular
Mesopotamian-style beard were fashionable at times.[52]

Warfare

Warfare was common in Gaelic Ireland, as territories,

kingdoms and clans fought for supremacy against each other
and later against the Vikings and Anglo-Normans.[54]
Champion warfare is a common theme in Early Irish
mythology, literature and culture. In the Middle Ages all able-
bodied men, apart from the learned and the clergy, were
eligible for military service on behalf of the king or chief.[55]
Throughout the Middle Ages and for some time after, outsiders
often wrote that the Irish style of warfare differed greatly from
A cattle raid shown in The Image of
what they deemed to be the norm in Western Europe.[54] The Irelande (1581)
Gaelic Irish preferred hit-and-run raids (the crech), which
involved catching the enemy unaware. If this worked they
would then seize any valuables (mainly livestock) and potentially
valuable hostages, burn the crops, and escape.[54] The cattle raid was a
social institution and was called a Táin Bó in Gaelic literature.
Although hit-and-run raiding was the preferred tactic in medieval
times, there were also pitched battles. From at least the 11th century,
kings maintained small permanent fighting forces known as lucht tighe
"troops of the household", who were often given houses and land on
the king's mensal land. These were well-trained and equipped
professional soldiers made up of infantry and cavalry.[55] By the reign
of Brian Boru, Irish kings were taking large armies on campaign over
long distances and using naval forces in tandem with land
forces.[55][56]

A typical medieval Irish army included light infantry, heavy infantry

and cavalry. The bulk of the army was made up of light infantry called
ceithern (anglicized 'kern'). The ceithern wandered Ireland offering
A fantasy painting showing
their services for hire and usually wielded swords, skenes (a kind of
legendary hero Cúchulainn in
long knife), short spears, bows and shields.[54] The cavalry was battle
usually made up of a king or chieftain and his close relatives. They
usually rode without saddles but wore armour and iron helmets and
wielded swords, skenes and long spears or lances.[54] One kind of Irish cavalry was the hobelar. After the
Norman invasion there emerged a kind of heavy infantry called gallóglaigh (anglicized 'gallo[w]glass').
They were originally Scottish mercenaries who appeared in the 13th century, but by the 15th century most
large túatha had their own hereditary force of Irish gallóglaigh.[54] Some Anglo-Norman lordships also
began using gallóglaigh in imitation of the Irish.[55] They usually wore mail and iron helmets and wielded
sparth axes, claymores, and sometimes spears or lances. The gallóglaigh furnished the retreating plunderers
with a "moving line of defence from which the horsemen could make short, sharp charges, and behind
which they could retreat when pursued".[54] As their armor made them less nimble, they were sometimes
planted at strategic spots along the line of retreat. The kern, horsemen and gallóglaigh had lightly armed
servants to carry their weapons into battle.[54]

Warriors were sometimes rallied into battle by blowing horns and warpipes. According to Gerald de Barri
(in the 12th century), they did not wear armour, as they deemed it burdensome to wear and "brave and
honourable" to fight without it.[51] Instead, most ordinary soldiers fought semi-naked and carried only their
weapons and a small round shield — Spenser wrote that these shields were covered with leather and
painted in bright colours.[50] Kings and chiefs sometimes went into battle wearing helmets adorned with
eagle feathers. For ordinary soldiers, their thick hair often served as a helmet, but they sometimes wore
simple helmets made from animal hides.[50]

Arts

Visual art

Artwork from Ireland's Gaelic period is found on pottery, jewellery, weapons, drinkware, tableware, stone
carvings and illuminated manuscripts. Irish art from about 300 BC incorporates patterns and styles which
developed in west central Europe. By about AD 600, after the Christianization of Ireland had begun, a style
melding Irish, Mediterranean and Germanic Anglo-Saxon elements emerged, and was spread to Britain and
mainland Europe by the Hiberno-Scottish mission. This is known as Insular art or Hiberno-Saxon art,
which continued in some form in Ireland until the 12th century, although the Viking invasions ended its
"Golden Age". Most surviving works of Insular art were either made by monks or made for monasteries,
with the exception of brooches, which were likely made and used by both clergy and laity. Examples of
Insular art from Ireland include the Book of Kells, Muiredach's High Cross, the Tara Brooch, the Ardagh
Hoard the Derrynaflan Chalice, and the late Cross of Cong, which also uses Viking styles.

