 What is Discourse?

"Discourse" means how language is used in real life — in writing, speaking, texting, TV
shows, politics, media, etc. It's not just about grammar but about meaning,
communication, and context.
 Features of Discourse
Discourse is not random — it follows rules. It is organized, meaningful, and fits the
situation (like formal in a job interview, casual with friends).
 Text and Discourse
"Text" is a piece of language (like a letter, article, chat). "Discourse" is more about how
that text is used — the purpose behind it, the audience, the situation.
 Types of Discourse
Discourse can be written (books, emails), spoken (conversations, speeches), media
(news reports, advertisements), political (politician’s speeches, debates), and more.

2. Discourse Analysis
 What is Discourse Analysis?
Discourse Analysis is when we study how language is used in real life. We look at what
people say, how they say it, why they say it, and what it really means.
 A Short History of Discourse Analysis
It started in the 20th century when people realized that language isn’t just about grammar.
They started studying conversations, stories, and media to understand society better.
 Major Contributors
Important scholars like Foucault, Fairclough, and Van Dijk helped build the ideas we
use today in Discourse Analysis.

3. Grammatical Analysis of Discourse

 Cohesion & Coherence
o Cohesion: How sentences stick together using words like "and,"
"but," "because."
o Coherence: How ideas make sense together — even if the
grammar is perfect, if ideas don't connect, the discourse is not
good.

 Cohesive Devices
Tools like pronouns (he, she, it), connectors (however, therefore), and repetition that tie
parts of the text together.
 Theme & Rheme
o Theme: What the sentence is about (starting point).
o Rheme: What is said about the theme (new information).
  Thematic Progression
How ideas flow and develop from one sentence to another smoothly
 4. Pragmatic Analysis of Discourse

 Language in Context
Meaning changes depending on who is speaking, to whom, where, when, and why.
 Speech Act Theory
When we speak, we don't just share information — we do things. For example, saying "I
apologize" is actually an act of apologizing.
 Co-operative Principles
People follow rules (like being clear, truthful, relevant) to make conversations work well.
This idea was suggested by Grice.
 Conversational Implicature
Sometimes we mean more than what we say. For example, if someone says, "It's cold in
here," they might actually mean "Please close the window."
 Politeness Theory
People are careful with words to be polite and protect each other's feelings, using
strategies like being indirect or softening criticism.

5. Analysis of Conversation as Discourse

 Conversation as Discourse
Studying everyday talks — how people start conversations, take turns, end talks, interrupt
politely, and more.
 Structure of Conversation
Conversations usually follow patterns — greetings, small talk, main talk, and goodbye.
 Analyzing a Conversation
Looking closely at real conversations to see how people communicate, what hidden rules
they follow, and how they manage relationships.

What is Discourse in Detail

Discourse means how language is used in real communication — speaking, writing, chatting,
texting, posting on social media, even body language sometimes!

It’s not just about sentences or grammar — it’s about meaning, context, purpose, and social
interaction.

Example:

A casual chat with your friend (“Hey, what’s up?”) is discourse.

A news report (“Today the Prime Minister announced…”) is discourse.

A political speech, a movie dialogue, an Instagram story — all are forms of discourse!

Features of Discourse

Here are some important features:

Context Matters:

Words mean different things depending on who says them, where, when, and to whom.

It Has a Purpose:

Every discourse has a goal — to inform, persuade, entertain, request, complain, etc.

Connected Language:

Discourse is made up of connected sentences, not just random words.

Social Role:

Discourse shows how people behave with each other — politely, formally, casually, respectfully,
etc.

Text vs. Discourse

A text is a piece of language (written or spoken) — like an article, a speech, a conversation.

Discourse is how that text works in real life — how it means something in context.

Example:

The sentence: “It’s cold in here.”

As text: Just a factual statement.

As discourse: Maybe a request to close the window, or a complaint about the heater!

Importance of Studying Discourse

Helps us understand how communication really works in the real world

Helps in analyzing media, politics, culture, and social issues.

Helps in making better conversations, presentations, and writing.

Simple Summary
  Discourse is language in action.

It’s about how people use language to communicate meaning in real situations

Pragmatic Features of Discourse

Pragmatics deals with how language is used in real situations — not just the meaning of words,
but what people really mean depending on context, tone, relationship, and situation.

