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Collections of Math
Ideas | Approaches | Accessibility | Availability

Dr. Henry Garrett

Report | Exposition | References | Research #22 2021
 Abstract

Collections of my books in 2021.

Collections of my books in 2021.

i
 Acknowledgements

The author is going to say his gratitude and his appreciation about the brains
and their hands which are showing the importance of words in the framework
of every wisdom, knowledge, arts and emotions which are streaming in the lines The words of mind and the
from the words, notions, ideas and approaches to have the material which is minds of words, are too
eligible to be in the stage
only the way to flourish the minds, the growing the notions, advancing ways of acknowledgements
and making the stable ways to be amid the events and storms of minds for
surviving from them and making the outstanding experiences about the tools
and ideas to be on the star lines of words and shining like stars, forever.

iii
 Contents

Abstract i

Acknowledgements iii

Contents v

List of Figures ix

List of Tables xiv

1 Definition And Its Necessities 1

1.1 Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Texts On Matroid Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 The Concept Of Embedding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Plane And Its Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.6 Cycle And Its Beyond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.7 Dropping A Dragging Novel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.8 Cycle And Its Beyond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.9 Metric Dimension In Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1.10 Cycle And Its Beyond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

2 Detail-oriented Groups And Ideas 69

2.1 Groupoid And Its Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.2 Groupoid And Its Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.3 Addressed Groupoids With Semigroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
2.4 Semigroup And Its Beyond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

3 Number Graphs And Numbers 133

3.1 Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3.2 Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3.3 Common Language As Viewpoint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
3.4 Number Of Fundamental Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
3.5 Types Of Number Subgraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.6 Number Of The Vertices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

4 Beyond The Graph Theory 157

v
Contents

4.1 Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

4.2 Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
4.3 Words Of Graph Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
4.4 Definition And Its Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
4.5 Different Styles Of Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
4.6 List Of The Vertices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
4.7 Degree Of A Vertex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
4.8 Some Classes Of Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.9 Connections Of The Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
4.10 Unary Operations And Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
4.11 Related Classes Of Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
4.12 Directed Graphs And Its Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
4.13 Infinite Graphs And Its Variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
4.14 Vertex and Edge: Delete Or Add . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
4.15 Various Types Of Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
4.16 Ideas And The Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

5 Dimension 199
5.1 Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
5.2 Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
5.3 Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
5.4 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
5.5 Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

6 Theorems 241
6.1 Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
6.2 Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
6.3 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
6.4 First Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
6.5 Second Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
6.6 Third Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
6.7 Fourth Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
6.8 Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
6.9 First Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
6.10 Second Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
6.11 Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
6.12 First Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

7 Neutrosophic Graphs 283

7.1 Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
7.2 Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
7.3 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
7.4 New Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
7.5 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
7.6 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
7.7 Fuzzy(Neutrosophic) Twin Vertices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
7.8 Antipodal Vertices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
7.9 Extended Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
7.10 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
7.11 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320

vi
 Contents

7.12 Open Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

7.13 Conclusion and Closing Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324

Bibliography 325

8 Simple Ideas 327

8.1 Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
8.2 Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
8.3 Metric and Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
8.4 Matroid And Its Outlines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
8.5 Matroid And Its Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
8.6 Definition And Its Clarification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
8.7 Metric Number In Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
8.8 Numbers And Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
8.9 Big Sets Of Vertices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
8.10 Locating And Location Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
8.11 Numbers Based On Edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
8.12 New Graph Of Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
8.13 Sets and Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
8.14 Metric Dimensions Of Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
8.15 Set And Its Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
8.16 Notion Of Valued Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
8.17 Valued Number And Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355

Bibliography 359

9 Neutrosophic Chromatic Number 361

9.1 Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
9.2 Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
9.3 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
9.4 Chromatic Number and Neutrosophic Chromatic Number . . 363
9.5 Neutrosophic Chromatic Number Based on Connectedness . . 371
9.6 New Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
9.7 Different Types of Neutrosophic Chromatic Number . . . . . . 385
9.8 New Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
9.9 Different Types of Neutrosophic Chromatic Number . . . . . . 391

Bibliography 419

10 Neutrosophic Hypergraphs 421

10.1 Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
10.2 Numbers and Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
10.3 Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
10.4 Dimension and Coloring alongside Domination in Neutrosophic
Hypergraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
10.5 Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
10.6 Motivation and Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
10.7 New Ideas For Neutrosophic Hypergraphs . . . . . . . . . . . 427
10.8 Optimal Numbers For Neutrosophic Hypergraphs . . . . . . . 429
10.9 Optimal Sets For Neutrosophic Hypergraphs . . . . . . . . . . 433

vii
Contents

10.10Optimal Sets and Numbers For Family of Neutrosophic

Hypergraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
10.11Applications in Time Table and Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . 437
10.12Open Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
10.13Conclusion and Closing Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
10.14Classes Of Neutrosophic Hypergraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440

Bibliography 443

viii
 List of Figures

3.1 Graphs And Number Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

3.2 Graphs And Number Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
3.3 Graphs And Number Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3.4 Graphs And Number Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3.5 Graphs And Number Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.6 Graphs And Number Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
3.7 Graphs And Number Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
3.8 Graphs And Number Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
3.9 Graphs And Number Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
3.10 Graphs And Number Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

4.1 Graphs And Number Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

4.2 Graphs And Number Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
4.3 Graphs And Number Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
4.4 Cartesian Graphs And (m × n)−grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
4.5 Cartesian Graphs And n−prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
4.6 Tournaments And Complete Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
4.7 Fano Hypergraph And Directed Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
4.8 Infinite Graphs And Countable Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
4.9 8−cage: Tutte-Coxeter Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
4.10 Simple Graphs And A Graph With Three Loops . . . . . . . . . . 178
4.11 Simple Graphs: Summation, Minus, Production, And Division . . 178
4.12 Binary Matrixes And Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
4.13 Matrixes And Directed Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
4.14 Extended Matrixes And Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
4.15 Matrixes And Directed Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
4.16 3−Regular Graph On 6 Vertices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
4.17 Some Classes Of Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
4.18 Bipartite, 3−partite, Turan, 6−path, 6−cycle, 3−cycle . . . . . . . 186
4.19 6−cube Q6 , Boolean lattice BL6 , Complement of Q6 , Complement
of BL6 , Strongly regular graph with (6, 4, 2, 4), Complement of
strongly regular graph with (6, 4, 2, 4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
4.20 6−cycle C6 , 6−path P6 , 6−star S5,1 , line graph of 6−cycle C6 , line
graph of 6−path P6 , line graph of 6−star S5,1 . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

ix
List of Figures

4.21 6−complete K6 , (3, 3)−partite K3,3 , 5−wheel W5,1 , line graph of

6−complete K6 , line graph of (3, 3)−partite K3,3 , line graph of
5−wheel W5,1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
4.22 6−complete K6 , (3, 3)−partite K3,3 , 5−wheel W5,1 , 2−vertex
deletion of 6−complete K6 , 4−edge deletion of (3, 3)−partite K3,3 ,
2−vertex deletion and 5−edge deletion of 5−wheel W5,1 . . . . . . 194
4.23 6−complete K6 , (3, 3)−partite K3,3 , 5−wheel W5,1 , Hamiltonian
cycle of 6−complete K6 , Hamiltonian cycle of (3, 3)−partite K3,3 ,
Hamiltonian cycle of 5−wheel W5,1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
4.24 Initial graph, 3−factor of initial graph, First element of symmetric
difference graph, Second element of symmetric difference graph,
4−factor of initial graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
4.25 Initial graph, vertex identification of initial graph, edge contraction
of initial graph, vertex splitting of initial graph, edge subdivision
of initial graph, weighted graph of initial graph. . . . . . . . . . . . 197
4.26 Tree graph, cyclic graph, cotree, nonplanar bipartite graph K3,3 ,
nonplanar complete graph K5 , fan graph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

