1 CHAPTER THREE

COMPUTER NETWORK
2 Introduction to Computer Networks
 A network is a system of interconnected computers and computerized
peripherals such as printers.
 This interconnection among computers facilitates information sharing
among them.
 Computers may connect by either wired or wireless media.
 A network consists of two or more computers linked to share resources
(such as printers and CDs), exchange files, or allow electronic
communications.
 The computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone
lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.
3 Cont.

 A computer network is a system in which several

independent computers are linked together to share data
and peripherals, such as files and printers.
 Allows communication and collaboration between users.
 It is done to enable the computers to communicate and
share available resources.
4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Computer Networks
 Advantages
 The reason for the popularity of computer networks is that they offer
many advantages.
➢ Sharing devices such as printers saves money.
➢ Files can easily be shared between users.
➢ Network users can communicate by email and instant messenger.
➢ Data is easy to back up as all the data is stored on the file server.
➢ Video Conferences
➢ Instant Messaging
5 Disadvantages
 However, with these advantages come a number of potential
disadvantages.
➢ Purchasing the network cabling and file servers can be expensive.
➢ Managing a large network is complicated, requires training and a network
manager usually needs to be employed.
➢ If the file server breaks down the files on the file server become inaccessible.
➢ Viruses can spread to other computers throughout a computer network.
➢ There is a danger of hacking, particularly with wide area networks. Security
procedures are needed to prevent such abuse, for example, a firewall.
6 Network Applications
 Computer networking has revolutionized the way people use
computers.
➢ The Internet: The Internet is a vast network of networks, the ultimate WAN,
consisting of tens of thousands of businesses, universities, and research
organizations with millions of individual users and using a variety of different
network architectures.
➢ FTP and Telnet: The FTP uses the TCP protocol as the underlying transport
protocol. The purpose of FTP is to safely and efficiently transport files over
computer networks.
➢ Secondly the TELNET protocol is used for providing remote terminal access
over a network.
➢ TELNET also uses TCP as its underlying basis for communications.
7 Cont.
➢ Instant messaging: Using instant messaging software two users in different
parts of the world can take part in an online conversation using their personal
computers.
➢ Text typed at one computer will be “instantly” transmitted to the screen of the
other.
➢ Instant messaging provides for much faster and more interactive
communication than electronic mail.
➢ Electronic mail: When most people think of applications of the Internet they
probably think first of electronic mail, or email.
➢ Email can be used to send multimedia content such as audio, video, or even
computer software to a user anywhere in the world.
8 Network Criteria
 A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria.
 The most important of these are performance, reliability, and security.
 Performance refers to how efficiently a network can transfer data.
 It can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response time.
➢ Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to
another.
➢ Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.
 Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and
delay.
➢ Throughput: Throughput measures how much data is transferred successfully
from the sender node to the receiver node in a particular time frame, usually
measured in bits per second or data per second.
➢ Latency (Delay): The time taken for data to travel from the source to the destination.
Lower latency ensures faster communication.
9 Cont.
 Reliability: In addition to the accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured
by the frequency of failure, and the time it takes a link to recover from a failure.
 It is the degree to which a network is trustworthy, consistent, and dependable.
 Overall, the Robustness of the Network at times of catastrophic events is
measured to check how reliable the Network is.
 Security: Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized
access, protecting data from damage, and implementing policies and procedures
for recovery from data losses.
 In Reliability, the frequency of failures is checked.
 In Security, network attacks and data breaches are checked.
10 Network line configuration
 Line Configuration: refers to the way by which two or more
communication devices are connected to a link.
 A link is a physical communication pathway that transfers data
from one device to another.
 For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in
some way to the same link at the same time.