When we study pragmatic features of discourse, we look at:

How meaning changes depending on context

How people achieve goals through language (e.g., apologizing, requesting)

How people show politeness or avoid being rude

How people imply things without saying them directly

Key Pragmatic Features of Discourse

1. Language in Context

Language changes depending on:

Who is speaking (friend, boss, teacher)

Where it is happening (classroom, WhatsApp chat, conference)

Why they are speaking (to request, to warn, to complain)

Example:

Talking to a friend: “Hey bro, got a sec?” (Casual)

Talking to a professor: “Excuse me, Professor. May I have a moment of your time?” (Formal)

Reference to Context:

The same basic idea (“I want your attention”) is expressed differently depending on the
relationship and setting.

2. Speech Act Theory (Austin & Searle)

Speech Acts are actions we perform when we speak.

Locutionary Act: Saying something (the words themselves)

Illocutionary Act: The real intention behind words (requesting, apologizing, ordering)

Perlocutionary Act: The effect on the listener (persuading, scaring, encouraging)

Example:

Saying “Can you pass the salt?”

Locutionary: The question itself.

Illocutionary: A polite request.

Perlocutionary: The listener passes the salt.

 Reference to Context:

Even though it’s a “question,” the real intention is to request something politely.

3. Co-operative Principle (H. P. Grice)

In conversations, people cooperate to communicate effectively. Grice gave 4 maxims that people
usually follow:

Maxim of Quantity: Say enough, but not too much.

Maxim of Quality: Say only what you believe is true.

Maxim of Relevance: Stay relevant.

Maxim of Manner: Be clear and orderly.

Example:

Question: “Where are you from?”

Answer: “I’m from Cairo.”

This follows Quantity (enough information) and Relevance (answers the question).

 Reference to Context:

If you say, “I live where the sun kisses the desert,” it sounds poetic but violates Manner (not
clear).
 4. Conversational Implicature

Sometimes people suggest or imply something without saying it directly.

Example:

A: “How was the movie?”

B: “Well, the popcorn was good.”

Here, B is implying that the movie was bad without saying it directly.

 Reference to Context:

Understanding this requires knowledge of social hints and expectations — it’s about reading
between the lines.

5. Politeness Theory (Brown & Levinson)

In conversation, people try to save face — meaning they try to avoid embarrassing or insulting
others.

There are two types of “face”:

Positive Face: Wanting to be liked and admired.

Negative Face: Wanting freedom and not being imposed upon.

Strategies for politeness:

Be indirect (“Could you maybe help me with this?”)

Use softeners (“I’m sorry, but could you…”)

Give options (“If you don’t mind…”)

Example:

Instead of saying, “Lend me your notes,” a polite version:

“Would you mind sharing your notes with me, if it’s not too much trouble?”

 Reference to Context:

Being polite is more important in formal or sensitive situations (like at work or with strangers).
Quick Table: Pragmatic Features and Examples

Summary:

 Pragmatic features help us understand that communication is about more than words —
it’s about intentions, social rules, relationships, and hidden meanings.

Without pragmatics, conversations would often be misunderstood!

Would you like me to also give you a small real-world conversation example showing all these
features together? (It can be super helpful for exams or assignments!)

Politeness theory,

a core concept in pragmatics and discourse studies, explores how individuals mitigate face-
threatening acts (FTAs) during social interactions. It focuses on the need to balance the speaker’s
and hearer’s needs for respect and appreciation, recognizing that communication can be viewed
as a process of maintaining or protecting “face”. Politeness theory, developed by Brown and
Levinson, suggests that speakers employ specific strategies to reduce the impact of FTAs on both
their own and the hearer’s positive and negative face.

Key Concepts:

Face:

Refers to a person’s public self-image, encompassing their desire to be appreciated (positive

face) and their desire to be independent and free from imposition (negative face).

Face-Threatening Acts (FTAs):

Actions or utterances that challenge someone’s positive or negative face, such as requests,
apologies, or criticisms.

Politeness Strategies:

Techniques speakers use to mitigate the impact of FTAs, including:

Bald-on-record: Directly stating an FTA without any attempt to soften it.

Positive politeness: Focuses on acknowledging the hearer’s positive face, emphasizing shared
interests and feelings of solidarity.