5.1 g1 g2 g3 isn’t path because there’s no separator “, ” amid vertices

but g1 , g2 , g3 is a path from g1 to g3 with the length 2. g1 , g2 g3 isn’t
path because there’s one edge g2 g3 amid vertices but g1 g2 g3 is a
path from g1 to g3 with the length 2. g1 , g2 , g6 isn’t path from g1 to
g6 because g2 and g6 aren’t consecutive vertices but g1 , g2 , g7 , g5 , g6
is a path from g1 to g6 with the length 4. g1 , g2 , g7 , g5 , g6 isn’t a
shortest path from g1 to g6 with the distance 4 but g1 , g6 are a
shortest path from g1 to g6 with the distance 2. Also, g2 , g7 , g5 , g6
isn’t a shortest path from g2 to g6 with the distance 3 but g2 , g7 , g6
and g2 , g1 , g6 are a shortest path from g2 to g6 with the distance 2. 201
5.2 Complete graphs are defined for any n ≥ 1. For any n ≤ 4, complete
graphs are planar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
5.3 Cycle graphs are defined for any n ≥ 3. For any n ≥ 3, cycle graphs
are planar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
5.4 Empty graphs are defined for any n ≥ 1. For any n ≥ 1, empty
graphs are planar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
5.5 Complete bipartite graphs are defined for any n ≥ 1. K2,2 and K2,3
are planar but K3,3 isn’t planar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
5.6 Star graphs are defined for any n ≥ 1. For any n ≥ 1, star graphs
are planar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
5.7 Diameter of graph K is 13. Thus D(K) = 13. k8 is a neighbor of k7
hence k8 ∼ k7 but k8 isn’t a neighbor of k9 hence k8 6∼ k9 . k8 and
k7 don’t have the same open neighborhood then N (k8 ) 6= N (k7 )
but k8 and k9 don’t have the same open neighborhood therefore
N (k8 ) 6= N (k9 ). K has no twin vertices hence k7 and k8 , k9 and
k10 , k11 and k12 , k13 and k14 , aren’t twin vertices and there’s
no twin vertices. Thus the set of all twin vertices in K isn’t
{{k7 , k8 }, {k9 , k10 }, {k11 , k12 }, {k13 , k14 }}. Since they’ve different
open neighborhood and different closed neighborhood. . . . . . . . 203

x
 List of Figures

5.8 k8 is a neighbor of k6 hence k8 ∼ k6 but k8 isn’t a neighbor of

k9 hence k8 6∼ k9 . k8 and k7 have the same open neighborhood
then N (k8 ) = N (k7 ) = {k6 } but k8 and k6 don’t have the
same open neighborhood therefore N (k8 ) 6= N (k6 ). K only
has k7 and k8 , k9 and k10 , k11 and k12 , k13 and k14 , as twin
vertices because of having same open neighborhood and there’s
no more twin vertices beyond them and out of them because
of having same open neighborhood. Thus the set of all twin
vertices in K is {k7 , k8 , k9 , k10 , k11 , k12 , k13 , k14 } Since they’ve
same open neighborhood. Precisely, every two choices from the
set {k7 , k8 , k9 , k10 , k11 , k12 , k13 , k14 } form twin vertices because of
having same open neighborhood. K only has k21 and k22 , k24 and
k25 , k26 and k27 , k27 and k21 , as twin vertices because of having same
closed neighborhood and there’s no more twin vertices beyond them
and out of them because of having same closed neighborhood. Thus
the set of all twin vertices in K is {{k21 , k22 , k24 , k25 , k26 , k27 }. Since
they’ve same closed neighborhood. Precisely, every two choices
from the set {{k21 , k22 , k24 , k25 , k26 , k27 } form twin vertices because
of having same closed neighborhood. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
5.9 The set {k7 , k8 , k9 , k10 , k11 , k12 , k13 , k14 } is DS for K1,8 . Thus
DN (K1,8 ) = 7. The set {k22 , k23 , k24 , k25 , k26 , k27 , k28 , k29 } is DS
for K8 . Thus DN (K8 ) = 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
5.10 The set {c4 , c5 } is DS for C8 . Thus DN (C8 ) = 2. The set {c4 , c7 , c8 }
is RS for C8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
5.11 The set {p6 } is DS for P6 . Thus DN (P6 ) = 1. The set {p4 , p5 } is
RS for P6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
5.12 A family of graphs G = {G1 : (V, E1 ), G2 : (V, E2 ), G3 : (V, E3 )}
with common vertex set V. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
5.13 The set {v3 , v4 } is SDS of G = {G1 , G2 , G3 }. Thus, SDN (G =
{G1 , G2 , G3 }) = 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
5.14 The set {v2 , v3 , v4 } is SDS of G = {G1 , G2 , G3 }. Thus, SDN (G =
{G1 , G2 , G3 }) = 3 = |V | − 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
5.15 The set {v3 , v4 } is SDS of G = {G1 , G2 , G3 }. Thus, SDN (G =
{G1 , G2 , G3 }) = 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
5.16 The set {v2 , v3 , v4 } is SDS of G = {G1 , G2 , G3 }. Thus, SDN (G =
{G1 , G2 , G3 }) = 3 = |V | − 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
5.17 The set {v1 , v2 , v3 } is SDS of G = {G1 , G2 , G3 }. Thus, SDN (G =
{G1 , G2 , G3 }) = 3 = SDS(H = {G1 , G2 }, {G1 , G3 }, {G2 , G3 }, G) . 221
5.18 The sets V −{u, ui }, V −{v, vj }, V −{x, xs } are DSs for G1 , G2 , G3 ,
however, they aren’t SDS for any G containing G1 , G2 , G3 . Any set
with the cardinality |V | − 1 is SDS for any G containing G1 , G2 , G3 . 229
5.19 The sets V − {xi , xs }, V − {xj , xs }, V − {xt , xs } are DSs for
G1 , G2 , G3 , however, they aren’t SDS for any G containing
G1 , G2 , G3 . Any set with the cardinality |V | − 1 is SDS for any G
containing G1 , G2 , G3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
5.20 The sets V − {x4 , x7 }, V − {x4 , x7 }, V − {x4 , x6 } are DSs for
G1 , G2 , G3 , however, they aren’t SDS for any G containing
G1 , G2 , G3 . Any set with the cardinality |V | − 1 is SDS for any G
containing G1 , G2 , G3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
5.21 The set {v1 , v2 , v 0 } is DS for G1 , G2 and it’s SDS for G = {G1 , G2 } 231

xi
List of Figures

5.22 The set {v1 , v2 , v3 , v 0 } is DS for G1 , G2 and it’s SDS for G = {G1 , G2 } 232
5.23 The set {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v 0 } is DS for G1 , G2 and it’s SDS for
G = {G1 , G2 } . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
5.24 The set {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v 0 } is DS for G1 , G2 and it’s SDS for
G = {G1 , G2 } . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
5.25 The set {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v 0 } is DS for G1 , G2 and it’s SDS for
G = {G1 , G2 } . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
5.26 The set {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v 0 } is DS for G1 , G2 and it’s SDS for
G = {G1 , G2 } . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
5.27 The family P = {P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 } contains six path graphs on a
common vertex set {p1 , p2 , p3 , p4 , p5 , p6 } containing a common leaf
p1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
5.28 The family P = {P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 } contains six path graphs on a
common vertex set {p1 , p2 , p3 , p4 , p5 , p6 } without any common leaf. 238
5.29 Any two given vertices like c1 and c2 resolve any couple of vertices
in cycle graphs C1 , C2 and C3 . Thus the family C = {C1 , C2 , C3 }
has two as its SDN. Thus SDN (C) = 2 and {c1 , c2 } is SDS for C. 239
5.30 Two vertices c1 and c2 aren’t mutually antipodal in cycle graphs
C1 , C2 and C3 . Thus the family C = {C1 , C2 , C3 } has two as its
SDN. Thus SDN (C) = 2 and {c1 , c2 } is SDS for C. . . . . . . . . 240
5.31 For every two given vertices, there exists at least one cycle graphs
from C1 , C2 and C3 . Precisely, We study all two given vertices in
the terms of being mutually antipodal. c1 , c2 in C2 , c1 , c3 in C1 ,
c1 , c4 in C3 , c2 , c3 in C3 , c2 , c4 in C1 and c3 , c4 in C2 are mutually
antipodal. Thus the family C = {C1 , C2 , C3 } has three as its SDN.
Thus SDN (C) = 3 and {c1 , c2 , c4 } is SDS for C. . . . . . . . . . . 240

7.1 Neutrosophic Graph, N1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

7.2 Neutrosophic Complete, N1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
7.3 Neutrosophic Strong, N1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
7.4 Neutrosophic Cycle, N1 , has same neutrosophic values for two
vertices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
7.5 Neutrosophic Cycle, N1 , has same neutrosophic values for vertices. 289
7.6 Neutrosophic path, N1 , has same neutrosophic values for vertices.
It’s also Neutrosophic strong and Neutrosophic complete. . . . . . 290
7.7 Neutrosophic Path, N1 , has same neutrosophic values for vertices.
It’s also Neutrosophic strong and Neutrosophic complete. . . . . . 291
7.8 Black vertex {f6 } is only fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set amid all
sets of vertices for fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph G. . . . . . . . . . . 307
7.9 Black vertex {f4 } and the set of vertices {f2 } are simultaneously
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set amid all sets of vertices for family
of fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
7.10 Black vertex {s1 } is only fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set amid all
sets of vertices for fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph T. . . . . . . . . . . . 321
7.11 Black vertices {i1 , i2 } are only fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set amid
all sets of vertices for fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph T. Black vertices
V \ {c1 , c2 } are only fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set amid all sets of
vertices for fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph T 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323