 Based on the requirements, there are two possible line
configurations.
1. Point-to-point
2. multi-point
11 Point-to-point communication
 It is the process of sending a packet from one host to an individual host.
 It provides a dedicated link between two devices. The term dedicated means that
the link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects.
 The total capacity of the link is used for the communication between these two
devices.
 In most point-to-point, the actual length of wire or cable is used to connect the two
devices. but other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible
 Advantage: Point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy.
➢ For example, the use of an infrared remote to change the channel in a Television establishes
a point-to-point contact between the remote and T.V
➢ In the case of voice communication using telephones, there is one calling party and one
called party. Hence the communication is point-to-point.
12 Multipoint connection
 Multipoint: A multipoint or multi-drop connection is one in which
more than two specific devices share a single link.
 In a multi-point configuration, the capacity of the channel is shared
either spatially or temporally.
 If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially
shared connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshare
connection(means, they share it temporally).
13 Classification of Computer Network
 Computer networks are classified based on various factors. They include:
1. Geographical span
2. Inter-connectivity
3. Administration
4. Architecture
 Geographical Span
 Geographically a network can be seen in one of the following categories
➢ It may be spanned across your table, among Bluetooth-enabled devices, Ranging not more
than a few meters.
➢ It may be spanned across a whole building, including intermediate devices to connect all
floors.
➢ It may be spanned across a whole city.
➢ It may be spanned across multiple cities or provinces. It may be one network covering the
whole world.
14 Cont.
 Interconnectivity
➢ Components of a network can be connected to each other differently in some
fashion.
➢ By connectedness, we mean either logically, physically, or both ways.
➢ Every single device can be connected to every other device on the network,
making the network mesh.
➢ All devices can be connected to a single medium but geographically
disconnected, creating a bus-like structure.
➢ Each device is connected to its left and right peers only, creating a linear
structure. All devices are connected together with a single device, creating a
star-like structure.
➢ All devices connected arbitrarily using all previous ways to connect each
other, resulting in a hybrid structure.
15
Cont.
 Administration
➢ From an administrator’s point of view, a network can be a private network that
belongs to a single autonomous system and cannot be accessed outside its physical
or logical domain.
➢ A network can be public, which is accessed by all.
 Network Architecture
 Depending on their architecture, computer networks can be divided into
various types, such as Client-Server, peer-to-peer, or hybrid.
➢ There can be one or more systems acting as servers. The other is the Client, which
requests the Server to serve requests. A server takes and processes requests on
behalf of Clients.
➢ Two systems can be connected Point-to-Point, or in back-to-back fashion.
➢ They both reside at the same level and are called peers.
➢ There can be a hybrid network that involves network architecture of both the
above types.
16 Computer Network Types
 Generally, networks are distinguished based on their geographical
span.
 A network can be as small as the distance between your mobile
phone and its Bluetooth headphones and as large as the internet
itself, covering the whole geographical world.
A. Personal Area Network
➢ A Personal Area Network (PAN) is the smallest network that is very personal
to a user.
➢ This may include Bluetooth-enabled devices or infra-red-enabled devices.
➢ PAN has a connectivity range of up to 10 meters.
➢ PAN may include a wireless computer keyboard and mouse, Bluetooth-
enabled headphones, wireless printers, and TV remotes.
17 Local Area Network (LAN)
 A LAN is a network that is used for communicating among
computer devices, usually within an office building or home.
 LAN’s enable the sharing of resources such as files or hardware
devices that may be needed by multiple users.
 Is limited in size, typically spanning a few hundred meters, and no
more than a mile.
 Is fast, with speeds from 10 Mbps to10 Gbps.
 Requires little wiring, typically a single cable connecting to each
device.
18 Cont.
 LAN’s can be either wired or wireless. Twisted pair, coax or
fiber optic cable can be used in wired LAN’s.
 Every LAN uses a protocol a set of rules that governs how
packets are configured and transmitted.
 Has lower cost compared to MAN’s or WAN’s
 Nodes in a LAN are linked together with a certain topology.
 These topologies include: Bus, Ring, Star.
19 Cont.

