MODULE-2

THE PHYSICAL LAYER

Contents: Guided Transmission Media, Wireless Transmission, Using

the Spectrum for Transmission, From Waveforms to Bits,
Communication Satellites.

2.1 Guided Transmission Media

Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another,
include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
1. Persistent storage
2. Twisted pairs
3. Coaxial cables
4. Powerlines
5. Fiber Optics
6. Transmission of light through fibers

1. Persistent storage
• Physical Data Transport: Transferring data via persistent storage (like tapes) and
physically moving it is often more cost-effective than using networks for large
volumes of data.
• High Bandwidth: A box of Ultrium tapes can transfer data with effective bandwidth
up to 1700 Gbps, outperforming traditional networks for large distances.
• Cost Efficiency: Transporting 800 TB using tapes costs around $5000, translating to
just over half a cent per gigabyte, making it a very affordable method.
• Amazon's Snowmobile: For massive data transfers, Amazon's Snowmobile service
uses a truck filled with hard disks to move up to 100 PB of data, providing unmatched
capacity.
• Conclusion: Physical transport methods like tapes or Snowmobiles often surpass
network speeds and costs for substantial data transfers.

2. Twisted pairs
 Persistent Storage Delay: Despite excellent bandwidth, persistent storage has poor
delay characteristics, with transmission times in hours or days.
 Importance of Low Delay: Low transmission delay is crucial for applications like
the Web, video conferencing, and online gaming.
 Twisted Pair Basics: Consists of two insulated copper wires twisted together to
reduce radiation and external noise, enhancing signal quality.
 Applications: Widely used in telephone systems and ADSL Internet access, capable
of running several kilometers without amplification.
 Twisting and Bundling: Twisting reduces interference, and bundles of twisted pairs
are encased for protection in long-distance runs.
 Bandwidth and Usage: Capable of transmitting analog or digital data, with
bandwidth depending on wire thickness and distance; used for hundreds of
megabits/sec transmission.
 Category Evolution: Category 5e cables are common for 100-Mbps Ethernet, while
newer Categories 6, 7, and 8 support higher speeds, with Cat 8 limited to short
distances in data centers.
 Shielding: Categories 7 and above have shielding to reduce interference, improving
performance for high-speed data transmission.
3. Co-axial cables
 Coaxial cable: Better shielding and bandwidth than twisted pairs, for longer
distances and higher speeds.
 Types: 50-ohm for digital, 75-ohm for analog and cable TV.
 Historical use: 75-ohm became crucial for Internet over cable in the mid-1990s.
 Construction: Copper core, insulator, and cylindrical conductor for high
bandwidth and noise immunity.
 Bandwidth: Supports up to 6 GHz, enabling multiple transmissions
simultaneously.
 Applications: Still used for cable TV, metro networks, and home Internet, despite
fiber optics' rise.

4. Power lines
 Power Lines for Data Communication: Power lines, traditionally used for electrical
power delivery, are also being explored for data communication, both within homes as
LANs and for broadband access.
 Historical Use: Power lines have long been used for low-rate communication, like
remote metering and device control (e.g., X10 standard).
 Convenience: Using power lines for networking is convenient—simply plug devices
into electrical outlets to send and receive data, as data signals are superimposed on
low-frequency power signals.
 Challenges: Household wiring, designed for 50-60 Hz power signals, poorly
distributes high-frequency data signals, leading to attenuation, interference, and
regulatory challenges due to signal radiation and external noise pickup.
 5. . Fiber optics: Bending of light rayComponents of Optical Transmission
System:
A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
To understand optical fiber, we first need to explore several aspects of the nature of light.

Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single uniform

substance.
If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters another substance
(of a different density), the ray changes direction.

 Light Source: Converts electrical signal to light pulses.

 Transmission Medium: Ultra-thin glass fiber.
 Detector: Converts light pulses back to electrical signal.
 Principle of Operation:
 Light ray refracts when passing from one medium to another (e.g., glass to air).
 Above a critical angle, light is trapped inside the fiber and can propagate long
distances with minimal loss.

 Multimode Fiber: Large diameter; supports multiple light paths (modes); used for
shorter distances (~15 km).

 Single-Mode Fiber: Small diameter; supports only one light path; used for long
distances (~100 km or more).

 Performance:
 Single-mode fibers: Can transmit at 100 Gbps for 100 km without amplification;
higher data rates achievable in labs.