9.1 Neutrosophic Graph, N1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365

xii
 List of Figures

9.2 Black vertices are suspicions about choosing them. . . . . . . . . 369

9.3 Neutrosophic graph N1 is considered with respect to first order.
It’s complete but it isn’t neutrosophic complete. It’s cycle but it
isn’t neutrosophic cycle. It’s neutrosophic 3-partite but it isn’t
neutrosophic complete 3-partite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
9.4 Black vertices are suspicions about choosing them. . . . . . . . . 383
9.5 Two edges aren’t type-I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
9.6 Neutrosophic graph which is fixed-edge but not strong fixed-vertex. 388
9.7 Black vertices are suspicions about choosing them. . . . . . . . . 415

10.1 There are three neutrosophic hyperedges and two neutrosophic

vertices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
10.2 N HG = (V, E, σ, µ) is neutrosophic edge 3−regular hypergraph . . 423
10.3 N HG = (V, E, σ, µ) is neutrosophic strong hypergraph. . . . . . . 424
10.4 N HG = (V, E, σ, µ) is neutrosophic strong hypergraph. . . . . . . 424
10.5 Vertices are suspicions about choosing them. . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
10.6 N HG34 = (V, E, σ, µ) is neutrosophic (3, 4)− regular hypergraph. . 440

xiii
 List of Tables

5.1 Distances of Vertices from the vertex set {v1 , v4 } in Graph G1 . . 208
5.2 Distances of Vertices from the vertex set {v1 , v4 } in Graph G2 . . 209
5.3 Distances of Vertices from the vertex set {v1 , v4 } in Graph G3 . . 210
5.4 Distances of Vertices from the vertex sets {v1 }, {v2 }, {v3 }, {v4 } in
Graph G1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
5.5 Distances of Vertices from the vertex sets {v1 }, {v2 }, {v3 }, {v4 } in
Graph G2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
5.6 Distances of Vertices from the vertex sets {v1 }, {v2 }, {v3 }, {v4 } in
Graph G3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
5.7 Distances of Vertices from the vertex sets {v1 }, {v2 }, {v3 }, {v4 } in
Graph G1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
5.8 Distances of Vertices from the vertex sets {v1 }, {v2 }, {v3 }, {v4 } in
Graph G2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
5.9 Distances of Vertices from the vertex sets {v1 }, {v2 }, {v3 }, {v4 } in
Graph G3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
5.10 Distances of Vertices from the vertex sets {v1 }, {v2 }, {v3 }, {v4 }, {v5 }, {v6 }
in Graph G1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
5.11 Distances of Vertices from the vertex sets {v1 }, {v2 }, {v3 }, {v4 }, {v5 }, {v6 }
in Graph G2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
5.12 Distances of Vertices from the vertex sets {v1 }, {v2 }, {v3 }, {v4 }, {v5 }, {v6 }
in Graph G3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

7.1 Crisp-fying, Fuzzy-fying and Neutrosophic-fying . . . . . . . . . . 286

7.2 Crisp-fying, Fuzzy-fying and Neutrosophic-fying . . . . . . . . . . 300
7.3 Crisp-fying, Fuzzy-fying and Neutrosophic-fying . . . . . . . . . . 306
7.4 Crisp-fying, Fuzzy-fying and Neutrosophic-fying . . . . . . . . . . 306
7.5 Distances of Vertices from sets of vertices {f6 } and {f4 } in
fuzzy(neutrosophic) Graph G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
7.6 Distances of Vertices from set of vertices {f6 } in Family of
fuzzy(neutrosophic) Graphs G. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
7.7 A Train concerning its Stations and its Connections as a Fuzzy
Graph in a Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
7.8 An Infected Person concerning his two selective Connections and
his Partners With their two selective Connections as a Fuzzy Graph
T in a Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322

xiv
 List of Tables

7.9 An Infected Person concerning his Connections and his Partners as

a Fuzzy Graph T 0 in a Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
7.10 A Brief Overview about Advantages and Limitations of this study 324

9.1 Scheduling concerns its Subjects and its Connections as a Neutro-

sophic Graph in a Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
9.2 A Brief Overview about Advantages and Limitations of this study 371
9.3 Scheduling concerns its Subjects and its Connections as a Neutro-
sophic Graph in a Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
9.4 A Brief Overview about Advantages and Limitations of this study 385
9.5 Scheduling concerns its Subjects and its Connections as a Neutro-
sophic Graph in a Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
9.6 A Brief Overview about Advantages and Limitations of this study 417

10.1 Scheduling concerns its Subjects and its Connections as a Neutro-

sophic Hypergraph in a Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
10.2 A Brief Overview about Advantages and Limitations of this study 439

xv
 CHAPTER 1

Definition And Its Necessities

1.1 Abstract

Thisis the end of having the words

for going amid the chapters.

s the far-reached impacts of having the full discussion about necessity and
sufficiency, the definitions are the key roles about having the term of word
in the matter of necessity and sufficiency. In this viewpoint, the words are
gathering in the formations of the new words and deleting the hanging words in
the term of the number which is about the times which in that the word is used
so in this case, the matter of reintroducing the definitions and reconsidering
the arrangements of the words in the way that the words are adapted to the
idealism and extremism of having the originally innovative texts of words so
there’s the ideas about how the exploration could only done in the definitions
and its necessities.

1.2 Acknowledgements

The words of mind and the minds

of words, are too eligible to be in
the stage of acknowledgements

he author is going to say his gratitude and his appreciation about the brains
and their hands which are showing the importance of words in the framework
of every wisdom, knowledge, arts and emotions which are streaming in the lines
from the words, notions, ideas and approaches to have the material which is
only the way to flourish the minds, the growing the notions, advancing ways
and making the stable ways to be amid the events and storms of minds for
surviving from them and making the outstanding experiences about the tools
and ideas to be on the star lines of words and shining like stars, forever.

1
1. Definition And Its Necessities

1.3 Texts On Matroid Theory

sec:intro

atroid! The set and its subsets. Finite set! It’s the whole thing about this
definition. The difference amid the gist of set and its subset. So the parameters
are coming from the set’s attributes. The common parameter is about the
number of elements. The way to describe the meaning of the set. The set of
objects so it makes sense to seek the number of objects. Subset is the term
as if the extreme definition in the highest level is about the power set. Power
set is the set of all subsets of the intended set. So the power set is the unary
operation and its input is a set. Power set of the set, is the set of all its subsets.
The number of power set’s elements are 2 power n where the n is the number
of set’s elements as the input in the power set as an unary operation. The
definition of the matroid is about the specific subset of the power set in the
specific vision.
So there’s a given set E. This set could be empty and there’s no condition on it.
E is a set and that’s it.
The definition is about E.
A subset of power set is in the frame of the definition. I is said to be "a"
collection of the subsets of E. There’s no more information about I.
M is an ordered pair (E,I). The first element in this ordered pair is forever
the intended set and the second element is forever "a" collection of its subsets.
Aftermath, three conditions are ready to define the word "Matroid".
In the forwarding way, two words "A set" and "A collection of ITS subsets" are
creating the lines of words where the words are adding in the purpose about
forming the word "Matroid". So posing the words to make the word "Matroid"
in the well-defined approaches. In the other hand, there’s triple conditions.
The first condition is about "the" subset. It is "the" subset of all given sets
and it is said to be empty set as if it has to be in I as the first condition
implies/induces. In other words, I should have the empty set for continuing
the dominoes of words to form the word "Matroid" in the forwarding way. So
"having the empty set in I" is the next word which is added to the definition of
the word "Matroid" in the dictionary of Matroid. In the terms of moving on,
there’s the wondering question in the form of why-something:
-Why is it necessary to have the empty set in the lines of Matroid’s definition?
The impacts of this attendance and its consequences in the direct way and
indirect ways are the lines of this book to seek the answer to this questions and
follow-up questions.
The second and third conditions, have good formation about differences
concerning the number of objects and the own objects.
The second condition is about the decreasing property when the inclusion is
considered as property. In other words, second condition is saying to us that
inclusion should have decreasing property to be on the lines of the words are
in the definition of the word "Matroid". So the next word is "Inclusion Is
Decreasing Property". Decreasing property is the kinda of property in that
when the property is losing its attributes, the property is hold, unexpectedly.
In the other words, inclusion could be considered as the kinda order. For the