A Local Area Network (LAN)

20 Types of LANs
 The three most common types of LAN are:
➢ Cable based LAN
➢ Private Branch Exchange (PBX)
➢ Hierarchical networks
1. Cable base LAN:
➢ In the cable-based LAN all the node are connected by cable media and signals
transmitted through the cables.
➢ Any type of cable are used in LAN such as coaxial, twisted-pair and fiber
optical cable.
21 Cont.
2. Private Branch Exchange
➢ In the private branch exchange many branches of a companies connected by telephone
lines.
➢ A PBX is a private telephone network used within a company or organization.
➢ It connects multiple branches of a company through telephone lines instead of traditional LAN
cables.
➢ PBX systems allow internal calls within the organization and external calls through public
telephone networks.
3. Hierarchical Network
➢ In this network use of connecting media both cable and telephone line for communication.
➢ A Hierarchical Network is a structured network model with multiple layers:
▪ Core Layer – The backbone of the network, providing high-speed data transfer.
▪ Distribution Layer – Connects different segments of network and manages traffic.
▪ Access Layer – Connects end devices (computers, printers, etc.).
➢ Commonly used in large enterprises and service provider networks.
22 LAN Standards
 In February 1980, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
established Project 802 to define standards for Local Area Networks (LANs)..
 Before these standards, networking was a mess-devices couldn’t talk to each
other, expanding networks was difficult, and performance was unreliable.
 IEEE fixed this by defining common rules(standard) for all networking
technologies, ensuring smooth communication, growth, and security.
 These standards define how devices communicate over wired and wireless
networks, ensuring compatibility,Interoperability,efficiency, and security between
different networking technologies.
 The Impact of IEEE 802 Standards
 Interoperability- Devices from different manufacturers can communicate easily.
 Scalability- Networks can grow without compatibility problems.
 Efficiency- Data transmission is more reliable and collision-free.
 Security- Secure authentication and encryption protect data.
 Cost Reduction - Standardized technologies reduce networking costs for
businesses.
23 Cont.
 The 802 specifications fall into 12 categories that are identified by the
802 numbers;
➢ 802.1 Defines Internetworking & Network Management, including security and
bridging protocols.
➢ 802.2 Defines Logical Link Control (LLC), handling error correction and flow
control.
➢ 802.3 Defines Ethernet, using Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection (CSMA/CD) for network access.
➢ 802.4 Defines Token Bus LAN, where devices pass a token to control network
access.
➢ 802.5 Defines Token Ring LAN, where data is passed in a ring topology using a
token.
➢ 802.6 Metropolitan Area Network,
24 Cont.