Book of Kells Ardagh Chalice Cross of Cong

 Muiredach's High Cross Tara Brooch

Literature

Music and dance

Although Gerald de Barri had an overtly negative view of the Irish, in Topographia Hibernica (1188) he
conceded that they were more skilled at playing music than any other nation he had seen. He claimed that
the two main instruments were the "harp" and "tabor" (see also bodhrán), that their music was fast and
lively, and that their songs always began and ended with B-flat.[51] In A History of Irish Music (1905), W.
H. Grattan Flood wrote that there were at least ten instruments in general use by the Gaelic Irish. These
were the cruit (a small harp) and clairseach (a bigger harp with typically 30 strings), the timpan (a small
string instrument played with a bow or plectrum), the feadan (a fife), the buinne (an oboe or flute), the
guthbuinne (a bassoon-type horn), the bennbuabhal and corn (hornpipes), the cuislenna (bagpipes – see
Great Irish Warpipes), the stoc and sturgan (clarions or trumpets), and the cnamha (castanets).[57] He also
mentions the fiddle as being used in the 8th century.[57]

Sport

Assemblies

As mentioned before, Gaelic Ireland was split into many clann

territories and kingdoms called túath (plural: túatha).[14]
Although there was no central 'government' or 'parliament', a
number of local, regional and national gatherings were held.
These combined features of assemblies and fairs.[14]

In Ireland the highest of these was the feis at Teamhair na Rí

(Tara), which was held every third Samhain.[14] This was a
gathering of the leading men of the whole island – kings,
lords, chieftains, druids, judges etc.[14] Below this was the
The summit of the Hill of Tara
óenach (modern spelling: aonach). These were regional or
provincial gatherings open to everyone.[14] Examples include
that held at Tailtin each Lughnasadh, and that held at Uisneach each Bealtaine. The main purpose of these
gatherings was to promulgate and reaffirm the laws – they were read aloud in public that they might not be
forgotten, and any changes in them carefully explained to those present.[14]

Each túath or clann had two assemblies of its own. These were the cuirmtig, which was open to all clann
members, and the dal (a term later adopted for the Irish parliament – see Dáil Éireann), which was open
only to clann chiefs.[14] Each clann had a further assembly called a tocomra, in which the clann chief
(toísech, modern taoiseach) and his deputy/successor (tánaiste) were elected.

Notable Irish kings

List of kings
List of High kings

History

Before 400

The prehistory of Ireland included a protohistorical period, when

the literate cultures of Greece and Rome first began to take notice
of it, and a further proto-literate period of ogham epigraphy, before
the early historical period began in the 5th century.

During this period the Gaels traded with the Roman Empire[58] and
also raided and colonized Roman Britain during the end of Roman
rule in Britain. The Romans of this era called these Gaelic raiders
Scoti and their homeland Hibernia or Scotia. Scoti was a Latin
name that first referred to all the Gaels, whether in Ireland or Great
Britain, but later came to refer only to the Gaels in northern Britain.
[59] As time went on, the Gaels began intensifying their raids and
colonies in Roman Britain (c. 200–500 AD).

For much of this period, the island was divided into numerous clan
A map of the early Irish raids and
territories and kingdoms (known as túatha).
colonies of Britain during and
following Roman rule in Britain.
400 to 800

The early medieval history of Ireland, often called Early Christian Ireland, spans the 5th to 8th centuries,
from a gradual emergence out of the protohistoric period (Ogham inscriptions in Primitive Irish, negative
mentions in Greco-Roman ethnography) to the beginning of the Viking Age.

The introduction of Christianity to Ireland dates to sometime before the 5th century. With Palladius the
eventual first Bishop of Ireland being sent during this period (mid-5th century) by Pope Celestine I to
preach "ad Scotti in Christum"[60] or in other words to minister to the Scoti or Irish "believing in
Christ".[61] Early medieval traditions credit Saint Patrick as being the first Primate of Ireland.[62]

The Gaelic Kingdom of Dál Riata is said to have been founded in the 5th century by the legendary
king Fergus Mór mac Eirc or Fergus Mór in Argyll or "the coast of the Gaels" located in modern day
Scotland.[63] The Dál Riata had a strong seafaring culture and a large naval fleet.[64]
From the 5th century on, clerics of Christianised Ireland such as Brigid of Kildare, Saint MacCul, Saint
Moluag, Saint Caillín, Columbanus and Columba among many others were active in Ireland as well as in
Gaul, the Isle of Mann, in Scotland and in Anglo-Saxon England and the Frankish Empire thus spreading
Gaelic cultural influence to Continental Europe and even as far away as Iceland.[65]

By the 8th century, the King of the Picts, Óengus mac Fergusso or Angus I expanded the influence of his
kingdom using conquest, subjugation and diplomacy over the Gaels of Dal Riata, the Britons of Strathclyde
and the Anglo-Saxons of Northumbria.