 Multimode fibers: More cost-effective for shorter distances; bandwidth decreases with
distance.
Features of optic Fibers
 • Material and Transparency:
• Raw Material: Glass made from sand; abundant and inexpensive.
• Historical Context: Ancient Egyptians used glass; modern fibers use highly
transparent glass.
• Transparency: Modern glass is so clear that if oceans were made of it, the seabed
would be visible from the surface.
• Attenuation and Wavelength:
• Attenuation: Ratio of input to output signal power; measured in decibels (dB) per
kilometer.
• Wavelength Bands: Commonly used bands are 0.85, 1.30, and 1.55 microns.
• 0.85 Micron: Higher attenuation, used for shorter distances; compatible with
gallium arsenide lasers.
• 1.30 and 1.55 Microns: Lower attenuation, used for longer distances; 1.55
microns often with erbium-doped amplifiers.
• Pulse Spread and Dispersion:
• Chromatic Dispersion: Light pulses spread out as they travel, dependent on
wavelength.
• Solitons: Specially shaped pulses that minimize dispersion effects, allowing long-
distance transmission with minimal distortion.
Fiber-Optic Cable Structure:
• Core: Central glass core for light propagation.
• Multimode Fiber: ~50 microns diameter.
• Single-Mode Fiber: 8-10 microns diameter.
• Cladding: Surrounds core; lower index of refraction
• to contain light.
• Jacket: Thin plastic sheath for protection.
• Installation and Protection:
• Terrestrial: Buried near surface; vulnerable to damage.
• Transoceanic: Buried in trenches or laid on seabed; potential for damage from fishing
or sea creatures.
• Connection Methods:
• Connectors: 10-20% light loss; easy reconfiguration.
• Mechanical Splices: Align and clamp ends; ~10% light loss.
• Fusion Splices: Melted connection; minimal attenuation.
• Light Sources:
• LEDs and Semiconductor Lasers: Used for signaling.
• Tuning: Fabry-Perot and Mach-Zehnder interferometers adjust wavelength.
• Detection:
• Photodiodes: Convert light to electrical pulses.
• Data Rate Limit: ~100 Gbps due to response time and thermal noise; error rates can
be minimized with increased pulse power.

 Coaxial Cable Overview: Coaxial cable, or "coax," offers better shielding and
greater bandwidth than unshielded twisted pairs, enabling longer distances at higher
speeds.
 Types of Coaxial Cable: Two main types: 50-ohm for digital transmission and 75-
ohm for analog transmission, including cable TV.
 Historical Significance: The distinction between 50-ohm and 75-ohm cables stems
from early antenna designs, but 75-ohm has become important for Internet access
over cable since the mid-1990s.
 Construction: Consists of a stiff copper core, insulating material, and a cylindrical
conductor, providing high bandwidth and excellent noise immunity.
 Bandwidth Capacity: Modern coaxial cables support up to 6 GHz, allowing multiple
simultaneous transmissions, such as television programs.
 Applications: While largely replaced by fiber optics for long-distance
communication, coaxial cables are still widely used for cable television, metropolitan
area networks, and high-speed Internet access in homes.
 Fiber-optic cables consist of a central glass core through which light travels,
surrounded by cladding with a lower index of refraction to keep the light contained. In
multimode fibers, the core is about 50 microns in diameter, while single-mode fibers
have a core of 8 to 10 microns. The core and cladding are sheathed in a plastic jacket
for protection. Terrestrial fibers are buried near the surface, while transoceanic fibers
are laid in trenches or on the seabed, facing potential damage from various sources.
 Fiber connections can be made in three ways: connectors (which introduce 10-20%
light loss but allow easy reconfiguration), mechanical splices (which align and clamp
two fiber ends, causing around 10% light loss), and fusion splices (where fibers are
melted together, resulting in minimal attenuation). Light sources for signaling include
LEDs and semiconductor lasers, which can be tuned with Fabry-Perot or Mach-
Zehnder interferometers. At the receiving end, photodiodes convert optical signals to
electrical pulses, with data rates limited to around 100 Gbps due to response times and
thermal noise, though increasing pulse power can reduce error rates.
2.2 WIRELESS TRANSMISSION
• Wireless communication (or just wireless, when the context allows) is the transfer of
information (telecommunication) between two or more points without the use of an
electrical conductor, optical fiber or other continuous guided medium for the transfer.
• The most common wireless technologies use radio waves.
1. The Electromagnetic Spectrum
2. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
3. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
4. Ultra-WideBand (UWB) Communication

The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is an UN agency that manages the

radio-frequency spectrum and satellite orbit resources worldwide.
• Ultra high frequency (UHF): 300–3,000 MHz
• Super high frequency (SHF): 3–30 GHz
• Extremely high frequency (EHF): 3–300 GHz
• Extremely low frequency (ELF): 3–30 Hz
• Super low frequency (SLF): 30–300 Hz
• Ultra low frequency (ULF): 300–3000 Hz
• Very high frequency (VHF): 30–300 MHz

1.Electromagnetic Waves:
 Predicted by James Clerk Maxwell (1865), observed by Heinrich Hertz (1887).
 Frequency (f) measured in Hz; wavelength (λ) measured in meters.
 Speed of light (c) in vacuum: 3×108 m/sec3 \times 10^8 \text{ m/sec}3×108 m/sec
(approx. 1 foot/30 cm per nanosecond).
 Wave Propagation:
 Speed in copper or fiber: ~2/3 of speed in vacuum; slightly frequency-dependent.
 Fundamental relation: λ⋅f=cλ \cdot f = cλ⋅f=c.
 Wavelength and Frequency:
 Rule of thumb: λ⋅f≈300λ \cdot f \approx 300λ⋅f≈300 when λλλ in meters and fff in
MHz.