 802.7 Broadband Technical Advisory Group

 802.8 Fiber-Optical Technical Advisory Group
 802.9 Integrated Voice/Data
 802.10 Networks Network Security
 802.11 Wireless Network
 802.12 Demand Priority Access LAN
25 LAN Transmission Methods
 Commonly three LAN data transmissions methods are:
➢ Unicast
➢ Multicast
➢ Broadcast
 Unicast transmission a single packet is sent from the source to a
destination on a network.
 Multicast transmission consists of a single data packet that is
copied and sent to the specific subset of nodes on the network.
 Broadcast transmission consists of a single data packets that is
copied and sent to all nodes on the network.
26 Metropolitan Area Network ( MAN )
 A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network
that usually spans a city or a large campus.
 A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN,
ranging from several blocks of buildings to entire cities.
 A MAN might be owned and operated by a single organization, but
it usually, will be used by many individuals and organizations.
 A MAN typically covers an area of between 5 and 50 km diameter.
27 Metropolitan Area Network
28 Wide Area Network (WAN)
 WAN covers a large geographic area such as country,
continent or even whole of the world.
 A WAN is two or more LANs connected together. The LANs
can be many miles apart.
 To cover great distances, WANs may transmit data over leased
high-speed phone lines or wireless links such as satellites.
 Multiple LANs can be connected together using devices such as
bridges, routers, or gateways, which enable them to share data.
 The world's most popular WAN is the Internet.
29 Cont.
30 Computer Network Topologies
 A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or
network devices are connected to each other.
 Or, Network topologies describe the ways in which the elements of a
network are mapped.
 Topologies may define both physical and logical aspect of the network.
 Logical topology
➢ is the method used to pass the information between the computers.
➢ It describes how the data is sent across the network.
 physical topology
➢ refers to the layout of cables, computers and other peripherals.
➢ It describes the layout of the network.
 Both logical and physical topologies could be same or different in a same
network.
31 Cont.
 Different Types of Topologies
➢ Bus Topology
➢ Ring Topology
➢ Star Topology
➢ Mesh Topology
➢ Hybrid Topology
32 Bus Topology
 Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and
network device is connected to single cable.
 It has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology
 All nodes (file server, workstations, and peripherals) are connected to the
linear cable.
 Bus topology may have problem while multiple hosts sending data at the
same time.
 Signal Bounce: packet travels from one end of the cable to the other.
 Terminator: To stop the signal from bouncing, a component called a
terminator is placed at each end of the cable to absorb free signals.
 Therefore, Bus topology either uses CSMA/CD technology or recognizes
one host as Bus Master to solve the issue.
33 Cont.
 Advantages of Bus Topology
➢ It is Cheap, easy to handle and implement
➢ Require less cable
➢ It is best suited for small networks
 Disadvantages of Bus Topology
➢ Cable has a limited length.
➢ It is slower than the ring topology
➢ Cables fails then whole network fails
➢ Difficult to add new devices
34 Ring Topology
 In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for
communication purposes.
 It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is
connected to another computer, with the last one connected to the first.
 When one host tries to communicate or send message to a host which is
not adjacent to it, the data travels through all intermediate hosts.
 To connect one more host in the existing structure, the administrator
may need only one more extra cable.
35 Cont.
 Advantages of Ring Topology
➢ Easier to Mange than a Bus Network
➢ Good Communication over long distances
➢ Handles high volume of traffic
 Disadvantages of Ring Topology
➢ The failure of a single node of the network can cause the entire network to fail
➢ Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity
36 Star Topology
 In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub
through a cable. This hub is the central node and all others nodes are
connected to the central node.
 The hub takes a signal that comes from any node and passes it along to
all the other nodes in the network.
37 Cont.
 Advantages of Star Topology
➢ Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
➢ Hub can be upgraded easily.
➢ Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work
smoothly.
 Disadvantages of Star Topology
➢ Cost of installation is high.
➢ If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes
depend on the hub.
38 Mesh Topology
 It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All
the network nodes are connected to each other.
 A Fully connected mesh can have n(n-1)/2 physical channel to link n
devices and it must have n-1 I/O ports.
 The data is automatically configured to reach the destination
by taking the shortest route.
39 Cont.
 Advantages of Mesh Topology
➢ Each connection can carry its own data load.
➢ Provides security and privacy.
➢ It has multiple links, so if one route is blocked then other routes can be used
for data communication.
 Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
➢ Installation and configuration is difficult.
➢ Cabling cost is more.
40 Hybrid Topology
 A combination of any two or more network topologies.
 It inherits merits and demerits of all the incorporating topologies.
 For example, if in an office in one department ring topology is used
and in another star topology is used, connecting these topologies will
result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star topology).
41 Cont.

 Advantages of Hybrid Topology

➢ Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.
➢ Effective
➢ It is extremely flexible
 Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
➢ Complex in design.
➢ Costly
42 Tree Topology
 Also known as Hierarchical Topology, this is the most common form of
network topology in use presently.
 This topology imitates as extended Star topology and inherits properties of
Bus topology.
 This topology divides the network into multiple levels/layers of network.
43 Cont.

