Digital communication, 3rd year, Chapter 1 Assist. Prof. Dr. Asmaa H.

Majeed

CHAPTER ONE
SAMPLING AND PULSE MODULATION
1.1Sampling:
• Process of converting a continuous-time signal into discrete time signal.
• Sampling is common in all pulse modulation techniques
• The signal is sampled at regular intervals such that each sample is proportional
to amplitude of signal at that instant.
• After sampling, the signal is defined at discrete-instants of time and the time
interval between two successive sampling instants is called the sampling
period (𝑇𝑠 in s𝑒𝑐𝑠). 𝑓𝑠=1/𝑇𝑆 is called sampling rate or sampling frequency.

1.1.1 Sampling Theorem

• A signal band limited to B Hz by regularly-spaced samples, provided sampling
rate is at least 2B sample per second.

F𝑠 ≥ 2𝐵 or F𝑠 ≥ 2𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 ……. (1)

F𝑠 = 2𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 (Minimum sampling rate or Nyquist sampling rate) ….… (2)

• Sampled spectrum (𝜔) is repeating periodically without overlapping.

• Original spectrum is centered at 𝜔=0 and having bandwidth of 𝜔𝑚.
• For 𝑓𝑠<2𝑓𝑚 sampled spectrum will overlap and cannot be recovered back.
This is called aliasing.

The Nyquist sample rate is a floor on the sampling rate, and practical systems
sample greater than the Nyquist rate. Some examples of common sample rates are:

The sampler behaves exactly as a multiplier. It multiplies g(t) by a gating function

x(t) which is a train of impulses with frequency fs

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Digital communication, 3rd year, Chapter 1 Assist. Prof. Dr. Asmaa H. Majeed

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Digital communication, 3rd year, Chapter 1 Assist. Prof. Dr. Asmaa H. Majeed

Sampling in time domain give rise to periodic of G(f) in frequency domain

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Digital communication, 3rd year, Chapter 1 Assist. Prof. Dr. Asmaa H. Majeed

1.1.2 Effect of sampling on a signal spectrum:

Ex: Determine the Nyquist rate of the sampling for the signal:

𝑔(𝑡) = 10 cos 100𝜋𝑡 + 15 cos 150𝜋𝑡 + 5𝑐𝑜𝑠300𝜋𝑡

Solution:

𝑁𝑦𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 2𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 × 150 = 300 𝐻𝑧

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Digital communication, 3rd year, Chapter 1 Assist. Prof. Dr. Asmaa H. Majeed

H.W:
Determine the Nyquist rate of sampling required for
a) 𝑔(𝑡) = 10 cos 100𝜋𝑡 cos 200𝜋𝑡.
b) 𝑔(𝑡) = 𝑒−2|𝑡| (approximate the BW where|𝐺(𝜔)| drops to value less than 0.1)

1.1.3 Sampling methods:

❖ Sampling can be performed with the help of sampler.
❖ Depending upon different types of sampling techniques we have different
types of samplers:
• Ideal – An impulse at each sampling instant.
• Natural – A pulse of short width with varying amplitude.
• Flat Top – Uses sample and hold, like natural but with single amplitude
value.

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Digital communication, 3rd year, Chapter 1 Assist. Prof. Dr. Asmaa H. Majeed

Fig. 4 Types of Sampling

Instantaneous Sampling or Ideal Sampling:
• Ideal sampling is also known as instantaneous or impulse train sampling.
• In this method, the sampling signal is a periodic impulse train.
• The area of each impulse in the sampled signal is equal to the instantaneous
value of the input signal x(t).
• The impulse sampling is not used for information exchange as it has very
low power.

Natural sampling:
• Natural sampling is also called practical sampling.
• In this sampling technique, the sampling signal is a pulse train.
• In natural sampling method, the top of each pulse in the sampled signal retains
the shape of the input signal x(t) during pulse interval.
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Digital communication, 3rd year, Chapter 1 Assist. Prof. Dr. Asmaa H. Majeed

• The spectrum is weighted by a sinc function.

• Amplitude of high frequency components reduces.