 Examples: 100 MHz → 3 meters; 1000 MHz → 0.3 meters; 3000 MHz → 0.1 meters.
 Electromagnetic Spectrum:
 Bands: Radio, microwave, infrared, visible light.
 Higher Frequencies: Ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays (hard to produce/modulate, not
suitable for most communications).

 ITU Bands: LF (1 km to 10 km), MF, HF, VHF, UHF, SHF, EHF.

 Above 10^12 Hz: Infrared, comparison to light.
 Bandwidth and Data Transmission:
 Information capacity is proportional to received power and bandwidth.
 Fiber optics offer GHz of bandwidth; example: 1.30-micron band (~30,000 GHz
range, 300 Tbps with 10 dB SNR).
 Most transmissions use a narrow frequency band for efficient spectrum use.
 Next Steps:
 Three types of transmission utilizing wider frequency bands will be discussed.

2. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):

 Operation: Transmitter hops between frequencies hundreds of times per second.
 Advantages:
o Detection and Jamming: Hard to detect and nearly impossible to jam.
o Resistance to Fading: Signals take different paths and interfere after
recombining.
o Narrowband Interference: Minimizes impact of interference due to quick
frequency changes.
o Usage: Effective in crowded spectrum areas like ISM bands.
 Commercial Use:
 Examples: Bluetooth, older versions of 802.11.
 Historical Note:
 Co-Inventor: Hedy Lamarr, Austrian-born film star.
 Background: Developed FHSS to aid Allied war efforts during WWII.
 Patent: U.S. Patent 2,292,387 with composer George Antheil.
 Outcome: Initially rejected by the U.S. Navy; later rediscovered and used in mobile
devices.
3. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS):
Operation: Uses a code sequence to spread data over a wider frequency band.
Advantages:
a. Spectral Efficiency: Allows multiple signals to share the same frequency
band.
b. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA): Different codes for different
signals; discussed later.
c. Interference and Fading Tolerance: Like frequency hopping, can tolerate
interference and fading as only a fraction of the signal is lost.
Commercial Use:
Applications:
d. 3G Mobile Networks: Basis for 3G technology.
e. GPS: Used in Global Positioning System.
f. 802.11b Wireless LANs: Employed in older versions.
Historical Reference:
Further Reading: Detailed history in Walters (2013).
Ultra-wideband is a radio technology that can use a very low energy level for short-
range, high-bandwidth communications over a large portion of the radio spectrum.
Operation: Sends low-energy rapid pulses with varying carrier frequencies.
Bandwidth:
Defined as having at least 500 MHz bandwidth or 20% of the center frequency.
Advantages:
High Data Rates: Potential to communicate at several hundred megabits per
second.
Interference Tolerance: Can withstand strong interference from narrowband
signals.
 Minimal Interference: Little energy at any given frequency; does not harm other
narrowband signals.
Applications:
Short-Distance Indoor Use: Popular for indoor communications.
Imaging and Location Tracking: Used for imaging through solid objects and
precise location systems.
Precision Radar: Employed in radar imaging technologies.

2.3 USING THE SPECTRUM FOR TRANSMISSION

1. Radio Transmission- Radio transmission is the process of sending and receiving data
wirelessly using radio waves.
2. Microwave Transmission- Microwave transmission is the process of sending
information or energy using microwaves, which are a type of electromagnetic
radiation.
3. Infrared Transmission- Infrared transmission, or infrared (IR) communication, is a
short-range data transmission technology that uses infrared light waves to send and
receive data.
4. Light Transmission- Light transmission is the ability of a material to allow light to
pass through it.
Radio Frequency (RF) Waves:
Advantages:
g. Easy Generation: Simple to produce.
h. Long-Distance Travel: Can cover large distances.
i. Penetration: Pass through buildings easily.
j. Omnidirectional: Transmit in all directions without precise alignment.
Challenges and Anecdotes:
Interference Example: GM’s Cadillac anti-lock brakes malfunctioning due to
interference from Ohio Highway Patrol’s radio.
Frequency Dependence:
k. Low Frequencies: Pass through obstacles well, but suffer significant path loss
with distance.
l. High Frequencies: Travel in straight lines, affected by reflections and
obstacles, and absorbed more by rain.
Attenuation Comparison:
 Guided Media: Signal drops by a constant fraction per unit distance (e.g., 20 dB per
100 m).
Radio Waves: Signal drops by the same fraction as the distance doubles (e.g., 6 dB
per doubling in free space).
Frequency Bands:
VLF, LF, MF Bands:
m. Ground Waves: Follow the ground and can be detected for up to 1000 km.
n. AM Radio: Uses MF band, limited bandwidth for data communication.
HF and VHF Bands:
o. Ionosphere Reflection: Waves refracted by the ionosphere, can bounce back
multiple times.
p. Uses: Long-distance communication for amateur radio and military.