2
 1.3. Texts On Matroid Theory

specific vision, inclusion is partly order and two comparative adjectives "greater"
and "smaller" are coming from them. A set is said to be "greater", it means that
the set has another set’s objects in the collections of its objects. The inclusion
has the decreasing property on the elements of I. In other words, if there’s two
comparable subsets of E and the greater element [in the terms of inclusion] is in
I, the other subset in I. In the other words, if there’s two comparable subsets of
E, the comparable in the terms of inclusion and its consequences about set and
its subset, if the set is Okay, the subset is also Okay. There’s two comparable
[in the term of relation: inclusion] subsets of E so there’s set and its subset so
if set belongs to I, then its subset belongs to I. In the first conditional sentence
which is about the facts and the routines.
The third condition is about the objects’ number in the beautiful styles to have
something amid two objects’ number as if there’s no need to have the inclusion
in the terms of set and its subset. There’s two sets as if the term subset isn’t
certainly about any of them if so, the result is obvious because of the condition
two so the third condition is the progress to be on the upper level of having
the condition in the approach of moving forward amid concepts to find the new
lightening results. There’s two sets and not necessarily the term subset is usable
and probably isn’t applicable. There’s two sets and in this case, the number of
one of this set is greater than another. So there’s an element e belonging to
bigger set and not belonging to the smaller set [The existence of one element is
obvious as if there’s no guarantee to have another elements; it’s worthy to note
that the I’s elements are too different from the E’s elements, the I’s elements
are the sets as if the E’s elements are belonging to I’s elements] so if both sets
are belonging to I, the set related to the smaller number, could add e to its
objects if the new set coming from it, is also in I.
?A Matroid is an ordered pair (E, I)? Could be unordered? No cause the E and
I has a different style? No. Cause I excerpt from E like power set of E. E is
finite set (family? Infinite?) I is collection from E, excerpt E. A kind of power
set, from the style of power set. Subset!!
?I is a collection of subsets of E with three conditions: Empty set is forever in I.
Every subset of an element of I, is forever in I. The decreasing property in the
inclusion type. When there’s an inclusion for a set in I, that set in in I. This is
about E and their subsets.
?In other vision, there’s the decreasing property in the type of second conditions.
If the set is in I, by decreasing property, all subsets are forever in I. Inclusion
in this definition, has the decreasing property.
?The chain in the type of inclusion are ready. When the decreasing chain is
ready. If two elements are comparable so if the hyper set is in I, the other set is
too.
?If there’s the partly order or the total order when the inclusion is the intended
order, the structure is going to be in the form of different visions, it’s possible
to pop in this structure to be on the order type. If so, the hyper sets are good
to seek.
?Third condition is about the numbers in the comparison to sets. The previous
condition implies something about numbers in necessary conditions as if it isn’t
sufficient condition. If there’s a set and its subset, there’s the statement about
numbers implies?
?If the material of condition two is done, so the essential and necessary conditions
are done in condition three, as if the outcome is obvious so the conditions are

3
1. Definition And Its Necessities

independent in the analysis of being the definition, well-defined.

?The good formation in the necessary conditions in the type of conditions two
and three about the difference amid set and its subset versus number of set’s
elements and the correspondence. In other words the difference amid sets and
its subset versus the weak parameters related..
?The essence of set’s elements and the number of set’s elements. The set and
its subset The number of them.
The name "Matroid" may be the combination amid "Matrix" and the suffix
"-oid" where the "-oid" make the sketch of the words in the way the word is
ghost and too much attributes are lost like groupoid in other branch. So the
kind of logical possibilities to get the ideas about the word, might be the ghost
matrix when the hugely diverse outputs in the logical sense of getting closer
are behaving in the some conditions to make the collections of the data. The
possible reason for this name is now open to be discussed.
The Matroid is like something-oid in the terms of something-oid or quasi-
something when there’s something like the groupoid and quasi-lattice so there’s
the questions about the dash amid words or making the new words to put in
the dictionary in the matter and in the lightness of jargons. The mate in the
checkmate when in the spelling of the words, the seen "e" became the "r" in the
matter of grammatically rules when it is made in the middle of the word where
the common changes in the passing from the tense, are made in the last of the
words. Matroid may come from two words. "Matrix" and the suffix "oid" may
form the word "Matrix" so there’s the sense of having the matrix in the ghost
style of having the totality of matrix. Trix in the end of matrix, could be the
kind of "mis" on the "Nix, Nix" or it is the end to something or cancelling the
mat in the kind of verb "nix". Trix could be the kind of trick when the x in the
last, is added to be the kind of thick in the matter of endless trick. Matrix is the
kind of two planes in the endless counting the number n, n-plane and n-plane
in the row and in the column of the two dimensional planes. So the collections
of the numbers in the separate ways and excerpt from some modeling in the
planes. The kind of adjacency amid points, could give some numbers in the
terms of the numbers of the links which are related to each points so there’s
the sense of the adjacency when the seen links are like the ads in the terms of
having the numbers. The links, points and planes are the new names about the
edges, vertices, and graphs so the celebrations for the names when the eligibility
is the matter of names. The kind of accident is done in the adjective word
"Incidence" so when there’s coming into the matrix the marriage relation is on
the numbers when two different styles of the names are going to be in the row
and column so there’re the points and the links in the pair of coupling when
the numbers are counting up to the bound n-1 where the n is the number of
points in the plane. Incident is the kind of cite as if in and to be in until the
end when the pun on the incident could be like triple words "In, cite, end". So
there’s two matrices naming incidence matrix and adjacency matrix to seek the
gist of the name "Matroid". Matroid is the pair on the related two things when
the things are related to each other so there’s the binary operation or unary
operation when the inputs are separate and desperate so there ?s the action on
the one thing or the actions on the two things. The obvious entries are saying
about two inputs and the matter of binary operations so the two arguments
are about the newcomers. The set and the special set of its subsets where the
adjective word "special" are playing to have the independent arguments as if

4
 1.3. Texts On Matroid Theory

the slights dependence is ready to get the new results about this word. The
triple principles are putting these two sets under the triple conditions where
these principles are taking and putting these two sets in the firm frame. The
existence of the one element is obvious. When the Matroid is the couple, there’s
no notation about what symbols are ready like colon, equality or colon-equality
in the matter of the notations ": or := or =" as if there’s no semicolon even in
the matter of minds. The obvious element is the obvious subset of all existing
sets so the empty set is the obvious element in the second pair so the pronoun
"them" is the exact biography for the empty set in the matter of being accessible
and being available for the name "subset" when it is the obvious subset of all
possible sets.
The second principle to be the matroid is about the inclusion. Two sets are
ready in the matter of the definition as if two elements are ready in the matter of
the I. There’s the relation amid two things so in the viewpoint of the definition,
one set is the subset of another set as if in this case, the subset belongs to I if
only the set belongs to I. The kind of set is now decider about its dependence in
the terms of set. So, when the set and the subset are ready, the implication of
belonging to I, is obvious in the matter of the case in that the set is I’s element.
The principle is the kind of condition in that when the element and the subset
are the matter of words, the subset is also the element. The kind of inclusion
in subsets so there’s the decreasing chain to be the empty set in the matter
of order entitled "inclusion". The element of the I, so this is the element and
set. Any deleting the element from this set, making the new element for I. So
in the new vision of the words, the second principle is about the one element
and its subsets. All subsets of the element, are independently element when
the element is only used for I’s objects. In other words, I’s elements have the
decreasing property when the property is "belonging to the I". The kind of
holding is about the set when the set is the I’s element. Holding the subsets
in the I when the set is in the I. The kind of heir in this case, when the I’s
element is on. The belonging to I, is the heir when the subset is heir in this
term of jargon. If the set belongs to I, its subsets are heir. In the new case, I
is assigning the word "heir" to its element. If a set is heir, its subsets are heir.
The kind of kindness in this case when the losing something, has no effect to
be heir so the wisdom, knowledge, reality is gone when the love is coming up
when the merit and the eligibility are obviously undone and nothing else makes
senses, there’s the point of having love when heir is done in the worst case of
existence.
The third condition is about the two elements and making the new element
from the two new sets and their elements. So the numbers of the sets’s elements
are different as if it doesn’t imply having the word "subset". The number of the
set’s element is said to be the number of the set in the unanimous agreement
about the words. So the numbers of the sets are different as if the the idealistic
structures, there’s the word subset. So there’s the element "e" [with the smaller
way of writing the letter as if the letter is about the power of seeing with eyes
and the capital E is using in the optic industry, to measure, to treatment, to
experiment, and to see what’s tool going to see] is belonging to bigger set and
isn’t belonging to smaller set, in the term of sets’ numbers. If the "e" is added
to the other set, there’s the new set and not necessarily the subset. This new
set is I’s element. So two elements are making new element in the deemed
relationship amid them.