During this period, in addition to kingdoms or túatha, the 5 main over-kingdoms begin to form. (Old Irish
cóiceda, Modern Irish cúige). These were Ulaid (in the north), Connacht (in the west), Laighin (in the
southeast), Mumhan (in the south) and Mide (in the centre).

800 to 1169

The history of Ireland 800–1169 covers the period in the history of Ireland from the first Viking raids to the
Norman invasion.

Beginning in 795, small bands of Vikings began plundering monastic settlements along the coast of Ireland.
By 853, Viking leader Amlaíb had become the first king of Dublin. He ruled along with his brothers Ímar
and Auisle. His dynasty, the Uí Ímair ruled over the following decades. During this period there was
regular warfare between the Vikings and the Irish, and between two separate groups of Norse from
Lochlann: the Dubgaill and Finngaill (meaning dark and fair foreigners). Norse settlements were
established at Dublin, Wexford, Waterford, Cork and Limerick, which became the first large towns in
Ireland.[66]

In the mid-9th century, the crowns of both the Gaelic Dál Riata and the Celtic Pictish Kingdom were
combined under the rule of one person, Cináid Mac Ailpin or Kenneth McAlpin. Kenneth became the first
High King of Alba. Combining the territories of both kingdoms to form a new Gaelic over-kingdom in
Northern Britain, the Kingdom of Alba, which comprises most of what is now modern-day Scotland.[67]

Gaelic Ireland of this era still consisted of the many semi-independent territories called (túatha), and
attempts were made by various factions to gain political control over the whole of the island. For the first
two centuries of this period, this was mainly a rivalry between putative High Kings of Ireland from the
Northern and Southern branches of the Uí Néill. The one who came closest to being de facto king over the
whole of Ireland, however, was Brian Bóruma, the first high king in this period not belonging to the Uí
Néill.

Through military might, Brian went about building a Gaelic Imperium under his High Kingship as
"Imperator Scottorum," or "Emperor of the Gaels",[68] even gaining the submission of Máel Sechnaill mac
Domnaill, his long time rival and a previous High King of Ireland himself. Both Brian and Máel Sechnaill
were involved in several battles against the Vikings and each other: the Battle of Tara, the Battle of
Glenmama and finally the Battle of Clontarf in 1014. The last of which saw Brian's demise. Brian's
campaign is glorified in the Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib ("The War of the Gaels with the Foreigners").

Following Brian's death, the political situation became more complex with rivalry for high kingship from
several clans and dynasties. Brian's descendants failed to maintain a unified throne, and regional squabbling
over territory led indirectly to the invasion of the Normans under Richard de Clare (Strongbow) in 1169.

Anglo-Norman occupation
Invasion

Ireland became Christianized between the 5th and 7th centuries. Pope
Adrian IV, the only English pope, had already issued a Papal Bull in
1155 giving Henry II of England authority to invade Ireland as a
means of curbing Irish refusal to recognize Roman law. Importantly,
for later English monarchs, the Bull, Laudabiliter, maintained papal
suzerainty over the island:

There is indeed no doubt, as thy Highness doth also

acknowledge, that Ireland and all other islands which
Christ the Sun of Righteousness has illumined, and which
have received the doctrines of the Christian faith, belong
to the jurisdiction of St. Peter and of the holy Roman Ireland in 1014 showing the
Church. Island as a "patchwork" of
various Gaelic Kingdoms: Ulaid,
Airgíalla, Mide, Laigin, Munster,
In 1166, after losing the protection of High King Muirchertach Mac Connacht, Breifne and Aileach.
Lochlainn, King Diarmait Mac Murchada of Leinster was forcibly Missing are kingdoms of
exiled by a confederation of Irish forces under King Ruaidri mac Osraighe and Uí Maine. Norse
Tairrdelbach Ua Conchobair. Fleeing first to Bristol and then to settlements shown in red.
Normandy, Diarmait obtained permission from Henry II of England to
use his subjects to regain his kingdom. By the following year, he had
obtained these services and in 1169 the main body of Norman, Welsh
and Flemish forces landed in Ireland and quickly retook Leinster and
the cities of Waterford and Dublin on behalf of Diarmait. The leader of
the Norman force, Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, more
commonly known as Strongbow, married Diarmait's daughter, Aoife,
and was named tánaiste to the Kingdom of Leinster. This caused
consternation to Henry II, who feared the establishment of a rival
Norman state in Ireland. Accordingly, he resolved to visit Leinster to
establish his authority.