Microwave Communication:

High Frequencies: Above 100 MHz, microwaves travel in nearly straight lines
and can be narrowly focused.

Directional Antennas: Parabolic antennas (e.g., satellite TV dishes) increase

signal-to-noise ratio but require precise alignment.

Historical Use: Microwaves were the backbone of long-distance telephone

systems before fiber optics.

Example: MCI (Microwave Communications, Inc.) used microwaves

between towers and is now part of Verizon.

Technical Considerations:

Tower Spacing: Repeaters needed periodically; distance between repeaters

increases with tower height (e.g., 100-meter towers can be 80 km apart).

Multipath Fading: Waves may be refracted or delayed, causing signal

cancellation; weather and frequency-dependent.

Frequency Limitations: Bands up to 10 GHz used; around 4 GHz, waves are

absorbed by rain, causing communication issues.

Advantages:

No Right of Way Needed: Can bypass existing telephone systems by installing

towers on small plots of land.
 Cost-Effective: Cheaper than laying fiber over long distances or through
challenging terrain.

Comparison with Fiber:

Deployment: Microwave communication avoids the need for extensive cable

laying and can be installed more rapidly.

Cost: Often cheaper than burying fiber, especially in congested or difficult areas.

Unguided Infrared Waves:

Common Use: Widely used for short-range communication, such as remote

controls for TVs, Blu-ray players, and stereos.

Characteristics:

Directional: Relatively directional and easy to build.

Limited Penetration: Do not pass through solid objects (e.g., walls),

which can limit range but also reduces interference.

Advantages:

Non-Interference: Infrared systems in one room do not affect systems

in adjacent rooms or buildings.

Security: Better security against eavesdropping compared to radio

systems.

No Licensing: No government license required for operation, unlike

radio systems.

Applications:

Desktop Use: Limited to specific applications like connecting computers

and printers via IrDA (Infrared Data Association).

Drawbacks:

Limited Range: Not suitable for long-range communication.

Light Transmission
Unguided Optical Signaling:
Historical Use: Used for centuries; e.g., Paul Revere's binary optical signaling before his
famous ride.
Modern Application: Connecting LANs between buildings using rooftop lasers.
 Characteristics:
Unidirectional: Requires separate lasers and photodetectors at each end.
High Bandwidth: Offers very high bandwidth at low cost.
Security: Difficult to tap a narrow laser beam.
Easy Installation: Does not require FCC licensing or similar permissions.
Challenges:
Aiming Accuracy: Requires precise aiming of narrow beam; defocusing lenses
may be used.
Environmental Factors: Wind, temperature changes, rain, and fog can disrupt the
beam.
Real-World Example: Conference experience with a laser link disrupted by
sunlight-induced convection currents.
Future Potential:
Ubiquitous Optical Communication: Possible integration with existing light-
sensitive cameras and displays.
Applications: Could include data communication via LED displays, emergency
vehicle signaling, informational signs, and synchronized festive lights.

2.4: FROM WAVEFORMS TO BITS

2.4.1 The Theoretical Basis for Data Communication
• Information can be transmitted on wires by varying some physical property such as
voltage or current
• By representing the value of this voltage or current as a single-valued function of
time, f(t), we can model the behavior of the signal and analyze it mathematically
Fourier Analysis
• Any periodic function, g(t), with period T can be constructed by summing a (possibly
infinite) number of sines and c

• Such decomposition is called a Fourier series.

 • From the Fourier series, the function can be reconstructed;
• That is, if the period, T, is known and the amplitudes are given, the original function
of time can be found by performing the sums of g(t).
• A data signal that has a finite duration can be handled by just imagining that it repeats
the entire pattern over and over forever (i.e., the interval from T to 2T is the same as
from 0 to T, etc.)

Bandwidth-Limited Signals
• Let us consider the relation of the Fourier Series with data communication.
• Let us consider how to transmit the ASCII character “b”, which can be encoded in an
8-bit: 01100010.
• This signal is the voltage output by the transmitting computer(fig-1)
• The Fourier analysis of this signal is the voltage output by the transmitting computer
gives the following coefficients: (fig-2)

Fig-1
 Fig-2

(a) A binary signal and its root-mean-square Fourier amplitudes.

