ACIDS and

BASES
 ACID
⚫Has a sour taste
⚫Causes color changes in
plant dyes (change the color
of litmus from blue to red)
⚫Reacts with certain metals,
such as zinc, magnesium, and
iron, to produce hydrogen gas
⚫Reacts with carbonates and
bicarbonates, such as sodium
carbonate, calcium carbonate,
and magnesium carbonate, to
produce carbon dioxide
⚫Aqueous acid
solutions conduct
electricity
⚫Neutralizes bases
 BASE
⚫ Has a bitter taste
⚫ Feel is slippery, soapy feeling
⚫ Changes the color of red litmus to
blue
⚫ Aqueous solution conducts
electricity
ACID BASE
THEORIES
 A. ARRHENIUS – OSTWALD
THEORY
⚫ Proposed by Svante August Arrhenius,
a Swedish chemist and Wilhelm
Ostwald, a German chemist
⚫ Arrhenius acid- can be described as a
substance that yields hydrogen ions
(H+) when dissolved in water.
⚫ Arrhenius base- substance that
ionizes in water to produce OH- ions
 B. BRONSTED-LOWRY THEORY
⚫ Broaderdefinitions were proposed
by Johannes Nicolaus Bronsted, a
Danish chemist, and Thomas
Lowry, a British chemist, they
independently proposed an acid-
base theory that took into
consideration the behavior of
hydrogen ions.
⚫ Bronsted-Lowry acid- any
substance that donates a proton to
another substance (proton donor)
⚫ Bronsted-Lowry base- any
substance that can accept a proton
from any other substance (proton
acceptor)
⚫ Conjugate base- the base that
results when an acid donates its
proton
⚫Conjugate acid- the acid
that results when a base
accepts a proton
 Conjugate Acids and Bases

Conjugate Acid

HF + H2O H3O+ + F- (1)

Acid Base Conjugate Base

Conjugate Acid

H3O+ + F- HF + H2O (2)

Acid Base
Conjugate Base
(SAQ) Which is the conjugate
base?
Base Conjugate Acid

NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH-

Acid Conjugate Base

A. NH4+

B. OH-

C. NH3

D. H2O

0 of 136
(SAQ) Which is the correct term for describing
the role of water in this equilibrium?
Base Conjugate Acid

NH4+ + H2O H3O+ + NH3

Acid Conjugate Base

A. Conjugate acid

B. Acid

C. Base

D. Conjugate base
0 of 136
• (SAQ) Identify the conjugate
acid-base pairs in the reaction
between ammonia and
hydrofluoric acid in aqueous
solution;
NH3(aq) + HF(aq) NH4+(aq) + F-(aq)
• Identify the conjugate acid-
base pairs for the reaction
CN- + H2O HCN + OH-
Conjugate acid-base pairs have
the following properties:

1. If an acid is strong, its

conjugate base has no measurable
strength. Thus the Cl- ion, which is
the conjugate base of the strong
acid HCl, is an extremely weak
base.
Conjugate acid-base pairs have
the following properties:
2. H3O+ is the strongest acid that
can exist in aqueous solution.
Acids stronger than H3O+ react
with water to produce H3O+ and
their conjugate bases. Thus,

HCl(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + Cl-

Conjugate acid-base pairs have
the following properties:
Acids weaker than H3O+ react
with water to a much smaller
extent , producing H3O+ and their
conjugate bases. For example, the
following equilibrium lies primarily
to the left:
HF(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+ + F- (aq)
Conjugate acid-base pairs have
the following properties:
3. The OH- is the strongest base
that can exist in aqueous solution.
Bases stronger than OH- react
with water to produce OH- and
their conjugate acids.
O2-(aq) + H2O(l) 2OH-(aq)
 The acid-base properties of
water
Water functions as a/an
BASE – in reaction with acids
such as HCl and CH3COOH
ACID – in reaction with bases
such as NH3
 The acid-base properties of
water
⚫ Water is a weak electrolyte
and therefore a poor
conductor of electricity, but it
ionizes to a small extent.
H2O H+ (aq) + OH-(aq)
 C. LEWIS THEORY (1932)

⚫Proposed by Gilbert N. Lewis,

an American chemist
⚫Lewis base- a substance that
can donate a pair of electrons
⚫Lewis acid- a substance that
can accept a pair of electrons
 See Shriver & Atkins
Lewis acids and bases p.125 - 134

A Lewis acid is an
electron pair acceptor.
A Lewis base is an
electron pair donor.
Lewis acids and bases
Bronsted acids and bases are also Lewis acids and
bases.
Consider:
NH3 + H2O → NH4+ + OH-
NH3 is a Bronsted base as it accepts a proton.
At the same time:
NH3 is a Lewis base as it donates a pair of electrons.
Another example is the reaction of
BCl3 with NH3.