5
1. Definition And Its Necessities

The sort of upcoming element in the new production of element, when there’s
point to get the new element by being subset or adding one member of an
element via attending one element. In the abstract words, new element by being
subset or adding. "Subset Or Adding One". The kind of producing and the
style of introducing in the new ways of taking the intended set. "Adding Or
Losing Member" in the way, Member is corresponded to set. Set is the ordinary
set. Element is corresponded to I. I is the collection of the elements which are
the type of set which has some members.
The concept of the matroid, could send to other branches and other fields in the
matter of finding the modeling which is adapted to my concern about extracting
the new results. The new literatures are made on the matroid and the upcoming
analysis are doing in the deemed ways. The matroid is the structure about
the set and its subsets. So adding and losing are the kinds of approaches in
that making the elements are done. A way of increasing the elements in the
forms of packing in the kind of subelements or in the kind of members, it’s like
the way of getting the pack from the biggest style to the smallest styles when
the smallest style is one-element set and the biggest style is about adding the
member to the elements’ members.
Matroid is captivated by jargons and buzzwords as if in the terms of necessity
and sufficiency. There are three conditions and there are three embedding
concepts in the styles of set-into-set. The term point means everything is
going Okay for having the matroid. The number before point like the style
of n-point is informing about the number of its elements. The member of
point is said to be pointoid. To sum up, There’s the point, pointoid, subpoint
and hyperpoint with the contract about point is only Okay. Subpoint is the
subset of the set, point. The pointoid is the member of point. Hyperpoint is
making the point to be its subpoint. The words hyperpoint and subpoint is
the kind of comparison amid two points as if point and pointoid is only the
word without the need for something else in the terms of hyper-something,
sub-something, and something-oid. The condition for having the matroid is
said to be conditionoid as if satisfying in that, makes the conditionoid to be
condition. The first conditionoid is about having 0-point, if so, it’s the first
condition. The second conditionoid is telling us about the subpoint is point, if
so, it’s second condition. The third conditionoid is about adding one pointoid
from the n-point to the m-point, implies that the new point, where n is greater
than m and these are only information, if so, it’s third condition. So there’s the
matroid.

1.4 The Concept Of Embedding

sec:second

very plane could have the composition or decomposition into some planes
which are the structures in the terms of well-known planes. The wheel plane
in the terms of decomposition, could be like both circle and star. So there’s a
natural question: are these types of elements could be effective on the star and
circle in the terms of metric dimension?
The differences amid specific planes could be like the study of how’s going the

6
 1.4. The Concept Of Embedding

shapes in the related structures. Complete plane in the terms of stars when
the center of stars are linking to all other points so complete plane is the plane
when all points are stars. Like the concept of "complete" is making somehow
the kind of stars. Bipartite plane is the plane which has two stars as parts when
?tis going to the concert of complete so complete bipartite plane is decomposing
into two stars as parts.
Stars are going to have the main part of being complete plane so in that case,
if all points are stars in the intended parts, the parts will be star.
The path is gathering stars to each other like stars have the name when the
center selecting two points so ?tis possible to say that "2-star". So when 2-stars
have a common point, they introduce path with the classification of counting
all points so when there’s two 2-stars, the 5-path is on.
The function of finding similar plane, could be available in the long-list classi-
fication or else.
The creating of new graphs which are adapting to some properties, could be a
matter of mind as if similar approach could be useful to have something on the
table.
2-star plane when they’ve one non-center point in common, recreating the types
of path plane. For example, using two 2-star planes with one point [For the
sake of simplicity and convenience, points are non-center in this discussion] in
common and with one exception, makes 5-path so it could be possible to have
the formula to obtain the relationship amid stars and paths. In every process,
two points will be one point so every 2-stars, decreasing two points to be one
point. Three 2-stars, making 6-paths. So the formula will be the number of
stars in the production with the number of points. In this case, np could be the
kinda formula in which n is denoting the numbers of stars and p is denoting
the numbers of points so n 2-star plane could make the 2n-path planes. The
circle plane is kinda 2n-star when the last 2-star plane in the order using the
2-star planes, putting the first 2-star plane in the kinda situation which in that
the free point in the first 2-star joining to the free point in the last 2-star.
2-star planes are going to be in the form of the terminology to create the path
and circle. Wheel plane could have the style of plane in that the form of stars
and the form of circle. So wheel plane in the formula, like numbers of 2-star
planes with the center in common and the points joining each other in the
approach of creating path with the terminology of stars. In other hand, when n
2-star planes in 2 different approaches getting close to each other. So the first
category of 2-star planes are producing the path plane in the mentioned way as
if the second category of 2-star planes in the new way of joining the all points
to the one point. So the wheel plane is introduced by the joining of the circle
plane to the one point in the term of new definition.
The kinds of operations on the planes, could be like adding points or deleting
points so in this case, adding one point could be like crosspoint when the link is
crossed by the point so in this case, adding the points in the form of extension
and deleting the points in the form of making contraction. So in the viewpoints
of these two words, forming the new planes and deforming the new planes are
deemed. The extension of a cycle plane, in this form, has no effect on the style
of this plane as if this approach could have all planes in this style via increasing
number n in the term of n-cycle. This idea is satisfying on the n-path with
analogous to n-cycle planes. The idea on the wheel plane, could be done but
in this case, the styles of the planes are seeing the new formations and these

7
1. Definition And Its Necessities

operations never have held the property of being wheel.

In the other hand, there’s way to consider the plane as the property and the
operations like non-stop approaches keep going on this concept to determine
what is going if the approach is done so holding of properties are the matter
of mind. The operations, in the terms of acting on the numbers of the same
styles, could be given the adjectives like "unary, binary, and etc.".
So the extension is unary operation in which, the plane is input and the output
is something in the forms of holding or not. To sum up, the "extension" holds
path and "extension" holds cycle in the terms of planes but it doesn’t hold
wheel property in the terms of planes. The ideas of having the property in the
kind of the term "hold", in the dynamic scheme of the styles of planes could be
useful but in this case, now, the complete plane on the table, this plane as a
property amid the increasing points in this style of operation, the "extension"
doesn’t hold complete property even in the first step so this kind of property
has no thing to go. The analogous to this topic could be available on the star
property when the outcome is the same when the income is different.
The kind of property in the forms of having the plane with the growth of the
planes to be static in the forms of dynamically increasing points but in the
terms of "hold".
The kind of new definition, in the forms of moving on when the moving forward
isn’t the matter of mind, could be such the "contraction". With the analogues
to the approach, the path and the cycle planes could be held in the term of
"hold". But "extension" doesn’t hold the wheel property and star property. So
in the function of this approach, "extension" is like "contraction" to be on the
behaviors which in that, the both properties "cycle" and "path" hold as if both
properties "wheel" and "star" don’t hold.
The holding the plane in the terms of properties could be like the holding the set
of points in the terms of the elements of the planes. Packing and covering in the
terms of planes, could be available when its goal, is the kinda of classifications
regarding to hold when the planes have the roles of properties in the new planes.
The finding the points in the terms of distance entitled "Metric Dimension".
Now, finding the points in the terms of reverse reaction when they’ve had the
link in common. In the new concept, the coloring on the points and coloring
on the links, could be an idea to get the approach in the terms of "moving on"
and not "moving forward". In this case, the concept is obvious so in the special
literature of this post, specific planes "on the table" and not "on the floor".
The complete plane on the table when the being complete could be the prop-
erties to have new idealistic plane but in the the structure of multi-planes
like 1-plane which is now on the table, or 2-plane plane which is passed by
the title of "Bipartite plane". The number of separate planes which have no
connections, could be like n-plane which in that n is the number starting from 1.
The complete plane have n-color plane when the color is like the acting on the
plane in the form of plane but in the terms of properties. So when the color is
obvious, the plane has new names so 1-plane, complete plane, n-color could be
the names of the complete plane in the other visions when the based plane in
study is complete plane so in the types of choosing the base, the different names
could be understudy and ’tis worthy to have the them to do some thinking
approach in the soon ideas when the ideas come up.
The bipartite plane on the table, the first name for this plane is 2-plane. The
second name for this plane in the terms of colors is the maximum of the numbers

8
 1.4. The Concept Of Embedding

of points amid two parts.