(b) – (c) Successive approximations to the original signal.
(d) – (e) Successive approximations to the original signal
Figure(a-right) shows the Root-Mean-Square amplitudes for the first few terms.
These values are proportional to the energy transmitted at the corresponding frequency
• Amplitudes are transmitted undiminished from 0 up to some frequency fc
• All amplitudes above this cutoff frequency are transmitted attenuated.
• The range of frequencies transmitted without being strongly attenuated is called the
bandwidth.
• Bandwidth is a physical property of the transmission medium and usually depends on
the construction, thickness, and length of the medium.
• Assume that a bit rate is b bits/sec.
• Then the time required to send 8 bits (for example) 1 bit at a time is T=8/b sec.
• •So frequency of the first harmonic is f=1/T=b/8 Hz
• An ordinary telephone line, often called a voice-grade line, has an artificially-
introduced cutoff frequency just above 3000 Hz
 • This restriction means that the number of the highest harmonic passed through is
roughly 3000/(b/8) or 24,000/b

Relation between data rate and harmonics.

2.4.2 MAXIMUM DATA RATE OF A CHANNEL

NYQUIST THEOREM: If an arbitrary signal has been run through a low-pass filter of
bandwidth H, the filtered signal can be completely reconstructed by making only 2H (exact)
samples per second.

• V is discrete levels of signal, for binary signal V=2

• For example, a noiseless 3-kHz channel can transmit binary signals at a maximal rate
6000bps
• There is always random (thermal) noise present due to the motion of the molecules in
the system.
• The amount of noise is measured by the ratio of the signal power to the noise power,
called the signal-to-noise-ratio, or S/N

• Usually, the ratio itself is not quoted; instead, the quantity

is given
• These units are called decibels (dB)
• An S/N ratio of 10 is 10 dB, a ratio of 100 is 20dB

SHANNON THEOREM: The maximum data rate of a noisy channel whose bandwidth
is H Hz, and whose signal-to-noise ratio is S/N, is given by:
 • For example, a channel of 3000 Hz bandwidth with a signal to thermal noise ratio of
30 dB can never transmit much more than 30,000 bps.

2.4.3: DIGITAL MODULATION

• Digital modulation is the process of converting digital data, typically represented by
binary bits (0s and 1s), into analog signals that can be transmitted over
communication channels.
• This conversion allows digital information to be efficiently transmitted using radio
waves, electrical signals, or optical fibers, by modifying properties of a carrier signal
such as its amplitude, frequency, or phase.
Two methods of transmitting information

Baseband transmission sends the information signal as it is without modulation

(without frequency shifting)
Key characteristics:

 Direct transmission of the signal.

 Often used in wired communication (Ethernet, USB).
 Requires a low-pass filter for recovery at the receiving end.
 Limited to short distances due to signal attenuation.
Passband transmission shifts the signal to be transmitted in frequency to a higher frequency
and then transmits it, where at the receiver the signal is shifted back to its original frequency.
Key characteristics:
 Uses modulation techniques like AM, FM, or PSK.
 Used for long-distance communication (radio, television,
satellite).
 Can transmit multiple signals over different frequency
bands simultaneously.
 Requires a band-pass filter for recovery at the receiving
end.
Multiplexing schemes share a channel among users :the process of combining two or more
information channels into a single transmission medium

BASEBAND TRANSMISSION
(a)The simplest form of digital modulation uses a positive voltage to represent a 1 bit and a
negative voltage to represent a 0 bit.
(b) In optical fiber, the presence of light represents a 1, and the absence of light represents a 0.
This method is called NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero).
(c)NRZI (Non-Return-to-Zero Inverted), a 1 is coded as a signal transition and a 0 as no
transition (or vice versa). This coding method is used in USB for connecting computer
peripherals.
(d) Manchester encoding is a digital encoding technique where each bit has a transition in the
middle: a 1 is represented by a high-to-low transition, and a 0 by a low-to-high transition (or
vice versa, depending on the convention). It ensures synchronization between the sender and
receiver by including a clock signal within the data. This method is commonly used in Ethernet
communication.
(e)Bipolar encoding: Positive, negative, and zero are the three voltage levels in bipolar. While
representing, one bit of data has its voltage level set to zero, while the other bit inverts or
alternates between positive and negative voltage. In telephone networks, this scheme is called
AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion)

Line codes: (a) Bits (b) NRZ (c) NRZI, (d) Manchester (e) Bipolar or AMI

Line Coding Schemes

Unipolar Scheme
 In a unipolar scheme, all the signal levels are on one side of the time axis

NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero)
 Traditionally, a unipolar scheme was designed as a non-return-to- zero (NRZ)
scheme in which the positive voltage defines bit 1 and the zero voltage defines bit 0.
 It is called NRZ because the signal does not return to zero at the middle of the bit.