Negative politeness: Acknowledges the hearer’s negative face, minimizing imposition and
emphasizing their independence.
Off-record: Indirectly hinting at an FTA, allowing the hearer to avoid the threat if they choose
not to acknowledge it.

Examples:

Positive Politeness:

“Would you mind if I asked you a question?”: This phrase softens the request by acknowledging
the hearer’s potential discomfort and offering an explanation for the request.

“That’s really kind of you to help me.”: This statement acknowledges the hearer’s positive face
by expressing appreciation for their act of kindness.

Negative Politeness:

“Could you possibly help me with this?”: This indirect request allows the hearer to decline
without feeling obligated.

“I know you’re busy, but I was wondering if…”: This acknowledges the hearer’s busy schedule,
minimizing the imposition of the request.

Off-Record:

“It’s getting late, isn’t it?”: This indirect suggestion can be interpreted as a request to leave,
without directly asking someone to go.

“That’s a really nice outfit.”: This compliment can be used to indirectly suggest that the hearer
should change clothes if they are in an inappropriate place or time.

Bald-on-Record:

“Get out of here!”: This direct command disregards the hearer’s face needs.

“I’m going to be late, and it’s all your fault.”: This statement is a direct criticism that disregards
the hearer’s positive face.

Discourse Studies:

Politeness theory is valuable in discourse studies because it helps to understand:

How social context influences language use:

Politeness strategies are often influenced by the relationship between speakers, the purpose of the
conversation, and cultural norms.

The meaning behind communication:

Analyzing politeness strategies can reveal underlying social dynamics and power relations within
interactions.

The impact of language on social relationships:

Politeness strategies can be used to maintain or repair social relationships, while failing to use
them can damage relationships.

Conclusion:

Politeness theory provides a framework for understanding how language is used to manage
social interactions and maintain face. It highlights the importance of considering the speaker’s
and hearer’s perspectives when analyzing communication, and it offers valuable insights into the
social and cultural contexts in which language is used.

Got it! Here’s the full explanation of Politeness Theory — without tables — fully in text form so
you can copy easily:

Politeness Theory in Pragmatics and Discourse Studies

1. What is Politeness in Language?

Politeness means using language carefully to be respectful, avoid hurting feelings, and maintain
good relationships.

It’s not just about "being nice” — it’s about understanding social rules in communication.
In Discourse Studies, politeness shows how people use strategies to keep conversations smooth,
friendly, and effective.

2. Who Developed Politeness Theory?

Politeness Theory was developed by Penelope Brown and Stephen Levinson in 1978 (and
expanded in 1987).

They explained how people protect their own dignity (called “face”) and respect others’ dignity
while communicating.

3. Key Concepts in Politeness Theory

a) Face

“Face” is a person’s public image — how they want others to see them.

There are two types of face:

Positive Face: The desire to be liked, admired, and accepted by others.

Negative Face: The desire to be independent and free from pressure or orders.

b) Face-Threatening Acts (FTAs)

Face-Threatening Acts happen when someone’s face (positive or negative) is challenged during
communication.

Examples of FTAs:

Positive face threats: Criticizing, ignoring, or rejecting someone.

Negative face threats: Ordering someone, interrupting them, or invading their privacy.

4. Politeness Strategies

When people must perform a face-threatening act, they use different strategies to soften the
threat:

i. Bald On-Record

Saying things directly without softening or showing politeness.

Used when urgency is important or when people are very close.

Example: “Give me your notes now.”

 ii. Positive Politeness

Speaking in a friendly way, showing that you like or appreciate the listener.

Used to protect the listener’s positive face.

Example: “Hey buddy, your notes are awesome! Mind if I borrow them for a while?”

iii. Negative Politeness

Being indirect, apologetic, and showing respect for the listener’s freedom.

Used to protect the listener’s negative face.

Example: “I’m really sorry to bother you, but could you possibly lend me your notes?”

iv. Off-Record (Indirect)

Hinting at what you want without saying it directly.

The listener has to guess your real meaning.

Example: “I wish I had some good notes for the exam…”

5. Examples with Context

If you need help carrying boxes, you might say:

“Could you please help me with these boxes?”

This uses negative politeness.

If you are asking a close friend for a lift, you might say:

“Hey dude, you’re the best! Can you drop me home?”

This uses positive politeness.

If you are commanding your younger brother, you might say:

“Bring my bag!”