 Mainly in LANs, a network is bifurcated into three types of network

devices.
 The lowermost is access-layer where computers are attached.
 The middle layer is known as distribution layer, which works as
mediator between upper layer and lower layer.
 The highest layer is known as core layer, and is central point of the
network, i.e. root of the tree from which all nodes fork.
44 The type of network you choose to implement will
depend on
 factors such as:
➢ Size of the organization.
➢ Level of security required.
➢ Type of business.
➢ Level of administrative support available.
➢ Amount of network traffic.
➢ Needs of the network users.
➢ Network budget.
45 Network Architecture
 Network Types Based On Their Architecture Or Configuration
 It refers to the design and structure of a computer network, defining
how devices and services communicate.
➢ Peer-to-peer networks
➢ Server-based networks
46 Peer-to-peer networks
 In a peer-to-peer network, there are no dedicated servers, and there is
no hierarchy among the computers.
 All the computers are equal and therefore are known as peers.
 Each computer functions as both a client and a server, and there is no
administrator responsible for the entire network.
 Peer-to-peer networks are also sometimes called workgroups.
 Peer-to-peer networks can be less expensive than server-based
networks.
 Advantage
➢ Computers are located at users' desks.
➢ Users act as their own administrators and plan their own security
➢ They are cheap and easy to set up and administer for small groups of users.
47 Cont.
 Peer-to-peer networks are good choices for environments where:
➢ There are 10 users or fewer.
➢ Users share resources, such as printers.
➢ Security is not an issue.
➢ The organization and the network will experience only limited
growth within the predictable future.
 Where these factors apply, a peer-to-peer network will probably be a
better choice than a server-based network.
48 Server-based networks
 In an environment with more than 10 users, a peer-to-peer network
with computers acting as both servers and clients will probably
not be adequate.
 Therefore, most networks have dedicated servers.
 A dedicated server is one that functions only as a server and
is not used as a client or workstation.
 As networks increase in size (as the number of
connected computers, and the physical distance and traffic
between them, grows) more than one server is usually needed.
49 Cont.
 Advantage
➢ Number of users:- It supports large number of users.
➢ Server-based data sharing can be centrally administered and controlled.
➢ Security is often the primary reason for choosing a server-based approach to
networking.
50
Networking And Internetworking Devices
 Networking and internetworking devices are essential components
that facilitate data communication within and between networks.
 Networking devices such as hubs, switches, and NICs operate within
a single network, ensuring efficient data transfer among connected
devices.
 Internetworking devices, including routers, gateways, and modems,
enable communication between multiple networks by directing and
managing data traffic across different network segments.
 While networking devices focus on local data exchange,
internetworking devices extend connectivity beyond a single network,
allowing seamless global communication.
51 Cont.
 Both types of devices work together to maintain network efficiency,
security, and reliability.
 In modern digital infrastructure, these devices play a crucial role in
ensuring smooth and uninterrupted data transmission.
52 NIC (Network Interface Card)
 A network interface card is a computer hardware component designed
to allow computers to communicate over a computer network.
 It is both an OSI layer 1 (physical layer) and layer 2 (data link layer)
device, as it provides physical access to a networking medium and
provides a low-level addressing system through the use of MAC
addresses.
 It allows users to connect to each other either by using cables or
wirelessly.
 Most motherboards today come equipped with a network interface card
in the form of a controller, with the hardware built into the board itself,
eliminating the need for a standalone card.
53 REPEATER
 A repeater receives a signal, regenerates it, and passes it on.
 It can regenerate signals at the bit level to allow them to travel a
longer distance on the media.
 It operates at Physical Layer of OSI
 A repeater does not actually connect two LANs; it connects two
segments of the same LAN.
 The segments connected are still part of one single LAN. A
repeater is not a device that can connect two LANs of different
protocols.
 A repeater is used to lengthen Ethernet network distance limitation
by creating network segments
 A repeater forwards every frame; it has no filtering capability.
54 Repeater in Action
55 Hub
 Hubs are used to connect multiple nodes to a
single physical device, which connects to the
network.
 Hubs are actually multiport repeaters.
 Using a hub changes the network topology from a
linear bus, to a star.
 With hubs, data arriving over the cables to a hub
port is electrically repeated on all the other ports
connected to the same network segment.
56 Cont.
57 Types of Hub
1. Passive hubs
 Do not amplify the electrical signal of incoming packets before
broadcasting them out to the network.
 It is just a connector.
 It connects the wires coming from different branches.
 In a star-topology Ethernet LAN, a passive hub is just a point where
the signals coming from different stations collide; the hub is the
collision point.
 This type of a hub is part of the media; its location in the Internet
model is below the physical layer.
58 Cont.
2. Active hubs,
 a type of hub that can perform amplification, as does a repeater.
 Some people use the terms concentrator when referring to a passive hub