Polar Schemes
 In polar schemes, the voltages are on both sides of the time axis.
 For example, the voltage level for 0 can be positive and the voltage level for 1 can be
negative.

Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ)
 In polar NRZ encoding, we use two levels of voltage amplitude.
 We can have two versions of polar NRZ:
• NRZ-L (NRZ-Level): the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit
• NRZ-I (NRZ-Invert):the change or lack of change in the level of the voltage
determines the value of the bit. If there is no change, the bit is 0; if there is a
change, the bit is 1.
The main problem with NRZ encoding occurs when the sender and receiver clocks are not
synchronized. The receiver does not know when one bit has ended and the next bit is starting.
One solution is the return-to-zero (RZ) scheme, which uses three values: positive, negative,
and zero.

Return-to-Zero (RZ)
 Uses three values: positive, negative, and zero.
 In RZ, the signal changes not between bits but during the bit.

 As shown in the figure the signal goes to 0 in the middle of each bit. It remains there
until the beginning of the next bit.
 The main disadvantage of RZ encoding is that it requires two signal changes to
encode a bit and therefore occupies greater bandwidth.

Biphase: Manchester and Differential Manchester

 The idea of RZ (transition at the middle of the bit) and the idea of
NRZ-L are combined into the Manchester scheme.
 In Manchester encoding, the duration of the bit is divided into two
 halves. The voltage remains at one level during the first half and moves to the other
level in the second half. The transition at the
middle of the bit provides synchronization.
 Differential Manchester, on the other hand, combines the ideas of
RZ and NRZ-I. There is always a transition at the middle of the bit, but the bit values
are determined at the beginning of the bit. If the next bit is 0, there is a transition; if
the next bit is 1, there is none

Bipolar Schemes
 In bipolar encoding (sometimes called multilevel binary), there are three voltage
levels: positive, negative, and zero.
 The voltage level for one data element is at zero, while the voltage level for the other
element alternates between positive and negative.
 Two variations of bipolar encoding: AMI and pseudoternary
 In the term alternate mark inversion, the word mark comes from telegraphy and
means 1.
 So AMI means alternate 1 inversion. A neutral zero voltage represents binary 0.
Binary 1s are represented by alternating positive and negative voltages.
 A variation of AMI encoding is called pseudoternary in which the 1 bit is encoded
as a zero voltage and the 0 bit is encoded as alternating positive and negative
voltages.
which the 1 bit is encoded as a zero voltage and the 0 bit is encoded as alternating positive
and negative voltages.

PASSBAND TRANSMISSION
• Digital modulation in passband transmission involves modulating a carrier signal's
amplitude, frequency, or phase.
• In Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK), different amplitudes represent binary values (0 and
1). An example with a nonzero and a zero level is shown in Fig.(b)
• Multiple amplitude levels can encode more bits per symbol.
• In Frequency Shift Keying (FSK), two or more distinct frequencies are used. Fig. (c)
shows a case with two different frequencies.
• In the simplest form of Phase Shift Keying (PSK), known as Binary Phase Shift
Keying (BPSK), the carrier wave is shifted by 0 or 180 degrees during each symbol
period. The term "Binary" refers to the two phases used, not to the representation of
two bits per symbol. An example is shown in Fig. (d).
 (a) A binary signal. (b) Amplitude shift keying. (c) Frequency shift keying. (d) Phase shift
keying.

2.4.4 MULTIPLEXING
• Process of combining multiple signals into one signal, over a shared medium.
• Sharing of a transmission channel by various signals is called multiplexing.
• Technique used to combine and send the multiple data streams over a single medium.
Hardware used for multiplexing is known as a multiplexer (MUX).
• Multiplexing is achieved by using a device called Multiplexer (MUX) that combines
'n' input lines to generate a single output line.
• There are mainly two types of multiplexers, namely analog and digital
• Figure gives a detailed idea about this classification:
Analog multiplexing : The analog signals are multiplexed according to their frequency
(FDM) or wavelength (WDM).
Frequency division multiplexing. –FDM
This technique uses various frequencies to combine streams of data, for sending them on a
communication medium, as a single signal.
FDM is a technique in which the available bandwidth of a single transmission medium is
subdivided into several channels.
The main aim of the FDM is to subdivide the available bandwidth into different frequency
channels and allocate them to different devices.
Using the modulation technique, the input signals are transmitted into frequency bands and
then combined to form a composite signal.