This is bald on-record, with no politeness

If you are hinting for an invitation, you might say:

“It’s been ages since I had homemade pizza…”

This is off-record politeness.

6. Politeness in Discourse Studies

In Discourse Studies, researchers analyze how politeness appears in real conversations,

interviews, debates, and written texts.

They study:

How people choose words depending on relationships, power, and social setting.

How cultural differences affect politeness (for example, some cultures are very direct while
others are very indirect).

How politeness strategies influence media, political speeches, and online communication.

Example:

In a political debate, a candidate may respectfully disagree by saying:

“With all due respect, I see things differently…”

Summary

Politeness Theory shows that communication is not only about words, but also about respecting
people’s feelings, social rules, and dignity.

In daily life, we use different politeness strategies to protect our own face and the face of others,
keeping conversations smooth and positive.

Would you also like a very short 5-line final summary for even quicker memorization?

(It’s helpful if you need to revise fast before an exam!)

Let me know!

Conversation Structure (Sequence) in Discourse Studies – Full Detailed Explanation

1. What is Conversation Structure?

Conversation structure is the organized pattern of how people talk with each other.

It looks at how conversations are started, continued, managed, repaired, and ended.
In Discourse Studies, it is believed that conversations are not random — they follow social rules
and have a logical flow even in casual talking.

Simple idea:

When two or more people talk, they usually follow some steps naturally, like greeting, sharing
information, asking questions, and then saying goodbye.

2. Importance of Conversation Structure

Keeps communication smooth and effective.

Prevents misunderstandings and confusion.

Maintains politeness, respect, and social relationships.

Shows social roles and power relations (like boss vs. employee, teacher vs. student).

Without structure:

Conversations would be messy, with people talking over each other, misunderstanding, or
feeling awkward.

3. Main Parts of Conversation Structure

A / Opening a Conversation

Opening means how we start a conversation.

Often includes greetings, small talk, or a friendly question.

Examples:

“Hello!”

“Good evening!”

“Hey, what’s up?”

Opening signals that someone is ready to communicate.

In formal situations, openings are more polite:

“Good morning, Mr. Smith. How are you today?”

 a) Turn-Taking

Turn-taking is the system that lets people know when to speak and when to listen.

Only one person speaks at a time (usually).

Speakers use pauses, eye contact, intonation (voice rising or falling) to show when it’s the next
person’s turn.

Rules of turn-taking:

Don’t interrupt unless necessary.

Give clear signs that you have finished speaking (like slowing down or asking a question).

Listeners wait or signal that they want to speak (like leaning forward, nodding, or saying
“hmm”).

Example:

A: “Did you enjoy the concert?”

B: “Yeah, it was amazing! Especially the final song. What about you?”

b) Adjacency Pairs

Adjacency pairs are two-part exchanges that naturally fit together in conversations.

They come one after another and expect a certain type of reply.

Types of Adjacency Pairs:

Greeting – Greeting:

A: “Hi!”

B: “Hello!”

Question – Answer:

A: “What time is the meeting?”

B: “At 3 PM.”

Offer – Acceptance/Refusal:
A: “Would you like a coffee?”

B: “Yes, please!” (acceptance) or “No, thank you.” (refusal)

Important:

If the second part doesn’t come, it feels awkward or rude.

c) Preference Organization

Conversations have a system of preferred responses (positive, easy) and dispreferred responses
(negative, difficult).

Preferred responses are quick, positive, and friendly.

Example:

A: “Would you like some tea?”

B: “I’d love some, thank you!”

Dispreferred responses are often delayed or made more polite.

Example:

A: “Would you like some tea?”

B: “Uh, I’m really sorry, but I just had some.”

In short:

Accepting an offer quickly is preferred. Refusing needs politeness.

d) Repair

Repair means fixing problems in conversation when something goes wrong.

Repairs happen when there’s a mistake, misunderstanding, or if someone didn’t hear properly.

Types of Repair

Self-repair: The speaker corrects themselves.

“I met her on Friday — sorry, I mean Saturday.”

Other-repair: The listener asks for clarification.

A: “I’ll meet you at the … at the …”

B: “At the café?”

Why repair is important:

It keeps the conversation flowing without too much confusion.

e) Topic Management

Starting a topic: Bringing up something to talk about.

“Did you see the news today?”