Henry landed in 1171, proclaiming Waterford and Dublin as Royal

Cities. Adrian's successor, Pope Alexander III, ratified the grant of
Ireland to Henry in 1172. The 1175 Treaty of Windsor between Henry
and Ruaidhrí maintained Ruaidhrí as High King of Ireland[69] but
Ireland in 1300 showing lands
codified Henry's control of Leinster, Meath and Waterford. However, held by native Irish (green) and
with Diarmuid and Strongbow dead, Henry back in England, and lands held by Normans (pale).
Ruaidhrí unable to curb his vassals, the high kingship rapidly lost
control of the country.[70] Henry, in 1185, awarded his younger son,
John, the title Dominus Hiberniae or "Lord of Ireland" at the Council of Oxford. This kept the newly
created title, the Lordship of Ireland and the Kingdom of England personally and legally separate. During
the same year, 1185, Prince John made his first expedition to Ireland. However, when John unexpectedly
succeeded his brother as King of England in 1199, the Lordship of Ireland fell back into personal union
with the Kingdom of England, securing it's place within the greater Angevin Empire. In the legal
terminology of John's successors, the "lordship of Ireland" referred to the sovereignty vested in the Crown
of England; the corresponding territory was referred to as the "land of Ireland".[71]

Gaelic resurgence
By 1261, the weakening of the Anglo-Norman Lordship had become
manifest following a string of military defeats. In the chaotic situation,
local Irish lords won back large amounts of land. The invasion by
Edward Bruce in 1315–18 at a time of famine weakened the Norman
economy. The Black Death arrived in Ireland in 1348. Because most
of the English and Norman inhabitants of Ireland lived in towns and
villages, the plague hit them far harder than it did the native Irish, who
lived in more dispersed rural settlements. After it had passed, Gaelic
Irish language and customs came to dominate the country again. The
English-controlled area shrank back to the Pale, a fortified area around
Dublin. Outside the Pale, the Hiberno-Norman lords intermarried with
Gaelic noble families, adopted the Irish language and customs and
sided with the Gaelic Irish in political and military conflicts against the
Lordship. They became known as the Old English, and in the words
Ireland in 1450 showing lands
of a contemporary English commentator, were "more Irish than the
held by native Irish (green), the
Irish themselves."
Anglo-Irish (blue) and the English
The authorities in the Pale worried about the Gaelicisation of Norman king (dark grey).
Ireland, and passed the Statutes of Kilkenny in 1366 banning those of
English descent from speaking the Irish language, wearing Irish
clothes or inter-marrying with the Irish. The government in Dublin had little real authority. By the end of
the 15th century, central English authority in Ireland had all but disappeared. England's attentions were
diverted by the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453) and then by the Wars of the Roses (1450–85). Around
the country, local Gaelic and Gaelicised lords expanded their powers at the expense of the English
government in Dublin.

Gaelic kingdoms during the period

Following the failed attempt by the Scottish King Edward Bruce (see Irish Bruce Wars 1315–1318) to
drive the Normans out of Ireland, there emerged a number of important Gaelic kingdoms and Gaelic-
controlled lordships.

