Fluids produced from oil and gas wells generally constitute mixtures of crude oil,

natural gas, and salt water.

These mixtures are very difficult to handle, meter, or transport. In addition to the
difficulty, it is also unsafe and uneconomical to ship or to transport these mixtures
to refineries and gas plants for processing.

Also, environmental constraints exist for the safe and acceptable handling of
hydrocarbon fluids and disposal of produced salt water.

It is therefore necessary to process the produced fluids in the field to yield

products that meet the specifications set by the customer and are safe to handle.
Crude oil–gas–water mixtures produced from wells are generally directed, through flow
lines and manifold system, to a central processing and treatment facility normally called
the gas–oil separation plant (GOSP).

The first step in processing of the produced stream is the separation of the phases (oil,
gas, and water) into separate streams. This takes place in mechanical devices known as
two-phase gas–oil separators when the produced stream contains no water or
three-phase separators when the produced stream contains water.

Gas–oil separation carried out in these separators is recognized as the backbone

process in a train of field processing units of oil and gas operations.

The separators are used to relieve the excess pressure due to the gas associated with
the produced crude and, consequently, separating it from the oil.

When water exists in the produced stream, separators are also used to separate the free
water from the oil.
FIELD PROCESSING OF OIL
Oil leaving the separator does not generally meet the purchaser’s specifications.
Oil may still contain between 10% and 15% water that exists mostly as emulsified
water.

The presence of this salt water presents serious corrosion and scaling problems
in transportation and refinery operations.

Water remaining in the oil is known as the basic sediments and water (BS&W). A
maximum of 1% BS&W and in some cases less than 0.5% BS&W is acceptable.

The limit on the salt content of the remnant water in oils is usually in the range of
10 to 15 PTB (pounds of salt per thousand barrels of oil).

If these specifications are not met, then further treatment of the oil leaving the
separator will be needed. Such treatment involves emulsion
treatment/dehydration and desalting processes.
After oil treating, there may be a need to stabilize the crude oil to optimize the oil
recovery and reduce its volatility.

Some produced crude oils contain hydrogen sulfide and other sulfur products. When
it contains more than 400 ppm of H2S gas, the oil is classified as sour crude.

Sour crude oils present serious safety and corrosion problems. In such cases,
another treatment known as the sweetening process is needed to remove hydrogen
sulfide or reduce its content to acceptable limits.
A quick comparison between the properties of a typical crude oil produced from a
field in the Middle East before and after treatment illustrates the role of field
processing the crude oil.

Raw crude oil has the following materials present:

Water: present in two forms: emulsions (10%) and free water (30%)
Salt: 50,000–250,000 mg/L formation water
Gas: dissolved gas (600 scf/bbl crude oil)
H2S: 1000 ppm

Treated crude oils have the following final specifications:

Water content: 0.3 vol% maximum
Salt content: 10 lbs (as NaCl) per 1000 barrels of oil
H2S: 70 ppm
Vapor pressure: 10 psig (4–5 psi RVP)
FIELD PROCESSING OF NATURAL GAS

Nature gas associated with oil production (associated gas) or produced from gas fields
generally contains undesirable components such as H2S, CO2, N2, and water vapor.

Field processing of natural gas implies the removal of such undesirable components
before the gas can be sold in the market. Specifically, the gas contents of H2S, CO2,
and water vapor must be removed or reduced to acceptable concentrations.

N2, on the other hand, may be removed if it is justifiable. Gas compression is usually
needed after these treatment processes.

In addition, the gas undergoes separation and fractionation for the recovery of some
hydrocarbon components that are utilized as a feedstock for the petrochemical
industry.
Several schemes can be recommended for field processing and separation of natural
gas, but Saudi Arabia’s master gas system (MGS), is a good example.
Sales Gas
Sulfur
Fractionation Ethane
Gas Plant NGL Propane
GOPs Plant Butane
Natural Gasoline

Sales Gas
Sulfur

GOPs Gas Plant

NGL Fractionation Ethane

Propane
Sales Gas Plant Butane
Sulfur
Natural Gasoline

GOPs Gas Plant

Field processing of natural gas, in general, is carried out for two main reasons:

1. The necessity to remove impurities from the gas

2. The desirability of increasing liquid product recovery above that obtained by
conventional gas processing

Gas field processing units usually include the following:

1. Removal of water vapor: Gas dehydration represents the most common needed
unit in gas field processing. Water vapor seems to be a universal impurity in natural
gas. Water vapor is not objectionable as such; however, the liquid or solid phase of
water is very troublesome. This is experienced when the gas is compressed or cooled.
The liquid from of water accelerates corrosion of pipelines and other related
equipment. It also reduces pipeline capacity, because it accumulates in low-point
regions. Solid hydrates, on the other hand, plug valves, fittings, and in some cases the
pipe itself.
2. Acid gas separation: Acid gases basically imply hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide
(H2S and CO2). Both gases are considered impurities that must be removed from raw
natural gas before it can be marketed. Hydrogen sulfide is extremely toxic; when
combusted, it produces sulfur oxides, which are a nuisance to consumers. Both H2S
and CO2 are corrosive, especially in the presence of water.

3. Heavy hydrocarbon separation: It is desirable to remove hydrocarbons heavier than

methane from natural gas, especially for fuel gasses. Heavier hydrocarbons, specifically
C3+ tend to condense, forming two-phase flow and thus creating pipeline operating
problems.

Irrespective of the source of natural gas, the final specifications set for market sales
requirements are usually the following
H2S 0.25–0.3 grain per 100ft3 (one grain=64.799 mg)
Total sulfur 20 grains per 100 ft3, Oxygen (air) 0.2% by volume,
Carbon dioxide 2% by volume, Liquefiable hydrocarbons 0.2 gal per 1000 ft3
Water content 7 lbs/MMSCF (in a 1000-psia gas line), Thermal heating value 1150
Btu/ft3
Wellheads
Once a natural gas or oil well is drilled,
and it has been verified that
commercially viable quantities of
natural gas are present for extraction,
the well must be 'completed' to allow
for the flow of petroleum or natural gas
out of the formation and up to the
surface.
This process includes strengthening the well hole with casing, evaluating the pressure
and temperature of the formation, and then installing the proper equipment to ensure
an efficient flow of natural gas out of the well.

The well flow is controlled with a choke. The wellhead structure, often called a
Christmas tree, must allow for a number of operations relating to production and well
workover.

Well workover refers to various technologies for maintaining the well and improving its
production capacity.
Manifolds/gathering
Onshore, the individual well streams are brought
into the main production facilities over a network of
gathering pipelines and manifold systems. The
purpose of these is to allow set up of production
“well sets” so that for a given production level, the
best reservoir utilization, well flow composition (gas,
oil, waster) etc. can be selected from the available
wells.

For gas gathering systems, it is common to meter

the individual gathering lines into the manifold as
shown on the illustration. For multiphase
(combination of gas, oil and water) flows, the high
cost of multiphase flow meters often lead to the use
of software flow rate estimators that use well test
data to calculate the actual flow.
Separation
Some wells have pure gas production which can
be taken directly to gas treatment and/or
compression. More often, the well gives a
combination of gas, oil and water and various
contaminants which must be separated and
processed.
In gravity separation the well flow is fed
into a horizontal vessel.

The retention period is typically 5 minutes,

allowing the gas to bubble out, water to
settle at the bottom and oil to be taken out
in the middle.

The pressure is often reduced in several

stages (high pressure separator, low
pressure separator etc.) to allow controlled
separation of volatile components.

A sudden pressure reduction might allow

flash vaporization leading to instabilities
and safety hazards.
The pressure is often reduced in
several stages; normally three
stages are used, to allow
controlled separation of volatile
components. The purpose is to
achieve maximum liquid recovery
and stabilized oil and gas, and
separate water.

The second stage separator is

quite similar to the first stage HP
separator. In addition to output
from the first stage, it will also
receive production from wells
connected to the Low Pressure
manifold.
The second stage separator is quite
similar to the first stage HP separator. In
addition to output from the first stage, it
will also receive production from wells
connected to the Low Pressure manifold.
Gas treatment and Compression
The gas train consist of several stages,
each taking gas from a suitable pressure
level in the production separator’s gas
outlet, and from the previous stage.

Incoming gas (on the right) is first cooled in

a heat exchanger. It then passes through
the scrubber to remove liquids and goes
into the compressor. The anti surge loop
(thin orange line) and the surge valve
allows the gas to recirculate.