and multiport repeater when referring to an active hub.
3. Intelligent hubs
 add extra features to an active hub that are of particular importance to
businesses.
 An intelligent hub typically is stackable (built in such a way that multiple
units can be placed one on top of the other to conserve space).
 It also typically includes remote management capabilities via
SNMP(Simple Network Management Protocol) and virtual LAN (VLAN)
support.
 Bridge
59
 Bridges are used to logically separate network segments within the same
network.
 They operate at the OSI physical and data link layer and are independent
of higher-layer protocols.
 As a data link layer device, the bridge can check the physical (MAC)
addresses (source and destination) contained in the frame.
 The function of the bridge is to make intelligent decisions about whether
or not to pass signals on to the next segment of a network.
 When a bridge receives a frame on the network, the destination MAC
address is looked up in the bridge table to determine whether to filter,
flood, or copy the frame onto another segment.
 Broadcast Packets are forwarded to all directions.
60 Filtering in Bridges
 A bridge has filtering capability.
 It can check the destination address of a frame and decide if the
frame should be forwarded or dropped.
 If the frame is to be forwarded, the decision must specify the port.
 A bridge has a table that maps addresses to ports.
61 MAC Address Learning
 Bridges MAC table can be static or dynamic.
 To make a table dynamic, we need a bridge that gradually learns
from the frame movements.
 To do this, the bridge inspects both the destination and the source
addresses.
 The destination address is used for the forwarding decision (table
lookup); the source address is used for adding entries to the table
and for updating purposes.
62 Switch
 Switch when compared to bridge has multiple ports. So that, we can say
Switches are Multiport Bridges.
 Switches provide a unique network segment on each port, thereby separating
collision domains.
 Each port on a switch acts as an individual collision domain.
➢ When a device is connected to a switch port, it gets a dedicated communication path.
 Today, network designers are replacing hubs in their wiring closets with
switches to increase their network performance and bandwidth while
protecting their existing wiring investments.
 Like bridges, switches learn certain information about the data packets that are
received from various computers on the network.
 Switches use this information to build forwarding tables to determine the
destination of data being sent by one computer to another computer on the
network.
63 Layer -Two/three switches
 When we use the term switch, we must be careful because a switch can
mean two different things.
 We must clarify the term by adding the level at which the device operates.
 We can have a two-layer switch or a three-layer switch.
 A three-layer switch is used at the network layer; it is a kind of router.
 The two-layer switch performs at the physical and data link layers.
 A two-layer switch is a bridge, a bridge with many ports and a design that
allows better (faster) performance.
 A bridge with a few ports can connect a few LANs together.
 A bridge with many ports may be able to allocate a unique port to each
station, with each station on its own independent entity.
 This means no competing traffic (no Collision).
64 Switches: Dedicated Access
 Hosts have direct connection to switch
 Full Duplex: No collisions
 Switching: A-to-A’ and B-to-B’ simultaneously, no collisions
 Switches can be cascaded to expand the network
65 Cont.
 Switches can perform error checking before forwarding data, which
are very efficient by not forwarding packets that error-end out or
forwarding good packets selectively to correct devices only.
 Switches can support both layer 2 (based on MAC Address) and
layer 3 (Based on IP address) depending on the type of switch.
 Usually, large networks use switches instead of hubs to connect
computers within the same subnet.
66 Types of Switches
 There are variety of switches that can be broadly categorized into 4 types:
 Unmanaged Switch
➢ These are inexpensive switches commonly used in home networks and small
businesses.
➢ They can be set up by simply plugging in to the network, after which they
instantly start operating.
➢ When more devices needs to be added, more switches are simply added by this
plug and play method.
➢ They are referred to as unmanaged since they do not require to be configured or
monitored.
 Managed Switch
➢ These are costly switches that are used in organizations with large and complex
networks.
➢ They can be customized to augment the functionalities of a standard switch.
67
Cont.
 LAN Switch
➢ Local Area Network (LAN) switches connects devices in the internal
LAN of an organization.
➢ They are also referred as Ethernet switches or data switches.
➢ These switches are particularly helpful in reducing network congestion or
bottlenecks.
➢ They allocate bandwidth in a manner so that there is no overlapping of
data packets in a network.
 PoE Switch
➢ Power over Ethernet (PoE) switches are used in PoE Gigabit Ethernets.
➢ PoE technology combine data and power transmission over the same
cable
➢ The devices connected to it can receive both electricity as well as data
over the same line.
68 Router
 Router operates at Network layer of OSI model and is used to interconnect
different network.
 Unlike switch, router is more sophisticated network device and requires an
initial configuration before deploying it to any network.
 Router forwards packets from one network to other network on the basis of
destination IP address. For this, each router maintains the IP routing table.
 When a data packet enters the router, the router then checks the destination IP
address in its routing table.