Connacht. The Ó Conchobhair dynasty, despite their setback during the Bruce wars, had
regrouped and ensured that the title King of Connacht was not yet an empty one. Their
stronghold was in their homeland of Sil Muirdeag, from where they dominated much of
northern and northeastern Connacht. However, after the death of Ruaidri mac Tairdelbach
Ua Conchobair in 1384, the dynasty split into two factions, Ó Conchobhair Don and Ó
Conchobhair Ruadh. By the late 15th century, internecine warfare between the two branches
had weakened them to the point where they themselves became vassals of more powerful
lords such as Ó Domhnaill of Tír Chonaill and the Clan Burke of Clanricarde. The Mac
Diarmata Kings of Moylurg retained their status and kingdom during this era, up to the death
of Tadhg Mac Diarmata in 1585 (last de facto King of Moylurg). Their cousins, the Mac
Donnacha of Tír Ailella, found their fortunes bound to the Ó Conchobhair Ruadh. The
kingdom of Uí Maine had lost much of its southern and western lands to the Clanricardes,
but managed to flourish until repeated raids by Ó Domhnaill in the early 16th century
weakened it. Other territories such as Ó Flaithbeheraigh of Iar Connacht, Ó Seachnasaigh of
Aidhne, O'Dowd of Tireagh, Ó hEaghra, Ó Gadhra and Ó Maddan, either survived in
isolation or were vassals for greater men.
Ulster: The Ulaid proper were in a sorry state all during this era, being squeezed between
the emergent Ó Neill of Tír Eógain in the west, the MacDonnells, Clann Aodha Buidhe, and
the Anglo-Normans from the east. Only Mag Aonghusa managed to retain a portion of their
former kingdom with expansion into Iveagh. The two great success stories of this era were Ó
Domhnaill of Tír Chonaill and Ó Neill of Tír Eógain. Ó Domhnaill was able to dominate much
of northern Connacht to the detriment of its native lords,
both Old English and Gaelic, though it took time to
suborn the likes of Ó Conchobhair Sligigh and Ó
Raghallaigh of Iar Breifne. Expansion southwards
brought the hegemony of Tír Eógain, and by extension Ó
Neill influence, well into the border lordships of Louth
and Meath. Mag Uidir of Fear Manach would slightly
later be able to build his lordship up to that of third most
powerful in the province, at the expense of the Ó
Raghallaigh of Iar Breifne and the MacMahons of
Airgíalla.
Leinster: Likewise, despite the adverse (and
unforeseen) effects of Diarmait Mac Murchada's efforts to
regain his kingdom, the fact of the matter was that, of his
twenty successors up to 1632, most of them had
regained much of the ground they had lost to the
Tudor Ireland c. 1500, Map of Ireland
Normans, and exacted yearly tribute from the towns. His
showing the approximate territories
most dynamic successor was the celebrated Art mac Art
of the various Gaelic Kingdoms and
MacMurrough-Kavanagh. The Ó Broin and Ó Tuathail
Anglo-Norman Lordships.
largely contented themselves with raids on Dublin
(which, incredibly, continued into the 18th century). The
Ó Mordha of Laois and Ó Conchobhair Falaighe of
Offaly – the latter's capital was Daingean – were two self-contained territories that had
earned the right to be called kingdoms due to their near-invincibility against successive
generations of Anglo-Irish. The great losers were the Ó Melaghlins of Meath: their kingdom
collapsed despite attempts by Cormac mac Art O Melaghlain to restore it. The royal family
was reduced to vassal status, confined to the east shores of the River Shannon. The
kingdom was substantially incorporated into the Lordship of Meath which was granted to
Hugh de Lacy in 1172.
Munster:
Desmond: Following the Norman invasion of
Ireland in the late 12th century, the eastern half of
Desmond was conquered by the Anglo-Normans
and became the Earldom of Desmond, ruled by
the Fitzmaurices and FitzGeralds— the famous
Irish family known as the Geraldines. The king of
Desmond, Diarmaid Mac Cárthaigh submitted to
Henry II of England, but the western half of
Desmond lived on as a semi-independent Gaelic
kingdom. It was often at war with the Anglo-
Normans. Fínghin Mac Carthaigh's victory over
the Anglo-Normans at the Battle of Callann (1261) Irish Gaels, c. 1529
helped preserve Desmond's independence. The
kings of Desmond founded sites such as Blarney
Castle, Ballycarbery Castle, Muckross Abbey and Kilcrea Friary. Following the Nine
Years' War of the 1590s, Desmond became part of the Kingdom of Ireland. See Kingdom
of Desmond, Barony of Carbery, Battle of Callann
Thomond: Despite huge setbacks, the descendants of Brian Bóruma had, by surviving
the Second Battle of Athenry and winning the decisive battles of Corcomroe and Dysert
O'Dea, been able to suborn their vassals and eradicate the Normans from their home
kingdom of Thomond. Their spheres of interest often met with conflict with Anglo-
Normans such as the Earls of Desmond and Earls of Ormond, yet they ruled right up to
the end of Gaelic Ireland, and beyond, by expedient of becoming the O'Brien Earls of
Thomond.
Tudor conquest and aftermath