The circle plane on the table, the circle plane has the name 1-plane as if other
names are n/2-dimension, n/2-color. The path plane on the table, it is the
kinda circle plane in the specific case coming from the circle so the name is the
same when the basic properties in that case are in common in the terms of heir.
To sum up, path has the names, 1-plane, n/2-dimension and n/2-color.
Wheel plane is 1-plane, {n − {n − 2}}−dimension. "Coloring" on the points, in
the beginning look, is the kinda dimension when the links are being substituted
by the terms of distance with special look on the distance when its length is 1.
As if the terms of specialized case, could flourish some new results when they’ve
came up to see how the ideas focusing on. Wheel plane is n/2 of points plus
the center. So {{n − 1}/2 + 1}}−color.
The approaches of finding names when the one name is fixed, are acting on like
the base something plane as if it is worthy to note the classification of other
terms, could be the way to go as if "A Way To Go".
The study on the points, to get some points in the terms of having the properties
when the special plane on the table. The idea is eligible to monitor the links
instead of the points so in this case, the links are being assigned by the colors
when the counting the colors in the terms of numbers are appearing after the
study about how the counting the distance, in the terms of number, could be
available. The topic of number could the base to collect hugely diverse ideas in
the umbrella of numbers.
The unary operations like coloring and dimension, could behave on the reverse
types of having links and numbers entitled "Line Plane". Line plane is the kinda
1-operation when input in the kinda planes and output is the kinda plane which
is only made by reversing the shapes of plane when the plane is demanded when
it comes from the input.
The kinda changing names to numbers in the forms of operation, plane, di-
mension, and colors when the numbers are of inputs, connections, points, and
colors.
The plane of the points when they want to be links and links want to be points
so the relation amid points and links in this case in the matter of mind. In the
visual description, the points are changed to links and vice versa. So, when the
complete plane on the table, there’s the same plane is made. Generally, when
the numbers of points and links are the same, the changes are useless. As if in
the terms of dimension, there’s the point to get the reverse type of plane to be
on the discussion when the problem is about the dimension.
The kinda situation in which, the notions of ideas on the special plane. So
the complete plane on the table to examine the ideas on it. The complete
plane is studied to get the names in the terms of notions. The complete plane
is 1-plane, n-dimension, n-color, and self-line. The kinda packing to be on
when the complete plane was already on the table. So the complete plane is
now out to see what’s type of it, is moving forward. The 4-complete is the
name when the points of this plane are being counted to 4. So the 4-complete
on the table. 4-complete is the cycle plane, 1-plane, n-dimension, n-color,
1 − {3 − cycle}−pack, 1 − {{1, 2, 3} − path}−pack, 0-line and 4-3-star-pack.
This topic is open to be moved forward by the different styles and the different
elements of the planes.
The gist of composition ad decomposition are popping in the the concept of
"packing" when the desired plane are finding/demanded.

9
1. Definition And Its Necessities

The collections of the points when are popping out to have moving forward
amid the styles of planes. So the starter is one point. The second point has two
choices to be connected or not. So two points has the plane which is 1-plane or
2-plane. In the left hands, it is 1-plane, 0-color, 0-dimension, 0-line and 0-pack.
In the right hands, it is 2-plane, 2-color, 1-dimension, 0-line, 1−{1−path}−pack
and 1 − {1 − star}−pack. In the systematic approach when the third point is
coming up, every previous states are coming on the table to have 2 ways on the
host’s plate. Three formations are 3-planes, 2-planes and 1-planes so it is okay
to pop out them on the table.
The kinda styles which in that the sequences of the contractions and the exten-
sions are on the table to move on them to see what’s the patterns and what’s
the eligible importance. Contractions on the complete plane, are kinda hold
when deleting the points and their links have no effect on the property of being
complete in the terms of plane. Extensions on the complete plane in the first
hand of using the ideas doesn’t hold. So complete plane is n-contraction and
0-extension.
The process of finding plane when the complete plane is on the table. One class
of complete plane on the table, 4-complete is done. So the algorithm is desired.
The new idea for doing when the plane is on the table.
The cycles are on the table so extension, contraction, packing, dimension, color
and line are going to act on some classes of cycles when they’re on the table.
The first class of this plane is 3-cycle so the names of this 3-cycle is n-extension,
0-contraction, 1 − {{1, 2} − path}}−pack, 1 − {2 − star}−pack, 2-color, 0-line.
The algorithm for n-cycle when it is popped out on the table by pack’s style
of path, 1−{{1, 2 · · · , n − 1} − path}}−pack as if pack’s style of star is just
work for the first class which is passed in the class titled 3-cycle has name
1−{2 − star}−pack. Wheel plane on the table to see what’s looking at it. The
first class of this plane is 3-wheel so the names of this class when the wheel is
on the table are 0-extension, 0-contraction, and 1−{3 − cycle}−pack-fit so the
latter is the same. So going on the second class of wheel, 4-wheel os on the
table to get the names are adapted to it. 4-wheel is n-extension [links amid
points] and 0-extension [links amid center and points], 3-color, 0-line.
The new idea on the table when the plane is demanded to be on the table. The
new kinda coloring when it is going to be on the links. The two links have
a common point when they’re on the table in the form of the plane, they’re
colored with different colors. So the planes on the table, path plane on the
table so the first class is on the table in the form of being on the table. 2-path
is 0-extension, 0-contraction, 1 − {1 − star}−pack, 0-dimension, 0-line. The
coloring on the links will be like the styles so the analogous to the n-color will
be found here.
In the terms of having the proper points in the exhibition of the plane, there’s
time which in that the links are crossing from each other as if the crosspoint
isn’t the point so in that case, the new concept are coming up. The concept
of finding the proper exhibition in that, every crosspoint is a point. So in this
case, the concept of being planar will be done in the when the plane is on the
table and holding this property is the kinda tool to do on it when it’s on the
table. Cycle plane on the table, when the all their exhibitions are suitable so
n-cycle is n-planar. The path is on the table as if the situation is like that
so n-path is n-planar. With analogous to previous approach in the study of
planar, n-wheel, n-star are also n-planar. Complete plane is on the table so

10
 1.4. The Concept Of Embedding

2-complete, 3-complete, and 4-complete, {{1, 1} − bipartite}−complete and

{{2, 2} − bipartite}−complete are planar as if {{3, 3} − bipartite}-complete and
5-complete aren’t planar.
The other concept on the table when it’s passed vice versa. The kinda ap-
proaches and ideas could be like popping in the planes and popping out the
ideas or vice versa. Like the title with the name "Complete" and popping out
the ideas on the table in the prefix "n-" so vice versa is like popping in the ideas
like "color" and popping out the planes on the table in the prefix "n-". Also
the mixed works and the dynamic switching are demanded to have the kinda
freshly new ideas.
The concept of "Complement" are going to act when the planes are on the table.
Holding the plane on this idea when the other case in the kinda constructing
the new plane from the current plane and it may say some relation amid them.
The path plane on the table so 2-path is 0-complement. 3-path is 0-complement.
4-path is 0-complement. The cycle plane on the table as if it is 0-complement.
The path plane on the table, if the deletion of one edge, increasing the numbers
of plane when it is matter of mind. so n-path and n-star are 1-link. n-cycle and
n-wheel are 2-link. n-complete is n-link. In the matter of deletion one point to
have 2-plane, the planes are on the table to be moved forward on them. n-path,
n-cycle, n-wheel and n-star are 1-point. The process of adding and deleting the
points and links in the forms of contraction, extension, n-link and n-point, are
passed.
The styles of {path, cycle, complete, n − planes, wheel, star}−planes and com-
plete n-planes are popping out to be on the table and sometime popping in to
be on the table.
The 2-complete of two planes on the table. 2-complete of one point and n-circle
is n-wheel. The kinda action when in that all points from two planes are
linking to each other like two planes are like bipartite plane as if in the form of
completeness. How to make 2-complete or how to be in the form of 2-complete.
2-complete of one point and {n − 1}−complete is n-complete. 2-complete of
one point and n-planes of one point is n-star.
The idea of converting amid Two planes, or the ideas of differentiating and
obtaining the differences of the planes could be coming up in the framework of
the functions so two concepts on the word "morphism" is a greed to have some
ways to be on the table when the table is now vacant. So two planes on the
table, the function is acting like having the comparison amid the structures in
the terms of having the same essence or having the same completely. So two
words "Homo" and "Iso" are the prefixes to be before the word "moronism". in
the first case, the word is "Homomorphism" and "Isomorphism" is the second.
So there are two classifications in the terms of being the same some at least
expectations and at most in the last one where the approaches of analysis the
elements go the functions on the elements. So when the planes in the terms of
the functions coming up to see how the operations are on the table to act like
the concept of "homomorphism" when the binary operations are demanded to
introduce two elements to see how to act when the actions are going to be in
the detailed-oriented relationship amid elements so when the relation amid two
arbitrarily elements are going with the extremely complete logic to portrait the
two elements in the other planes, that function has the special definition in the
logical framework, is said to be "homomorphism". If the portrait is beyond the
operation and relation, there’s the topic to go on the numbers of elements and