Changing a topic: Moving from one subject to another.

“Anyway, speaking of movies, have you watched ‘Dune’?”

Closing a topic: Ending a subject smoothly.

“Well, that’s enough about that.”

Good speakers manage topics well, making sure the conversation stays lively and interesting.

f) Closing the Conversation

Conversations don’t just stop — they are closed properly.

Closings include polite phrases and sometimes preparation to leave.

Examples of closing:

“Anyway, I have to go now.”

“It was nice talking to you!”

“See you soon!”

Steps for Closing

1. Summarize (“Well, I think we covered everything.”)

2. Signal ending (“Anyway…”)
3. Say goodbye (“Bye! Take care!”)
4. Extra Elements in Conversation Structure
 g) Backchanneling

Small sounds or words listeners say to show they are listening.

Examples: “Hmm”, “Yeah”, “Right”, “I see”, “Uh-huh.”

Why important?

It encourages the speaker to continue and shows active listening.

ii) Overlap

Sometimes people speak at the same time accidentally.

Usually, one person stops quickly, or both laugh and continue.

Overlap is normal and doesn’t always mean interrupting rudely.

iii) Silence and Pauses

Short silences are normal for thinking or changing topics.

Long silences can feel uncomfortable unless it’s in very formal or respectful settings (like
interviews or serious discussions)

Small Real-Life Example of Full Conversation Structure

Example:

A: “Hi there!” (Opening)

B: “Hey! How have you been?” (Turn-taking + Adjacency Pair)

A: “Pretty busy, you know. Work and all. What about you?” (Turn-taking)

B: “Same here. By the way, did you watch the match yesterday?” (Topic Management –
Changing Topic)

A: "No, I missed it. Wait, what match are you talking about?” (Repair – Asking for Clarification)

B: “The football match! It was amazing.” (Repair completed)

A: “Sounds exciting! Anyway, I should get going.” (Topic Closing)

B: “Alright, take care! See you soon!” (Closing)

Final Summary

Conversations are organized with steps like opening, turn-taking, adjacency pairs, preference,
repair, topic management, and closing.

These patterns help conversations stay smooth, polite, and understandable.

Discourse studies teach us that speaking is a social act, not just random talking.

Discourse and grammar

Discourse grammar is a grammatical framework that focuses on how language is used in real-life
communication, going beyond the structure of individual sentences to analyze how language
creates meaning and coherence in longer stretches of text. It examines how grammatical choices
contribute to the overall organization, cohesion, and coherence of discourse.

Key aspects of discourse grammar:

Beyond the sentence:

While traditional grammar focuses on sentence structure, discourse grammar considers how
language functions in longer units of communication, such as paragraphs, conversations, or
written texts.

Coherence and cohesion:

Discourse grammar explores how different parts of a text connect logically (coherence) and how
they are linked grammatically and semantically (cohesion).

Functional choices:

It emphasizes how language choices, including grammatical structures, are made to achieve
specific communicative goals in a given context.

Discourse markers:

Discourse grammar also examines how words and phrases like “however”, “therefore”, or “in
addition” contribute to the flow and organization of discourse.

Examples of how discourse grammar is applied:

Analyzing the structure of a conversation:

Discourse grammar can be used to identify different turns in a conversation, how speakers relate
to each other, and how they use language to achieve specific conversational goals.

Examining the cohesion of a written text:

It can be used to analyze how sentences and paragraphs are linked through grammatical
connections like pronouns, conjunctions, and transition words.

Understanding how grammar reflects ideology:

Christopher Hart’s book “Discourse, Grammar and Ideology” explores how grammatical choices
can reveal underlying beliefs and assumptions about the world.

In essence, discourse grammar helps us understand how language is used in real-world

interactions, moving beyond the simple rules of grammar to see how language creates meaning
in context

Grammatical Analysis of Discourse

When analyzing discourse, grammar helps us understand how texts are structured, connected,
and meaningful.

The important elements we study are Cohesion, Coherence, Cohesive Devices, Theme and
Rheme, and Thematic Progression.

1. Cohesion

Cohesion refers to the grammatical and lexical linking within a text that holds it together and
gives it meaning.

It is how sentences and parts of a text are visibly connected using grammar and words.

In simple words, cohesion is the “glue” that ties sentences to each other.