From 1536, Henry VIII of England decided to conquer Ireland and bring it under English control. The
FitzGerald dynasty of Kildare, who had become the effective rulers of the Lordship of Ireland (The Pale) in
the 15th century, had become unreliable allies and Henry resolved to bring Ireland under English
government control so the island would not become a base for future rebellions or foreign invasions of
England. To involve the Gaelic nobility and allow them to retain their lands under English law the policy of
surrender and regrant was applied.

In 1541, Henry upgraded Ireland from a lordship to a full kingdom with the Crown of Ireland Act 1542,
partly in response to changing relationships with the papacy, which still had suzerainty over Ireland,
following Henry's break with the church. Henry was proclaimed King of Ireland at a meeting of the Irish
Parliament that year. This was the first meeting of the Irish Parliament to be attended by the Gaelic Irish
princes as well as the Hiberno-Norman aristocracy.

With the technical institutions of government in place, the next step was to extend the control of the
Kingdom of Ireland over all of its claimed territory. This took nearly a century, with various English
administrations in the process either negotiating or fighting with the independent Irish and Old English
lords. The conquest was completed during the reigns of Elizabeth and James I, after several bloody
conflicts including the suppression of the Desmond, Tyrone and Inishowen rebellions. The defeat of the
Gaelic nobility at the Siege of Kinsale in 1601 and final suppression of the various rebellions in Ulster by
1608 marked the end of the conquest. The war ended in defeat for the Irish Gaelic alliance, and it's
aftermath brought an end to the independence of the last Irish Gaelic kingdoms.

In 1603, with the Union of the Crowns, King James of Scotland

also became King of England and Ireland. James saw the Gaels as
a barbarous and rebellious people in need of civilizing[72] and
believed that Gaelic culture should be wiped out.[73] James started
official policies of Anglicisation in order to convert the Gaelic
nobility of Ireland to that of a Late Feudal model based upon
English Law. He also set about colonising the land of the defeated
rebel lords with English-speaking Protestant settlers from Britain, in
what became known as the Plantation of Ulster. It was meant to
establish a loyal British Protestant colony in Ireland's most
rebellious region and to sever Gaelic Ireland's historical and cultural
links with Gaelic Scotland.[74]

The Flight of the Earls in 1607 is seen as a watershed moment for

Gaelic Ireland. The flight of both Earl O'Neill of Tyrone and Earl
O'Donnell of Tyrconnell into exile marked the destruction of the
Ireland's independent nobility. This and the aftermath of the Tudor
Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone
conquest had cleared the way for the Plantation of Ulster. After this
point, the English authorities in Dublin established greater control
over Ireland, establishing - or, at least, attempting to establish - a centralised government for the entire
island, and successfully disarmed the Gaelic lordships. Hugh Red O'Donnell died in the archive castle of
Simancas, Valladolid, in September 1602, when petitioning Philip III of Spain (1598–1621) for further
assistance. His son, Rory O'Donnell, succeeded him as the Earl of Tyrconnell. Hugh O'Neill died in exile
in Rome on the 20th of July 1616. Upon news of his death, the court poets of Ireland engaged in the
contention of the bards.
Hugh's son, Shane O'Neill was active in armies fighting for Madrid in the
Low Countries and Spain. He died in Spanish Service near Barcelona at
the Battle of Montjuïc in 1641, fighting against the Kingdom of France.
During the Irish Confederate Wars in 1641, many of these Gaelic exiles
returned to fight for their home, including one of O'Neill's nephews, Owen.
Owen Roe O'Neill was deeply opposed to British rule and returned home
from exile in distinguished Spanish service. These Gaelic exiles brought
with them invaluable knowledge of modern military tactics including push
of pike warfare and Anti-Siege expertise. This knowledge was used to
devastating effect by Owen and fellow O'Neill clan members Hugh and
Felim during different stages of these conflicts at the Battle of Benburb, the
Siege of Clonmel and the Siege of Charlemont respectively.