Flat top sampling:

• Flat top sampling is most widely used due to its noise mitigation capability.
• In the flat top sampling, the sampling signal is also a pulse train.
• Flat top sampling makes use of sample and hold circuit.
• Capacitor instantly charges and hold the value of the signal for Ts sec. (i.e.
arrival of next sample).
• The top of each pulse in the sampled signal remains constant and is equal to
the instantaneous value of the input signal 𝑥(𝑛) at the start of the samples.
• The sampling switch is used to specify the sampling duration T s.
• The discharge switch provides the path for the capacitor to discharge.
• For minimum distortion, the sampling rate should be more than twice the
signal frequency.
• In the spectrum high frequency components are attenuated due sinc pulse roll
off. This is known as Aperture effect.
• If pulse width increases aperture effect is more i.e. more attenuation of high
frequency components.

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Digital communication, 3rd year, Chapter 1 Assist. Prof. Dr. Asmaa H. Majeed

1.2 Pulse Modulation Techniques

1.2.1 What is the need for Pulse Modulation?
• Many Signals in Modern Communication Systems are digital
• Also, analog signals are transmitted digitally.
• Reduced distortion and improvement in signal to noise ratios.

1.2.2 Types of Pulse modulation

Pulse modulation is of two types:

❖ Analog Pulse Modulation

If an analog signal is sampled, the sampled values may be used to
modify certain parameter of a periodic train pulses (amplitude, width or
position). Accordingly, we have Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM), Pulse
Width Modulation (PWM) or Pulse Position Modulation (PPM).

❖ Digital Pulse Modulation

• Pulse code Modulation (PCM)
• Delta Modulation (DM)

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Digital communication, 3rd year, Chapter 1 Assist. Prof. Dr. Asmaa H. Majeed

1.2.2.1 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

Generation:

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Digital communication, 3rd year, Chapter 1 Assist. Prof. Dr. Asmaa H. Majeed

1.2.2.2 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

• The amplitude and the frequency of the PWM wave remain constant. Only
the width changes.
• That is why the information is contained in the width variation. This is
similar to FM.
• As the information is contained in the width variation, it is unaffected by the
amplitude variations introduced by the noise. Thus, the PWM system is more
immune to noise than the PAM signal.

• The block diagram of a PWM signal generator is shown in figure below.

This circuit can also be used for the generation of PPM signal.
• A sawtooth generator generates a sawtooth signal of frequency fs, and this
sawtooth signal in this case is used as a sampling signal.
• It is applied to the inverting terminal of a comparator.
• The modulating signal x (t) is applied to the non-inverting terminal of the
same comparator.

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Digital communication, 3rd year, Chapter 1 Assist. Prof. Dr. Asmaa H. Majeed

• The comparator output will remain high as long as the instantaneous

amplitude of x (t) is higher than that of the ramp signal.
• This gives rise to a PWM signal at the comparator output as shown in figure
below.
• Here, it may be noted that the leading edges of the PWM waveform coincide
with the falling edges of the ramp signal. Thus, the leading edges of PWM
signal are always generated at fixed time instants.

Detection of PWM Signal

• The circuit for the detection of PWM signal is shown in figure below.

• The PWM signal received at the input of the detection circuit is

contaminated with noise. This signal is applied to pulse generator circuit
which regenerates the PWM signal.
• Thus, some of the noise is removed and the pulses are squared up.
• The regenerated pulses are applied to a reference pulse generator. It produces
a train of constant amplitude, constant width pulses.

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Digital communication, 3rd year, Chapter 1 Assist. Prof. Dr. Asmaa H. Majeed

• These pulses are synchronized to the leading edges of the regenerated PWM
pulses but delayed by a fixed interval.
• The regenerated PWM pulses are also applied to a ramp generator. At the
output of it, we get a constant slope ramp for the duration of the pulse. The
height of the ramp is thus proportional to the width of the PWM pulses.
• At the end of the pulse, a sample and hold amplifier retains the final ramp
voltage until it is reset at the end of the pulse.
• The constant amplitude pulses at the output of reference pulse generator are
then added to the ramp signal.
• The output of the adder is then clipped off at a threshold level to generate a
PAM signal at the output of the clipper.
• A low pass filter is used to recover the original modulating signal back from
the PAM signal. The waveforms for this circuit have been shown in figure.

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Digital communication, 3rd year, Chapter 1 Assist. Prof. Dr. Asmaa H. Majeed

Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

• The position of the pulses is changed with respect to the position of reference
pulses.
• The PPM pulses can be derived from the PWM pulses as shown in figure
below.
• Here, it may be noted that with increase in the modulating voltage the PPM
pulses shift further with respect to reference.