(Adduct is the term used for the

product of a Lewis acid-base
reaction because it results from the
addition of the acid and the base.)
(SAQ)

In each of the following reactions,

identify the Lewis acid and the Lewis
base.

1. AlCl3 (aq) + Cl-(aq) AlCl4-(aq)

2. Zn(OH)2+ 2OH- Zn(OH)42-(aq)
Measuring Acid
or Base Strength
 pH OF THE SOLUTION
◼“ power of hydrogen”
◼ The negative logarithm
of the hydrogen ion
concentration.
+
◼ pH= -log [H ]
◼The pH value is the negative
power to which 10 must be raised
to give the hydrogen ion
concentration.
+
◼[H ]= 10 –ph M
◼ In a neutral solution, +
[H ]=
-
[OH ] and a pH of 7 .
◼ In an acidic solution,
+ -
[H ]>[OH ] and has a pH of
less than 7.
◼ A basic solution has a pH of
+ -
greater than 7; [H ]< [OH ].
 pOH of the SOLUTION
◼ The negative logarithm of the
hydroxide ion concentration.
pOH= -log [OH-]
◼ A neutral solution has a pOH of 7 at
25oC, the pOH of an acidic
solution is greater than 7, and the
pOH of a basic solution is less
than 7.
 The pH Scale
◼ Itranges from 0-14
◼ The neutral point on the
scale is 7.
◼ Values below 7 indicate
increasing acidity and those
above 7 indicate basicity.
 pHs of some pH value
common fluids
Gastric juice in the 1.0- 2.0
stomach
Lemon juice 2.4
Vinegar 3.0
Grapefruit juice 3.2
Orange juice 3.5
urine 4.8-7.5
pHs of some common pH value
fluids
Saliva 6.4-6.9
Milk 6.5
Pure water 7.0
Blood 7.35-7.45
Tears 7.4
Milk of magnesia 10.6
Household ammonia 11.5
 (SAQ) Sample Problems:
1. The concentration of H+ ions in a
bottle of table wine was 3.2 x 10-4 M
right after the cork was removed. Only
half of the wine was consumed. The
other half, after it had been standing
open to the air for a month, was found to
have a hydrogen ion concentration equal
to 1.0 x 10-3 M. Calculate the pH of the
wine on these two occasions.
(SAQ) Example:
2. The pH of rainwater
collected in a certain region
on a particular day was
+
4.82. Calculate the H ion
concentration of the
rainwater.
(SAQ) Example:
3. In a NaOH
-
solution, [OH ] is
2.9 x 10 -4 M.
Calculate the pH of
the solution.
 Molecular Structure and the
Strength of the Acids
The strength of the acid is
measured by its tendency to
ionize.
◼ HX H+ + X-
Two factors influence the extent
to which acid undergoes
ionization
◼ The strength of H-X bond
◼ The polarity of the bond
◼ The halogens form a series of binary acids
called the hydrohalic acids. The strengths
of the hydrohalic acids in water increase in
the following order.

HF < HCl < HBr < HI (increases from HF to

HI)
Bond Energies for Hydrogen halides and
acid strength for hydrohalic acids
Bond Bond Acid
energy Strength
(kJ/mol)
H-F 568.2 Weak
H- Cl 431.9 Strong
H- Br 366.1 Strong
H- I 298.3 strong
SUPERACIDS
◼ defined as a substance
that has a higher H+

chemical potential than

100% pure sulfuric
acid.
Strongest Superacid
◼ The world's strongest
superacid is fluoroantimonic
acid, HSbF6. It is formed by
mixing hydrogen fluoride
(HF) and antimony
pentafluoride (SbF5).
PROPERTIES of HSbF6
◼ Rapidly and explosively decomposes upon
contact with water.
◼ Evolves highly toxic vapors.
◼ Fluoroantimonic acid is 2×1019 (20
quintillion) times stronger than 100% sulfuric
acid. Fluoroantimonic acid has a H0 value of -
31.3.
◼ Dissolves glass and many other materials and
protonates nearly all organic compounds
(such as everything in your body). This acid
is stored in PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene)
containers.
◼ Strong bases are bases which
completely dissociate in water
into the cation and OH-
(hydroxide ion).
◼ The hydroxides of the Group I (alkali
metals) and Group II (alkaline earth)
metals usually are considered to
be strong bases.
Lewis Bases (Superbases)
Superbases are Lewis bases that
are Group 1 salts of carbanions,
such as hydrides and amides.
Lewis bases tend to be even
stronger than the strong
Arrhenius bases because their
conjugate acids are so weak.
Examples of the superbases include:
◼ Ethoxide ion
◼ Butyl lithium (n-BuLi)
◼ Lithium diisopropylamide (LDA)
(C6H14LiN)
◼ Lithium diethylamide (LDEA)
◼ Sodium amide (NaNH2)
◼ Sodium hydride (NaH)
◼ Lithium bis(trimethylsilyl)amide,
((CH3)3Si)2NLi
Oxyacids
◼ contain hydrogen, oxygen, and
other element Z which occupies a
central position.
◼ These acids are characterized by
the presence of one or more O-H
bonds. The central atom Z might
also have other groups attached to
it: Z-O-H
Grouping of the Oxyacids
1. Oxyacids having different central
atoms that are from the same group of
the periodic table and that have the
same oxidation number. Within this
group, acid strength increases with
increasing electronegativity of the
central atom, as HClO3 and HBrO3.
Grouping of the Oxyacids
2. Oxyacids having the same central atom but
different number of attached groups. Within
this group, acid strength increases as the
oxidation number increases.