Application of FDM
• FDM is mainly used in radio broadcasts and TV networks.
Advantages Of FDM:
• Most read FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.
• A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM simultaneously.
 • It does not require any synchronization between sender and receiver.
Disadvantages Of FDM:
• FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are required.
• It suffers the problem of crosstalk.
• A Large number of modulators are required.
• It requires a high bandwidth channel.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing

• Wavelength Division Multiplexing is same as FDM except that the optical signals are
transmitted through the fibre optic cable.
• WDM is used on fibre optics to increase the capacity of a single fibre.
• It is used to utilize the high data rate capability of fibre optic cable.
• Multiplexing and Demultiplexing can be achieved by using a prism.
• Optical signals from different source are combined to form a wider band of light with
the help of multiplexer.
• At the receiving end, demultiplexer separates the signals to transmit them to their
respective destinations.

• Prism can perform a role of multiplexer by combining the various optical signals to
form a composite signal, and the composite signal is transmitted through a fibre
optical cable.
• Prism also performs a reverse operation, i.e., demultiplexing the signal.
• Example − Optical fiber communications use WDM technique, to merge different
wavelengths into a single light for communication.
Digital Multiplexing
• The term digital represents the discrete bits of information. Hence, the available data
is in the form of frames or packets, which are discrete.

Time Division Multiplexing

• In FDM Technique, all signals operate at the same time with different frequency, but
in case of TDM technique, all signals operate at the same frequency with different
time.
• In TDM technique, the total time available in the channel is distributed among
different users.
• Each user is allocated with different time interval known as a Time slot at which data
is to be transmitted by the sender.
• A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.
• In TDM technique, data is not transmitted simultaneously rather the data is
transmitted one-by-one.
• In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames.
• Frames contain a cycle of time slots in which each frame contains one or more slots
dedicated to each user.
• It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly used to
multiplex digital signals.
There are two types of TDM:
1. Synchronous TDM
2. Asynchronous TDM
Synchronous TDM
• A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is preassigned to every device.
• Each device is given some time slot irrespective of the fact that the device contains
the data or not.
• If the device does not have any data, then the slot will remain empty.
• Signals are sent in the form of frames.

Most popular Synchronous TDM are:

1. T-1 multiplexing,
2. ISDN multiplexing,
3. SONET multiplexing.
Asynchronous TDM
• An asynchronous TDM is also known as Statistical TDM.
• Technique in which time slots are not fixed as in the case of Synchronous TDM.
• Time slots are allocated to only those devices which have the data to send.
• Transmits only the data from active workstations. An asynchronous TDM technique
dynamically allocates the time slots to the devices.
• Total speed of the input lines(n) can be greater than the capacity(m) of the channel.
i.e. (m<n)
• Each slot contains an address part that identifies the source of the data.

How do Satellites work? Link

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ror4P1UAv_g

2.8 Communication Satellites

• Early Attempts at Signal Bouncing: In the 1950s and 60s, signals were bounced off
weather balloons, but the weak signals made the approach impractical.
• Moon as a Signal Reflector: The U.S. Navy developed a ship-to-shore
communication system by bouncing signals off the moon, treating it as a permanent
"weather balloon.“
• Artificial Satellite Advantage: Unlike natural satellites, artificial satellites amplify
signals before rebroadcasting, making them effective for communication.
• Communication Satellite Function: A satellite acts as a microwave repeater, using
transponders to amplify and rebroadcast signals at different frequencies, a process
called "bent pipe.“
• Digital Signal Processing: Satellites can use digital processing to manipulate or
redirect data streams, improving performance compared to the bent pipe method by
not amplifying noise.
• Signal Coverage: Satellites can broadcast broad beams covering large areas or
narrow beams targeting specific regions, only a few hundred kilometers in diameter.
• Orbital Period and Kepler's Law: As per Kepler’s law, the orbital period increases
with orbit radius. Near Earth's surface, a satellite's period is about 90 minutes, with
higher altitudes leading to longer periods.
• Orbital Period Variation: According to Kepler’s law, a satellite's orbital period
increases as the orbit radius increases, requiring 90 minutes near Earth and 24 hours at
35,800 km.
• Low-Orbit Satellites: Satellites in low orbits have short periods and require multiple
satellites for continuous coverage, with ground antennas tracking their movement.
• Van Allen Belts: Satellites must avoid the Van Allen belts, where highly charged
particles can destroy them quickly.
• Safe Satellite Regions: Satellites can be safely placed in three distinct regions to
avoid the Van Allen belts and ensure proper orbital functionality.
2.8.1 Geostationary Satellites
• Arthur C. Clarke’s Satellite Concept: In 1945, Clarke proposed geostationary
satellites at 35,800 km altitude for communication but deemed them impractical at the
time.
• Telstar and GEO Satellites: The invention of the transistor led to the launch of the first
artificial communication satellite, Telstar, in 1962. Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO)
satellites are widely used today.
• Orbital Slot Management: Due to interference concerns, geostationary satellites are
spaced at least 2 degrees apart in the 360-degree equatorial plane, allowing only 180
satellites in orbit at once, managed by the ITU.
• Station Keeping and Satellite Lifespan: Satellites require onboard rocket motors for
station keeping to maintain their orbit. Once fuel is exhausted, typically after 10 years,
satellites drift, eventually reentering the atmosphere and burning up.
• Frequency Allocation Issues: The ITU also regulates frequency bands to avoid
interference with existing microwave users, ensuring satellite transmissions do not
disrupt terrestrial communication systems.

