ANTENNAS (II YEAR I SEMESTER)

S. Poornima
Assistant Professor
Dept. Of ECE
ANURAG UNIVERSITY
 UNIT 5 - SYLLUBUS PART 1

• Antenna Apertures
• Introduction
• Effective Height
• Basic Antenna Parameters-
patterns • Fields from oscillating dipole
• Beam Area • Field zones
• Radiation Intensity • shape-impedance
considerations
• Beam Efficiency
• Antenna Temperature
• Directivity
• Front to back ratio
• Gain
• Antenna Theorem.
• Resolution
 What is Antenna ?
• An antenna is a device designed to transmit or receive electromagnetic waves.
• It is typically used in wireless communication systems to convert electrical
signals into electromagnetic waves for transmission through space or to
convert received electromagnetic waves into electrical signals.
• Antennas come in various shapes and sizes, depending on their intended
application and operating frequency range.
• They can be used for purposes such as broadcasting, radar, mobile
communication, Wi-Fi, satellite communication, and many other wireless
applications.
• The design and performance of an antenna are influenced by factors such as
frequency, polarization, radiation pattern, gain, impedance matching, and
environmental conditions.
Types of antennas
Monopole
Antenna
Loop
Antenna Discone Antenna
Dish Antenna Horn Antenna
GPS Antenna
Array Antenna
 Antenna Pattern
An antenna pattern (or radiation pattern) is a graphical
representation of the relative distribution of radiated power or
received signal strength as a function of direction. It describes
how an antenna radiates or receives energy in space.
Types of Antenna Patterns:
1.Radiation Pattern – Shows power radiated in different
directions. Plots power as a function of direction (typically in dB).
2.Field Pattern – Represents the electric (E) or magnetic (H) field
intensity.
Key Components:
•Main Lobe – The region with the strongest radiation.
•Side Lobes – Unwanted radiation in other directions.
•Back Lobe – Radiation in the opposite direction of the main
lobe.
•Half-Power Beamwidth (HPBW) – The angular width where
power drops to half (−3 dB) of its peak value.
Types Based on Directionality:
•Omnidirectional Pattern – Uniform radiation in all
horizontal directions (e.g., dipole antenna).
•Directional Pattern – Focused radiation in a specific
direction (e.g., Yagi-Uda, parabolic antennas)
 Half Power Beamwidth
• Half Power Beamwidth (HPBW) is the angular width of an antenna's
radiation pattern where the power drops to half (−3 dB) of its
maximum value. It determines the directivity and focus of the
antenna.
• Mathematical Representation:
• If the maximum power radiated is Pmax, then HPBW is the angle
between the two points where the power reduces to:
• Key Points:
• A narrower HPBW means a more directional antenna (e.g., parabolic
dish).
• A wider HPBW means the antenna radiates over a broader area (e.g.,
dipole, omnidirectional antenna
 First Null Beamwidth
• The First Null Beamwidth (FNBW) is the angular width of the main lobe
of an antenna radiation pattern measured between the first nulls (zero-
radiation points) on both sides of the main lobe.
• Key Characteristics:
• The null points are where the radiated power drops to zero.
• FNBW is wider than Half Power Beamwidth (HPBW) because HPBW is
measured at -3 dB points, while FNBW extends to the first nulls.
• A smaller FNBW indicates a more directional antenna with better
resolution.
• Relation Between HPBW and FNBW:
Problem
 Beam Area
The Beam Area (also called the Beam Solid Angle, ΩA) is the solid angular region over
which the majority of an antenna’s power is radiated. It quantifies how spread out the
radiation pattern is in 3D space.
Mathematical Representation:
The beam solid angle is given by:
Key Points:
•Measured in steradians (sr).
•The smaller the beam area, the more directional the antenna.
•The beam efficiency is the fraction of total radiated power contained within the beam
area.
Approximate Relation with HPBW:

Used in Directivity calculations:

Problem
 Radiation Intensity
Radiation intensity is the power radiated per unit solid angle by an antenna in a specific
direction. It describes how the power is distributed in space and is denoted by U.
Mathematical Representation:
 Beam Efficiency
Beam Efficiency is directly related to the beamwidth of an antenna. It describes how
much of the total radiated power is concentrated within the main lobe, compared to
the power lost in side lobes.
It is the ratio of the main beam area to the total beam area , which consists of both the
main beam area and the minor-lobe area :
Directivity
 Gain
The gain (G) of an antenna is a realized quantity, which accounts for practical losses such as:
•Ohmic losses (resistive heating in antenna elements).
•Mismatch losses (due to improper feeding or impedance mismatching).
•Radome losses (if the antenna is enclosed in a protective cover).
Since these losses cause the gain to be lower than the directivity, the relation is:
 Antenna Resolution
Antenna resolution refers to the ability of an antenna system to distinguish between
two closely spaced sources of radiation. It is a critical parameter in radar, radio
astronomy, and communication systems where precise angular discrimination is
required.
 Antenna Aperature
Antenna aperture refers to the effective area through which an antenna receives or
transmits electromagnetic energy. It determines the antenna’s ability to collect and
direct energy efficiently.
 Antenna Effective Height
The effective height of an antenna is the height that effectively contributes to the
radiation or reception of electromagnetic waves. It is different from the physical height
because it considers the current distribution along the antenna elements.
Fields from oscillating dipole
The formation of free-space electromagnetic waves from a small
dipole antenna can be understood by examining the behavior of
electric field lines over time. This process involves the detachment
of electric field lines from the antenna and their transition into
propagating electromagnetic waves.
Step-by-Step Explanation of Field Line Detachment
Step 1: Initial Formation of Field Lines (First Quarter Cycle, 0≤t≤T/4)
•A small center-fed dipole antenna is driven by an alternating
current (AC).
•At the start (t=0), maximum charge is present on the dipole arms,
creating strong electric field lines between them.
•As the charge oscillates sinusoidally, these field lines extend
outward, traveling a radial distance of λ/4 from the antenna.
Step 2: Charge Neutralization (Second Quarter Cycle, T/4≤t≤T/2)
•As the charge on the antenna diminishes, opposite charges are introduced.
•The original three field lines move an additional distance of λ/4, making a total of λ/2
from their initial position.
•New field lines, formed by the opposite charge distribution, emerge and move outward.
•At t=T/2, the antenna has zero net charge, meaning that field lines can no longer remain
attached.
•Step 3: Detachment and Wave Formation (At T/2)
•Since the antenna is neutralized, the previously formed field lines detach from the
conductors and combine to form closed loops in free space.
•The detached field lines represent the electromagnetic wave propagating outward.
Step 4: Reversal of the Process (Second Half of the Cycle, T/2≤t≤T)
•In the next half-cycle, the charge polarity reverses, and the entire process repeats in the
opposite direction.
•The wave formation process continues indefinitely, leading to the continuous radiation of
electromagnetic waves from the antenna.
 Antenna Field Zone
The space around an antenna can be divided into different field zones based on the
distance from the antenna and the behavior of electromagnetic waves. These zones
are:
1.Reactive Near-Field Region (Fresnel Region)
2.Radiating Near-Field Region (Fresnel Region)
3.Far-Field Region (Fraunhofer Region)
 Shape Impedence Considerations
• Shape-impedance considerations in antenna design refer to
the relationship between the physical shape of the antenna
and its impedance characteristics, which are critical for
ensuring efficient energy transfer between the antenna and
the transmission line (e.g., coaxial cable or waveguide).

• Impedance matching is essential to minimize signal reflection

and maximize power transfer.

• The physical shape of the antenna (e.g., length, width,

thickness, and geometry) directly affects its impedance.
 Shape Impedence Considerations
• Shape-impedance considerations in antenna design refer to
the relationship between the physical shape of the antenna
and its impedance characteristics, which are critical for
ensuring efficient energy transfer between the antenna and
the transmission line (e.g., coaxial cable or waveguide).

• Impedance matching is essential to minimize signal reflection

and maximize power transfer.

• The physical shape of the antenna (e.g., length, width,

thickness, and geometry) directly affects its impedance.
 Antenna Temperature
• Antenna temperature is a concept used to quantify the
amount of noise power received by an antenna from its
surrounding environment.

• It is expressed in units of temperature (Kelvin, K) and

represents the equivalent temperature of a resistor that would
produce the same noise power as the antenna receives.

• It helps in determining the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and

overall system performance, especially in communication and
radar systems.
It represents the equivalent temperature of a matched resistor that generates the
same noise power as the antenna.
Sources of Antenna Noise
Atmospheric Noise – Thermal radiation from the Earth's atmosphere.
Cosmic Noise – Radiation from space sources like the Sun, stars, and galaxies.
Man-Made Noise – Interference from electronic devices, power lines, etc.
Ground Noise – Radiation from the Earth’s surface.
Effective Antenna Temperature
The actual noise power received depends on the antenna’s radiation pattern and the
temperature of the sources in its field of view. The effective antenna temperature is given
by:
 Front to back ratio
• The Front-to-Back Ratio (F/B Ratio) of an antenna is a measure of how well the antenna
suppresses radiation in the backward direction relative to the forward direction.
• It is defined as the ratio of the power radiated in the main forward direction (front lobe)
to the power radiated in the exact opposite direction (back lobe). Mathematically, it is
expressed as:
 Antenna Theorems
Antenna theory is governed by several fundamental principles,
among which three key equalities play a crucial role in
understanding antenna behavior. These are:
1️⃣ Equality of Radiation Patterns
2️⃣ Equality of Impedance
3️⃣ Equality of Effective Length
These equalities are derived from the reciprocity theorem and
hold for linear, time-invariant antennas without active
components.