HClO4 > HClO3 > HClO2 > HClO

Acid-base properties of salts
1. Salts that produce neutral solutions
It is generally true that salts
containing an alkali metal or alkaline
earth metal ion (except Be+2 ) and the
conjugate base of the strong acid (e.g. Cl-
, Br-, and NO3-) do not undergo
hydrolysis to an appreciable extent, and
their solutions are assumed to be neutral.
2. Salts that produce Basic solutions
The solution of a salt derived from a
strong base and a weak acid is basic. For
example, the dissociation of sodium acetate
CH3COONa in water

CH3COONa(s) Na+ + CH3COO- (aq)

3. Salts that produce acidic solutions
When a salt derived from a
strong acid such as HCl and a weak
base NH3 dissolves in water, the
solution becomes acidic.
Ex.
HO
NH4Cl(s) 2
NH4+(aq)+ Cl-(aq)

NH4+(aq) + H2O(l) NH3(aq) + H3O+

◼ In principle, all metal ions react with water
to produce an acidic solution. However,
because the extent of hydrolysis is most
pronounced for small and highly charged
metal cation such as Al+3, Cr+3, Fe+3, Bi+3
and Be+2, we generally neglect the relatively
small interaction of alkali metal ions and
most alkaline earth metal ions with water.
When AlCl3 dissolves in water, the Al+3 ions
take the hydrated form Al(H2O)+3
4. Salts in which both the cation and the
anion hydrolyze
For salts derived from a weak acid and a
weak base, both the cation and the anion
hydrolyze. However, whether a solution
containing such a salt is acidic or basic
or neutral depends on the relative
strengths of the weak acid and the weak
base.
Kb > Ka – basic
solution
Kb < Ka – acidic
Kb = Ka - neutral
“Hard” and “soft” acids and bases
The strength of the donor-acceptor interaction in
Lewis acid-base complexes can be measured
quantitatively in terms of the stability constant K.

A + B AB [AB] a
K=
[A] x [B]

High K indicates a strong interaction

Low K indicates a weak interaction
Hard acids and bases
These tend to be small and not easily polarized.
ex. Hard acids: H+, Li+, Na+, Mg2+, Ca3+, Al3+, BF3
Hard bases: F-, OH-, O2-, H2O, NH3, NO3-

Soft acids and bases

These tend to be large and more easily polarized.
ex Soft acids: Cu+, Ag+, Hg+, Hg2+, Cd2+, BH3
Soft bases: H-, I-, CN-, SCN-, CO, PR3
Hard Soft Acid Ions
 Hard acids and bases
Remember this:

Hard acids tend to bind to hard bases

(high ionic character)

Soft acids tend to bind to soft bases

(high covalent character)
Hard acids and bases

A + B AB [AB] a
K=
[A] x [B]

Hard – Hard ➔ High K

Soft – Soft ➔ High K

Hard – Soft ➔ Low K

 BUFFER SOLUTIONS
Buffers are solutions which can
resist changes in pH by
addition of acid or alkali.
Buffers are mainly classified of
two types:
(а) mixtures of weak acids with
their salt with а strong base
(b) mixtures of weak bases with
their salt with а strong acid.
А few examples are given below:
Н2СО3 / NаНСО3 (Bicarbonate
buffer;carbonic acid and sodium
bicarbonate)
СН3СООН / СН3СОО Na
(Acetate buffer; acetic acid and
sodium acetate)
 Significance of Buffer Solutions
(i) Buffer solutions are used for
comparing calorimetrically the
hydrogen ion concentration of
unknown solutions.
(ii) Acetic acid-sodium acetate is
used in the removal of phosphate
radical during the qualitative
analysis of the mixture.
(iii) buffer is used for the
precipitation of hydroxides of third
group of qualitative analysis.
 (iv) In industries, buffer solutions are used
in the alcoholic fermentation (pH 5 to 6.5),
tanning of leather, electroplating,
manufacture of sugar, paper manufacturing
etc.,
(v) In bacteriological research culture media
are generally buffered to maintain the pH
required for the growth of the bacteria being
studied.
(vi) In biological systems buffer system of
carbonic acid and sodium bicarbonate is
found in our blood. It maintains the pH of
blood to a constant value (about 7.4) inspite
of various acid and base-producing reactions
going on in our body