• Geostationary Satellites' Footprint: Early geostationary satellites covered about

one-third of the Earth's surface with a single beam, while modern satellites use
focused spot beams to target specific regions.
• Spot Beams: These elliptical-shaped spot beams can cover areas as small as a few
hundred kilometers in diameter, allowing for multiple simultaneous transmissions in
different locations.
• VSAT Technology: Very Small Aperture Terminals (VSATs) are low-cost
microstations with antennas smaller than 1 meter, offering uplinks up to 1 Mbps and
downlinks of several megabits/sec, commonly used in direct broadcast satellite
television.
• VSAT Communication Limitations: Many VSAT systems lack the power for direct
communication between microstations via satellite, requiring a special ground station
(the hub) to relay traffic.
• Hub Station Role: The hub, equipped with a large antenna and powerful amplifier,
facilitates communication between VSATs, trading off longer delays for lower-cost
end-user stations.
2.8.2 Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
MEO Satellites' Orbit: Medium-Earth Orbit (MEO) satellites are positioned between the two
Van Allen belts, typically taking around 6 hours to complete an orbit and requiring tracking
due to their movement.
Footprint and Power Needs: MEO satellites have a smaller footprint on the ground compared
to geostationary satellites and need less powerful transmitters to communicate.
GPS Example: MEO satellites are mainly used for navigation systems, with the Global
Positioning System (GPS) constellation of about 30 satellites at 20,200 km being a prime
example.

2.8.3 Low-Earth Orbit Satellites

• LEO (Low-Earth Orbit) satellites
• large numbers of them are needed for a complete system
• Ground stations do not need much power, and the round-trip
delay is much less around 40 and 150 milliseconds
• Two examples of satellite constellations used for
voice service: Iridium and Globalstar
• Iridium Project Launch: In 1990, Motorola proposed the Iridium project to launch 77
low-orbit satellites, later revised to 66. The goal was to maintain continuous satellite
coverage by replacing satellites as they moved out of view.
• Commercial Fiasco: Despite the ambitious plan, by the time service began in 1998,
demand for large satellite phones was low due to the rapid growth of mobile
networks, leading to Iridium's bankruptcy in 1999.
• Asset Sale: Iridium's assets, originally valued at $5 billion, were sold for just $25
million after the company's collapse.
• Service Relaunch: The Iridium service was restarted in March 2001 and has since
grown steadily, providing global communication services.
• Target Markets: Iridium now serves industries like maritime, aviation, and oil
exploration, as well as travelers in remote areas lacking telecom infrastructure (e.g.,
deserts, mountains, the South Pole).
Iridium Satellite Orbit and Arrangement: The Iridium satellites orbit at an altitude of 670 km
in circular polar orbits, positioned in north-south necklaces, with one satellite every 32
degrees of latitude.
Satellite Capacity: Each satellite supports up to 48 spot beams, with a total capacity of 3840
channels, used for paging, navigation, data, and voice communication.
Global Coverage: The Iridium system consists of six satellite necklaces, ensuring complete
coverage of the entire earth.
Space-Based Communication: Communication between distant customers, such as from the
North Pole to the South Pole, occurs entirely in space via satellite relays.
Satellite Connectivity: Each satellite communicates with four neighbors—two within the
same necklace and two in adjacent necklaces—creating an interconnected network for
relaying signals.
Relay Process: Calls are transmitted from one satellite to another across the grid, until the
signal reaches its final destination and is sent down to the receiver.

Globalstar : An alternative design to Iridium is Globalstar.

Globalstar Design: Globalstar consists of 48 LEO satellites but uses a bent-pipe design,
unlike Iridium's system.
Ground-Based Complexity: Much of the system's complexity is managed on the ground
through large stations, making it easier to handle.
Low-Power Telephones: The use of powerful ground station antennas allows for lower-
powered telephones to be used by customers.
Signal Strength: Though telephones emit only a few milliwatts of power, the signal is
amplified by the satellite before reaching the ground station, where it is further processed.
Satellite Launch Trends: Around 20 satellites are launched annually, including larger
satellites over 5000 kg and smaller, budget-friendly cubesats defined by a 1999 standard, with
each cube costing as little as $40,000 to launch.
Cubesats: These miniature satellites, measuring 10 cm³ and weighing under 1 kg, are
deployed as secondary payloads on commercial missions and communicate using UHF and
VHF bands. Over 20 cubesats have been launched so far.