11
1. Definition And Its Necessities

the perfect operation in which the correspondence amid elements is one-one

actions so in this case, "isomorphism", is here. There are two classifications
based on the two tools which in that two expectations are coming up to have
the kinda planes in the both terms "isomorphism" and "homomorphism". So it
is useful to have these two approaches to act on the table when the all planes
are on the table and on the plates to act on the table to cook the food to eat
from plate when the food is ready as if in this time, the collections of planes
are to be like the different types of foods when the approach is "moving" as if
"forward" in the lack of "on" in the approach of the post in the blog from the
website with now no tags to be edited when it gets tags.
All planes on the table when the homomorphism is hungry. The number of
points in both ready-to-eat planes is out of mind. In the other hand, the
goal is done when the covering or relationships in the second plane is out of
mind. So there are points in second plane which are isolated in the matter of
relationship. So in this classification, two principles could be neglected as if
these two principles if are being satisfied, then the approach has the new name
in its birthdays when the limitations of having the birthday is out of mind
and there’s no restrictions to have the days for celebrating the birthdays in
the expected and unexpected approaches. So isomorphism has the names like
homomorphism, functions in the its birthdays.
The kinda planes in the terms of points when the sequence of points have been
presented in the continuous forms and discrete forms entitled "Interval" and
"Set". So in this case, the intersection amid hyper points, if there’s, is allowing
to have the link amid hyper points. Another case, for defining the hyper points,
is about the orderly points in the terms of having no relations when the order
amid points are defining the structure as if the situations for defining the link
will be too complicated. For example, considering the first array, or second array
independently to having the links or considering the whole points in satisfying
link the too many 1-plane. In the first vision, they doesn’t make sense to see
again as if this case is open.
The kinda plane in that the constructions are done as if in the terms of "ex-
tension, contraction, interval and intersections". The kinda plane in which the
structure of planes on the table to look at when seeing the fact is done. In the
terms of getting the classifications based of some attributes which seeing these
attributes are done to be the foundations and to be looked at them to have in
the texts.
In the matter of words to assign the names in the forms of birthdays, there’s
time to be on the tune of the behavior in which the points could get the names
in the absolute points of the specific situations.
All planes on the table so in this time, the one plane is coming up to see what
needs to see. The function which is used to investigate the structure amid two
planes, in the new scheme, is on the self-chemistry to itself so the function is
being found in the previous case to be the one intended function, now, the
function is finding the different styles of how to be for constructing different
versions of the planes with the one class. So in the previous case, the function
was the judge to decide if two intended planes have the same structure in the
terms of two approaches as if in this time, the functions are the approaches
to be besides the idea of being the specific plane. So multi-functions and
one-function are here. In the left hand, there’s the vision to have too planes in
the classification which is saying the same structures in the terms of as if in the

12
 1.4. The Concept Of Embedding

right hand, choosing the one plane to find the functions which preserve the same
structures in the terms of two words "Homomorphism" and "Isomorphism".
The sequence of points popping in that way which is the link amid them, is
obvious so now, the points are popping out in the terms of having no link amid
them in that way the specific attributes getting them in the formations of having
the sequences. Path is kinda this sequence in that way all points have the link
amid them as if they’ve had "love-cut" on the planes when this idea make the
plane to fuck the plane in the terms of machining the multi-planes. "love-cut"
idea is the formation on the links and the points to have the collections amid
all points. The points on the table to see the visions which are in common
connections like link and "love-cut".
"Love-cut" is the term to use the points in the idea of having new plane in the
previous structures of having points as if in the new definition of relating the
points, in the terms of "link" or "point" which in the darkness of lacking it, the
plane has the most sensible change to be seen.
The idea of defining the links in the some specific attributes of the points, are
going to be on the table when the direct impacts or indirect impacts are the
matter of mind. Indirect impacts like dimension and distance or direct impacts
like links and love-cut, and color.
The analysis on the points and links could give some ideas about the plane
which is to have the points and links in that case.
The concept of the points which have the links with other points, when the
close links are demanded. The idea of having connections amid two points in
the directly obvious points could give the idea of "close" to it. The closest set is
the set in which points having the link with out of their minds. The minimum
number of the close points are demanded. So in this case when the finding of
the intended points have been kept to be open on the way to bring the planes on
the table. A path on the table, n-path has the alternative points to introduce
the closet set as if this discussion the terms of number, is passed prior so there’s
in advance point to be on. With analogous to the referring points all planes
are done in the previous discussion as if in the topic of number. So there’s no
compelling excuse to bring them on the table.
The points of having complete relation in the terms of output and input inside
the portrait of having the shape in the complete form of the plane. So this type
of work is finding the maximal type of being complete as if inside the planes.
So there’s idea about seeing the points in the visual study.
The terms of being "self" could be another idea to bring on the concept when it
is done outside. So there’s the point in the neutral functioning of the approach
when the acting on the table is undone entitled "Self-something" to be selfish
in the matter of that approach like the fish sees herself/himself. For example,
complementary could be like self-complementary. Or, self-dimension and self-
plane when the n is the number of being infinity when the answer is no to all
approaches of having change in the pronoun "them" as if finding the planes are
desired which in them all approaches are getting the answer yes to having all
changes on this plane with the pronoun "them".
The finding on the cases in which the lines are open to accept the words.
Points are elected to be on the plane when the greed is to be somewhere in the
terms of having same accesses so the twin are coming up to be on a the table
when the table is full of the planes. So n-complete on the table, all points are
twin. So any of couple of points is twin. n-path and n-cycle are on the table.

13
1. Definition And Its Necessities

n-path has no twin as if n-cycle has twin when the given couple has the number
of the maximum distance. It is worthy to note that the word "maximum" means
the existing number and it is different from "supreme" so in this case is talking
about the situation which in that the maximum distance for all elements, is
existed, if so the intended number has the name in the terms of its birthdays
with the new name in its birthday which is "maximum". This case is only
possible if and only if the n-cycle have the n as even number so in this case,
all points are twins. and Points are celebrating their new name which is twin.
So the n-cycles has the new name in the time of birthdays for the concepts
so "en-cycle" is the cycle with even numbers of the points as if the proper is
assigning the name to the n-cycle so all ways, n-cycle has either twin or not.
When it is twin the name implies that the all points are twin as if the n-cycle
inducing the not to be twin when all points aren’t twin.
Birthdays for points, points are sometimes love-cut and twin. In the form of the
formation of points when they’re coming up, the points could be in the special
positions when in that the names are center or the points are in the path as if
aren’t when the path is considered as one point so there is time when in that the
path without junction and smooth movements of words are no conjunctions so
in this case, the point could be investigated as new approach to make the new
plane. In this case, path and circle are one point. So n-star is good example to
delete the path and circle when the points in that are just following each other
without distraction in one direction and without indirection with attractions.
n-star is the kind of star when the joint points are possible when the more
than two points are ready on the direction, the figure of the point could be
like the tree in the hierarchy styles when the "T" is like that. So star could be
an approach in which it is acting on the planes to make the new planes in the
term of tree’s figure. The cycle and path have 1-point as new name. So happy
birthday to them. Complete plane names 0-point. This concept is different with
Eulerian and Hamiltonian concept cause it isn’t about the finding the ways as
if it is about the junctions in figure and conjunctions in words. So complete
plane has no concept in this new approach as if it has the deep concept in the
Eulerian and Hamiltonian concept. So this concept may do something-azation
tree-azation on all planes when the planes are on the table. The concept of
construction to have the new plane in the terms of work on the previous plane
to change some parameters in the concretely logical atmosphere. In the form of
introducing the new points in the hyper points, there’s the situation which in
that the points are done in the styles of getting the other points when there’s
no junctions and there’s no words to be done.
Matrix is where to be held in the terms of numbers like adjacency matrix
in which there’s plane’s points when the planes are done in the forms of the
structures so there’s point to be pointed to the links and points alongside each
other to be in the forms of having them as if somehow to be closed in the terms
of the departure from the figure to the symbols win the higher level to be up in
the word is included in the epilogue where there is the cover when it is passed
by the word in the forms of pictures to be, now, in the symbols of entering to
have the turning of the pages when the pages are going to be somewhere when
the word is "open" as if in the terminology with the having books of the words.
Six points in the forms of three points in the shape of "T" on the top and
three points as if vice versa. Six plane has the formations for plane when the
points are on the table so finding the all formations of the limited points to