Example:

“I bought a laptop. It is very fast.”

Here, “it” refers to “laptop” — this is cohesion.

2. Coherence
Coherence is about the logical flow of ideas in a text.

Even if the grammar is perfect, if the ideas don’t connect meaningfully, the text is not coherent.

Coherence depends on meaning rather than just grammar.

Example:

“I opened the fridge. There was no milk. I went to the store.”

The ideas naturally follow each other. That makes the text coherent.

In short, cohesion is the visible connection of words and sentences, and coherence is the logical
connection of ideas.

3. Cohesive Devices

Cohesive devices are the grammatical and lexical tools that make a text cohesive.

They help link sentences and ideas so that the writing or speech flows smoothly.

Here are the main types of cohesive devices:

Reference:

Using pronouns or demonstratives to refer to something already mentioned.

Example: “Sara is my friend. She is very kind.” (“She” refers to Sara.)

Substitution:

Replacing a word or a phrase with another to avoid repetition.

Example: “I like apples. So do I.” (Instead of repeating “like apples,” we use “do.”)

Ellipsis:

Omitting words that are understood from the context.

Example:

A: “Do you want some coffee?”

B: “Yes, please.” (Instead of saying “Yes, I want some coffee.”)

Conjunctions:
Using linking words to join ideas logically.

Example: “I was tired, so I went to bed.” (“so” shows cause-effect.)

Lexical Cohesion:

Repeating words, or using related words (synonyms, antonyms, etc.).

Example: “The boy was very smart. The young genius solved all the puzzles.”

These devices connect different parts of a text together smoothly.

4 Theme and Rheme

In discourse analysis, each sentence is divided into two parts: the Theme and the Rheme.

Theme is the part of the sentence that is about what we are talking.

Rheme is the part that adds new information about the theme.

The theme usually comes at the beginning of the sentence.

The rheme usually comes after the theme.

Example:

“Yesterday, I visited my uncle.”

In this sentence:

“Yesterday” is the Theme (because it sets the time, telling what the sentence will be about).

“I visited my uncle” is the Rheme (it provides the new information).

In another example:

“The cat is sleeping under the table.”

Here:

“The cat” is the Theme.

“is sleeping under the table” is the Rheme.

Theme and Rheme help organize information inside sentences so that the listener or reader can
follow the meaning easily.

4. Thematic Progression

Thematic progression means how themes and rhemes develop across sentences in a text.

It shows how information moves forward and how new ideas are introduced.

There are different ways thematic progression happens:

Simple Linear Progression:

The Rheme of the first sentence becomes the Theme of the next sentence.

Example:

“I bought a new car. The car is very fast. It runs smoothly.”

Here, “a new car” (rheme) becomes “The car” (theme) in the next sentence.

Constant Theme Progression:

The same Theme is kept across multiple sentences.

Example:

“My brother loves football. My brother plays every weekend. My brother watches all the
matches.”

Here, “My brother” is the theme in every sentence.

Derived Theme Progression:

Several related Themes are developed from a common starting idea.

Example:

“The zoo has many animals. Lions roar loudly. Monkeys swing on trees. Birds sing beautifully.”

Here, “animals” is the general idea, and then different animals (lions, monkeys, birds) become
new themes.
Thematic progression helps texts sound natural, connected, and interesting, making it easier for
readers to follow the message.

Final Quick Recap in Simple Points:

Cohesion = Grammatical and lexical links inside a text.

Coherence = Logical sense and connection of ideas.

Cohesive Devices = Tools like pronouns, conjunctions, ellipsis, substitution, repetition.

Theme = What the sentence is about (starting point).

Rheme = New information added to the theme.

Thematic Progression = How themes and rhemes move forward across sentences to build
connected meaning.

Would you also like me to write a small practical example showing everything (like a mini-
paragraph with cohesion, theme-rheme, and thematic progression)?

It can make it super easy to see how they all work together!

(Just say “yes” and I’ll write it!)

Key Features of Text and Discourse

Key Features of Text

1. Structure

A text must have a clear and organized structure.

Sentences should be properly formed, with correct grammar and punctuation.

2. Cohesion

The parts of a text are linked together using cohesive devices like pronouns, conjunctions, and
repetition.

Example: “I have a cat. It is very playful.” (“It” refers to “cat.”)