 If the entry is found in the IP table, it then forwards the packet to the port
where destination network is connected. But, if the destination address is not
found in the IP table, it discards the packet.
69 Cont.
 Router acts as traffic cop ; it reduces unnecessary traffic congestion.
 Router maintains routing table statically and dynamically.
 Routes packets based on their logical addresses (host-to-host
addressing).
 A router normally connects LANs and WANs in the Internet and has a
routing table that is used for making decision about the route.
 The routing tables are normally dynamic and are updated using routing
protocols.
 Routers can increase network efficiency by filtering out broadcast
traffic between networks, thus reducing unnecessary traffic between
networks.
70 Cont.
 Routing table
➢ Routers contain internal tables of information called routing tables that
keep track of all known network addresses and possible paths throughout
the internetwork, along with cost of reaching each network.
➢ Routers route packets based on the available paths and their costs, thus
taking advantage of redundant paths that can exist in a mesh topology
network.
➢ Because routers use destination network addresses of packets, they work
only if the configured network protocol is a routable protocol such as
TCP/IP. This is different from bridges, which are protocol independent.
➢ The routing tables are the heart of a router; without them, there's no way
for the router to know where to send the packets it receives.
71 Cont.
Types of router
1. Static routers: These must have their routing tables configured manually with
all network addresses and paths in the internetwork.
2. Dynamic routers: These automatically create their routing tables by listening
to network traffic.
 Routing tables are the means by which a router selects the fastest or nearest
path to the next "hop" on the way to a data packet's final destination. This
process is done through the use of routing metrics.
 Routing metrics which are the means of determining how much distance or
time a packet will require to reach the final destination. Routing metrics are
provided in different forms.
 Hop is simply a router that the packet must travel through.
72 Gateway
 A gateway is a broader term often used interchangeably with a router,
though it has a wider range of functionalities.
 It can be implemented as hardware or software and serves as a bridge
between internal networks and the internet.
 One of its key capabilities is converting data frames into different
formats required by various networks.
 Additionally, it translates protocols, allowing seamless communication
between networks with different configurations.
 Acting as an entry and exit point, a gateway ensures that all data traffic
between networks passes through it, making it a critical component in
monitoring and controlling network traffic.
 This not only facilitates efficient data exchange but also enhances
network security and management.
73 Cont.
 Key Features of Gateways
➢ Network Edge Positioning-Manages all incoming and outgoing network data.
➢ Operates at Any OSI Layer- Can function at any level of the OSI model, unlike most other
network devices.
➢ Data Format & Protocol Conversion-Translates data and protocols to enable
communication between different network architectures
➢ Efficient Data Transmission-Queues and segments large data packets into smaller,
manageable units for smooth transfer.
➢ Enhanced Security-Controls and filters network traffic to prevent unauthorized access and
ensure data integrity.
74 Connectionless Vs Connection-Oriented Service
 A transport layer protocol can either be connectionless or connection-oriented.
1. Connectionless Service
➢ In a connectionless service, the packets are sent from one party to another with no
need for connection establishment or connection release.
➢ The packets are not numbered; they may be delayed or lost or may arrive out of
sequence.
➢ There is no acknowledgment either.
➢ Connectionless communication is just packet switching where no call
establishment and release occur.
➢ A message is broken into packets, and each packet is transferred separately.
75 Cont.
 Moreover, the packets can travel different route to the destination since
there is no connection. Connectionless service is typically provided by
the UDP (User Datagram Protocol), which we will examine later.
 The packets transferred using UDP are also called datagram.
 Based on the sent data.
 The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is called a connectionless,
unreliable transport
 Protocol (application program does not need reliability because it uses
its own flow and error control mechanism).
 It does not add anything to the services of IP except to provide process-
to-process communication instead of host-to-host communication.
 Also, it performs very limited error checking.
76 Connection Oriented Service

 In a connection-oriented service, a connection is first established between

the sender and the receiver. Data are transferred. At the end, the
connection is released.
 Client and server programs send control packets to each other before
sending packets with real data. This is called handshaking procedure.
 Connection-oriented service may also provide such services as reliable
data transfer, flow control, and congestion control.
 Reliable data transfer: all of the data delivered without error and in
proper order. Achieved through acknowledgements and retransmissions.
77 Cont.
 Flow control: ensures neither side of a connection overwhelms the
other side by sending too many packets too fast.
 Congestion-control: helps the Internet from entering a state of
gridlock.
 TCP is the Internet’s connection-oriented service.
 Based on the metrics i.e. cost and time.
 .

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