The outright invasion and conquest

by England's New Model Army
under Oliver Cromwell and the
"free-fire" zones and scorched earth Newgate, Dublin. 1608.
tactics they used in the later stages Displaying the heads of
of Wars of the Three Kingdoms Gaelic Irish rebels Cahir
marked a turning point. The plague, O'Doherty (right) and Phelim
famine, oppressive Cromwellian Reagh MacDaibhéid (left).
Settlements, plantation that
followed and deliberate refugee
crisis in the West of Ireland further suppressed the local Gaelic
populace. The Glorious Revolution of William and Mary in
England and corresponding Williamite War in Ireland further
negatively affected the local Gaels. The last vestiges of Gaelic
Ireland and it's ancient nobility were completely wiped away
following the Jacobite defeats at the Battle of the Boyne and Battle
After Cromwell's victory, huge areas of Aughrim. The period that followed saw the Protestant
of land were confiscated from the Ascendancy in Ireland and the passage of repressive Anti-Catholic
Gaelic nobility and the Irish Catholics laws.
were banished to the lands of
Connacht. The Commonwealth is England and Scotland merged politically in 1707 after the crowns
said to have declared that all the of both counties were united in 1603, but the crown of Ireland did
Catholic Irish must go "to Hell or tonot merge with the Union until 1800. Part of the attraction of the
Connaught". Union for many Irish Catholics was the promise of Catholic
Emancipation, allowing Roman Catholic MPs, who had not been
allowed in the Irish Parliament. This was however blocked by King
George III who argued that emancipating Roman Catholics would breach his Coronation Oath, and was
not realised until 1829.

The Gaelic roots that defined early Irish history still persist to this day, despite the Anglicisation of Irish
culture and politics. Christianity became a prominent expression of Irish identity in Ireland. In the time
leading up to the Great Famine of the 1840s, many priests believed that parishioner spirituality was
paramount, resulting in a localised morphing of Gaelic and Catholic traditions.[75]

Modern
The Gaelic revival was the late-nineteenth-century national revival of interest in the Irish language (also
known as Gaeilge) and Gaelic culture[76] (including folklore, sports, music, arts, etc.) and was an
associated part of a greater Celtic cultural revivals in Scotland, Brittany, Cornwall, Continental Europe and
among the Celtic Diaspora communities: Irish, Scottish, Breton, Cornish and Welsh. With organizations in
Ireland such as Conradh na Gaeilge and An Comunn Gàidhealach attempting to restore the prestige of
Gaelic culture and the socio-communal hegemony of the Gaelic languages. Many of the participants in the
Irish Revolution of 1912–1923 were inspired by these ideals and so when a sovereign state was formed in
Ireland, post-colonial enthusiasm for the re-Gaelicisation of Ireland was high and promoted through public
education. Results were very mixed however and the Gaeltacht where native speakers lived continued to
retract. In the 1960s and 70s, pressure from groups such as Misneach (supported by Máirtín Ó Cadhain),
the Gluaiseacht Chearta Siabhialta na Gaeltachta and others; particularly in Connemara; paved the way for
the creation of development agencies such as Údarás na Gaeltachta and state television and radio in Irish.

See also
Gaels
Goidelic languages
Irish Language (Gaeilge)
Scottish Gaelic Language (Gàidhlig)
Scottish Gaelic Culture
Gaelic warfare

References
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Further reading
Kelly, Fergus (1988). A Guide to Early Irish Law. Early Irish Law Series 3. Dublin: DIAS.
ISBN 0901282952.
Duffy, Patrick J.; David Edwards; Elizabeth FitzPatrick, eds. (2001). Gaelic Ireland, c. 1250—
c.1650: land, landlordship and settlement. Dublin: Four Courts Press.
Fitzpatrick, Elizabeth (2004). Royal inauguration in Gaelic Ireland c. 1100–1600: a cultural
landscape study. Studies in Celtic History 22. Woodbridge: Boydell.
Mooney, Canice (1969). The Church in Gaelic Ireland, thirteenth to fifteenth centuries. A
History of Irish Catholicism 2/5. Dublin: Gill and Macmillan.
Nicholls, Kenneth W. (2003) [1972]. Gaelic and Gaelicised Ireland in the Middle Ages
(2nd ed.). Dublin: Lilliput Press.
Simms, Katherine (1987). From kings to warlords: the changing political structure of Gaelic
Ireland in the later Middle Ages. Studies in Celtic History 7. Woodbridge: Boydell.

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