3. Coherence
The text must make sense as a whole.

Ideas should logically flow from one sentence to the next.

4. Completeness

A text should feel complete, delivering a full message or idea.

A text without missing information is easier to understand.

5. Purpose

Every text has a purpose — to inform, entertain, persuade, instruct, etc.

The way the text is written depends on its purpose.

Key Features of Discourse

1. Context

Discourse always happens in a particular situation (time, place, relationship between speakers).

Understanding the context is essential to understanding the real meaning.

2. Interactio

Discourse often involves interaction between people — like conversations, interviews,

discussions.

The roles of speaker and listener are important.

3. Purpose and Function

Discourse focuses on what the speaker or writer wants to achieve (requesting, promising,
apologizing, ordering, etc.).

It studies the function of language, not just its form.

4. Meaning Beyond Words

In discourse, words can have hidden or indirect meanings.

Example: Saying “It’s chilly in here” might actually mean “Please close the window.
 5. Social Relationships

Discourse reflects social relationships — such as politeness, power difference, familiarity, or

distance.

The way we talk to a friend is different from how we talk to a teacher or a boss.

6. Cultural Influence

Discourse is shaped by culture — different cultures communicate differently.

For example, in some cultures, direct speech is polite; in others, indirect speech is preferred.

7. Continuity

Discourse is not random; ideas build on each other.

A conversation or story follows a logical flow over time.

In Short

A text is mainly about language structure and correctness.

Discourse is mainly about meaning, context, purpose, and social interaction.

Would you also like a quick real-life example showing all these features together (like a small
conversation example)?

It can make the points even easier to remember!

(Just tell me if you want it!)

Types of Discourse: Political and Media

1. Political Discourse

What is Political Discourse?

Political discourse is language used in politics — by politicians, leaders, activists, government

officials, and even voters.

It includes speeches, debates, campaigns, laws, public addresses, and interviews.

Key Features of Political Discourse

Persuasion:
Politicians try to convince people to support their ideas, vote for them, or agree with their
policies.

Power and Authority:

Language is used to show power, maintain control, or challenge existing power.

Ideology:

Political discourse often reflects a certain ideology (such as democracy, socialism, nationalism).

Strategic Language:

Politicians choose their words carefully to appear positive, trustworthy, and strong.

For example, they may use words like “freedom,” “rights,” “security,” which have strong
emotional impact.

Framing Issues:

How a political topic is described can change how people think about it.

Example: Saying “climate change” versus “climate crisis” gives different feelings.

Use of Rhetorical Devices:

Politicians use rhetorical questions, repetition, metaphors, and slogans.

Example: Barack Obama’s slogan “Yes We Can” is short, powerful, and motivational.

Example:

In a political speech, a leader might say:

 “We will fight for justice, protect our families, and create a future full of hope.”

Here, the leader is trying to persuade, inspire, and show authority at the same time.

2. Media Discourse

What is Media Discourse?

Media discourse is language used in media — like newspapers, television news, social media,
radio, agazines, and online articles.

It covers news reports, interviews, advertisements, talk shows, documentaries, and even memes.
Key Features of Media Discourse:

Information Sharing:

Media provides news, information, and entertainment to the public.

Influencing Public Opinion:

Media discourse shapes how people think about events, people, and social issues.

Agenda Setting:

Media decides what topics are important and how they are presented to the public.

Framing and Bias:

Sometimes, the same event is presented differently by different media channels.

Words, images, and tone can create bias.

Sensationalism:

Some media use dramatic headlines and emotional language to grab attention.

Example: Saying “Shocking Disaster Strikes Town!” instead of “Storm Affects Town.”

Multimodality:

Modern media often combines words, images, videos, and sounds together — especially on
platforms like Instagram, YouTube, and TV news.

Example:

A news channel might report:

 “The heroic firefighters battled the fierce blaze for hours.”

Here, words like “heroic” and “fierce” show how the media emotionally frames the story.

In Simple Words

Political Discourse is about how language is used in politics to gain support, show power, and
express ideologies.

Media Discourse is about how language is used in media to inform, influence, and entertain the
public.
Both types are very powerful because they shape how we think, feel, and act in society.

Would you also like me to explain how political and media discourse are connected (because
many times media reports on politics!)?

It’s very interesting and useful if you want a deeper understanding!

(Just say “yes” if you want that!)