Generation of PPM Signal

• The PWM pulses obtained at the comparator output are applied to a
monostable multivibrator. The monostable is negative edge triggered.
• Hence, corresponding to each trailing edge of PWM signal, the monostable
output goes high.
• It remains high for a fixed time decided by its own RC components.
• Thus, as the trailing edges of the PWM signal keep shifting in proportion
with the modulating signal x(t), the PPM pulses also keep shifting, as shown
in figure.

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Digital communication, 3rd year, Chapter 1 Assist. Prof. Dr. Asmaa H. Majeed

Demodulation of PPM Signal

• The PPM demodulator block diagram has been shown in figure .

• The noise corrupted PPM waveform is received by the PPM demodulator

circuit.
• The pulse generator develops a pulsed waveform at its output of fixed
duration and applies these pulses to the reset pin (R) of a SR flip-flop.
• A fixed period reference pulse is generated from the incoming PPM
waveform and the SR flip-flop is set by the reference pulses.
• Due to the set and reset signals applied to the flip-flop, we get a PWM signal
at its output.
• The PWM signal can be demodulated using the PWM demodulator.

PWM and PPM, are rarely used now in communication systems.

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Digital communication, 3rd year, Chapter 1 Assist. Prof. Dr. Asmaa H. Majeed

1.3 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):

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Digital communication, 3rd year, Chapter 1 Assist. Prof. Dr. Asmaa H. Majeed

Ex -3:
Twelve speech signals are TDM-PAM transmitted, find minimum sample rate at
the channel and minimum required BW.
Solution:
𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥=3.5 kHz (for speech)
𝑓𝑠≥2𝑁𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 or 𝑓𝑠≥2× (12) × (3.5 𝑘𝐻𝑧)
𝑓𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑛=84 kHz
𝐵𝑊𝑚𝑖𝑛=1/2𝑓S𝑚𝑖𝑛=42 𝑘𝐻𝑧

Ex -4:
Determine the minimum transmission BW in a TDM system transmitting 20
different messages, each message signal have BW of 5 kHz; compare the result if
FDM is used with AM & SSB techniques.
Solution:
• TDM
𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛=2𝑁𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥=2× (20) × (5 𝑘𝐻𝑧) =200 kHz
𝐵𝑊𝑚𝑖𝑛=100 𝑘𝐻𝑧
• FDM
AM: 𝐵𝑊𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2(5 ∗ 20) 𝑘𝐻𝑧 = 200 𝑘𝐻𝑧
SSB: 𝐵𝑊𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 5 ∗ 20 𝑘𝐻𝑧 = 100 𝑘𝐻𝑧
∴ TDM/PAM is more efficient in terms of BW than FDM/AM
Problems
Q1: A signal g (t), containing three frequencies is given by:
𝑔(𝑡) = 10 cos 150𝜋𝑡 + 5 𝑐𝑜𝑠300 𝜋𝑡,
This signal is required to be transmitted using pulse techniques. Determine the
Nyquist rate of sampling.

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Digital communication, 3rd year, Chapter 1 Assist. Prof. Dr. Asmaa H. Majeed

Ans: 300Hz.
Q2: The signal g(t), defined by the relation:
𝑔(𝑡) = 10 cos 100𝜋𝑡 cos 200𝜋𝑡
is required to be transmitted using pulse-modulation techniques. Determine the
Nyquist rate of sampling.
Ans: 300 Hz.
Q3: The signal shown below, is not bandlimited, but it can be approximated to be
band – limited signal. Assuming a suitable criterion, for approximation,
determine the corresponding minimum sampling rate, with

Q4: Determine the minimum transmission bandwidth required to transmit the

following two signals:
𝑓1(𝑡) = 10 cos 150 𝜋𝑡 + 15 cos 200 𝜋𝑡 and 𝑓2(𝑡) = 10 cos 100 𝜋𝑡 cos 200 𝜋𝑡
in a PAM/TDM system. Compare the result if FDM is used with AM& SSB
techniques.
Ans: 300Hz.
Q5: Sketch the spectrum of 𝑔(𝑡) if it is sampled at the following sampling
frequencies: 25KHz, 50KHz and 60KHz. Indicate if and how the signal can be
recovered at each sampling freq.

Q6: Draw approximate PAM, PWM, PWM waveforms for the input message shown
below

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