14
 1.4. The Concept Of Embedding

get the specific version in the terms of planner or something else. Six points
have the basic formations in the matter of path and the matter of cycle. In
the case of cycle, there’s 1-plane in its exhibition in the gist is passed when
the lines are told the story of descriptions. In the matter of 2-plane, six points
are introducing the too complicated concept about the crosspoint when there’s
no exhibition in the terms of 1-plane when the way is passed in the terms of
complete as if in the more than 1-plane. So there’s the way to go in the forms
of the classification in the title of numbers when the numbers are deemed in the
dim lights of the table when there’s on the table as if way to go isn’t guaranteed
there in the open case of numbers.
Six links on the table so in that case of the planes, the path and cycle are
forever, hanging bitch to the all topics when they’re, predicted guest in the
gesture of host of toast.
Finding the way on the single way like one-way avenue, to introduce the concept
when the matter of minds are going on the points and on the links. The kinda of
dancing with blue rhythm of the tune when drunken gay is going with pronoun
"us" to pop out the links to pop in the points and the vice versa the kinda
of tango dancing with the red rhythm of the tune when the conscious guy, is
seeking the points to get the links with the pronoun "we". What the matter of
minds when the all pronouns are single without adding pronouns to behave if
they’re on the table.
The date is on the table to make the kinda up as if on the date in the form of
update. The concept of four points like axes when the access of the point is
wrongly done in the cross point and not point. Crosspoint is the kinda point
when there isn’t the point so it’s quasi-point like the cozy is and isn’t for the
point. Crosspoint of the axis is like it have aced the point’s test when point is
done in the decorations of the table as if there’s the figure in that four points
are like square as if not that square. It is circle as if not that circle. In the lines
of being and not curve of being. So the crosspoint is the word when there’s no
point on the point as if the point is crosspoint there’s no axis and vice versa.
The kinda approach on the ideas of having the points when the points are related
to latest test of being toast. So the points on the dynamically simultaneous
ideas when the points are moving when AI is coming up. If there’s the link,
there’s no point to be pointed to link. In this new definition on the old structure,
the wiser points are lightening on the old to be up in the dates of time when
update is greed. Point is going to be ghostpoint when the link is made in the
approach of point’s self-sunshine. The kinda third parameter is greed to act
when the points and links are well-defined so in the purse of peruse, the third
parameter is changing the seeing and looking of points and links in the terms of
conscious and coupling. When moving forward on the planes to get the intended
points and mentioned links, getting closer where the points have no junction
when they’ve counted more than twice. This ground of the round is playing
with hands to make the goal with the shoot the ball in left and right hands.
The relationship amid love-cut point and love-cut link in four words and not
four letters keep going the frame to discuss about making the new situation.
Finding the points in that communications when the all possible links are done
in the way which all points are linking to each other in the title of embedding
points, figures, links and notions. Embedding the kinda points in the form of
sets to obtain the new planes in the kinda re-something titled reconfiguration.
reconfiguration could be something to replace the points in the terms of point

15
1. Definition And Its Necessities

the get the second version of the plane in the matter of words to be on the
second stage. The liberal approaches and ideas on the points and link to get
the second scene of how to be seen there.
The points are going to be on the foundation of other disciplines like algebra
to get the new results. For example, when the points are collecting to the
each other as if the relation amid them isn’t the type of the given set. In the
self-disciplinary of this concept, points are in the given set and the links has
somehow this types of liberality. If the collections of points, has the rule to be
in the set and the points are satisfying some rules, there’s another ideas and
approaches to customized the situations. The concept of group are embedding
to this concept. When the collections of points are making the group in the
terms of satisfying the principles, and the links could be various types in the
terms of something amid groups. Links may be the type of connections amid
the elements in that way when two elements are producing the third element
in the collection of closed set to be link with that name so the names of the
points and the names of the links excerpt the set of points.
The kinda approach is arising from other disciplines like other branches of math
or other science. When the points have the common attributions to be settled
down in the set so they’re on the table to see how the table is decorated and also
planes on the table to be done by the points. The kinda action and reactions in
getting results as the open case is on going. The points in the set as group and
links as the production when the whole thing is arising from the points and
their styles. In some situations, the points and links are brought to make sense
about the plane as if in this case, the one point could make the whole things
about other points and all links, this kinda style is cycle in algebra. So there is
two cases when it goes on the cycle: infinite cycles or finite cycles. So in the set
as group, the links are deleted as if in the circle, only one point is ready.
Group on the table, in this case, may be some problems as unsolved problem
may solve in other discipline so it could be the motivations to bring them on
table to be continued the lines of words. Two points in the obvious approach
like pie not pi which is on the planes’ discipline, are now decided to how the
links are going down when the planes are going up. 2-operation on the closed
set so in this case, All groups are like z-something. The finite group is Zn as
if infinite group is Z. The groups of algebraic styles or visual styles, there’s
mixed styles in the approaches and ideas. The kinda numbers representing the
classifications of the points where on the group so groups are like 1-group and
2-group.
One group is representing the kinda figure in that if the production is made in
the style of group’s element so originally needs are something about its element.
The kinda monitoring is happened amid two points when two points are showing
the third point, the definition of the link is now available.
Cycles on the table. The kinda one element are producing the other styles so
in that case, the monitoring could give too many ideas as if one could be the
representing the cycle and circle in both hands when the link is defined to act
the next point is next element.
The ideas of having special attributes amid the points not about the productions.
The kinda approach which in that an element could be moved in the back and
forth so in this case the study is obtaining the embedding sets of points in every
plane when the relation about the link is something to be backward and forward
so the points could move to be in the left hand and right hand. Another idea

16
 1.4. The Concept Of Embedding

could be the study of exclusively this types of group when they’ve came to the
communicative algebra.
The embedding concept pops in the current disciplinary or pops out other.
The kinda approach excerpt from live ideas amid all ideas as if it is worthy to
use the dead ideas to find the lovely live ideas with four words.
The kinda sequences amid points when they’ve links to have. So the operations
amid planes to introduce the new plane in the kinda wisdom and knowledge to
see the whatever on the table. The union, join, lexicography and intersection
are producing the new types of planes in the matter of minds. The kinda closing
to the two styles of plane to make some results in the seen ways. The seeing of
the way to collect the planes some thumbs make 2-plane as if others making
links. In the open case of getting prominent results, there’s time to be on the
table.
The kinda seeing on the planes when they’re on the table. The face-colors on
the planes as if in the terms of numbers. The seeing of table when the planes
are on it, there’s the number of separate table by the lines of the planes. This
idea could be given when the plane has no ghostpoint. This idea could be okay
to study when the complicated lines of words are ready to see what you see.
The kinda planes are coming from the interactions amid real phenomenon, are
the material for having the case to get complicated words in the case of the
open worthy to be on the tune.
The another move is to get the results amid parameters in the popping into the
deep relation amid the points and others into the planes. Plane’s stuff on the
table.
The embedding movement amid the top parameters in the way of being im-
pressed from any kind of changes in every place in the plane in the terms of all
effects and all movements on the plane. The relationship amid the links and
the points in total visions. The numbers of links and the actions of points to
make this number in the scrutiny and discernment on the detailed-orientated
behavior on the fundamental result as if in the monumental moments. The
number of links are equal to see the half numbers of points. To clarifications,
The number of links are coming from the actions of points. In the left hand,
the idea of counting the number of links in the form of the common concept for
all points. The number of links which are from the sculpture in the terms of the
symbol of all points. The sculpture is acting to get the number of the links so
when this number is done, the scroll is checking whether the number is done or
not. After that, the equality is the next tool when the matrix in the excel gives
the land to be free to send data to the number to get the numbers of the whole
links which are taken by the sculpture and moving forward by the excel to get
the result in the number so the left hand, popped out the number. In the right
hand, the answer is 2 times the whole links. So in the balanceship, these two
concepts are going up and down to get the equality. So in the balanceship’s
analysis, every sculpture is taking any link when in the plane, every link has
two points so the number is only checked where the numbers are coming from
left hand and right hand.
The result is passed in the luxurious behavior so there’s point to get the result
about the numbers of links which have given by the points. By regarding to the
right hand of the previous paragraph when this hand is saying about the even
number, it makes sense to explore that the number of links which are taken
by the points, will be under the restrictions as if the given set of the points

17
1. Definition And Its Necessities

are making the plane. The next is of the twofold numbers. The number of
the odd numbers of links are on the table to say what’s happening when the
number of the odd numbers is just saying odd number and the odd numbers are
indifference to out of its style and popping anything out of them to be exactly
out in the obvious place without going back so it is even number. The result
is saying about the odd number of the links which are popping out to other
points so it doesn’t matter which types of points are taking the links from the
points are possessing the odd numbers of links. To sum up and to wrap-up, the
number of links which are from the points with odd number of links is even.
The kinda situation in that, 2-planes are making the links to each other so is
there the result about the numbers of each parts when the all potential links
are made by the twofold parts of the 2-plane? In the part when the number is
obvious, there’s the sense to have the sense about the number of the links when
the number of the points are obvious. So twofold parts are on going when the
numbers of links are demanded and the balance of the numbers when goes to
the land of the number to wonder when two numbers are the same when they’re
coming from the different concepts in the gists of having the foundation of the
parameters on the planes when the planes have two potential gists to go. Every
link is coming from one-one approach in the parts so when the number of parts’
points are obvious, there’s something about the number of parts’ links cause the
link has two points so when the number of part is obvious, the links are going
to the part from one part. In the 2-plane, when the completeness is going to be,
it is obvious that the number of links are in the converse style of comparison
which is done in the deal of points. So if the points have the greater number in
the part to the part, there’s the lower number in the correspondence’s part to
correspondence’s part cause the links which the smaller part has to send, are
greater than, the links which bigger part has to send. So the number of links in
any of smaller [regarding to points the term is used for] part is greater than
the number of the links in any of the bigger [referred to last usage of this style]
part’s point. To sum up and to wrap up, the number of the part’s link has the
reverse relation to the number of the part’s point. Equality is possible when the
numbers amid two parts in each style of having the foundational parameters
are behaving in that way which the number of part’s point is the same. So the
number of part’s links is the same and vice versa.
So motivated by the relationship amid number of points and number of links
in the complete version of having 2-planes, there’s case to have the discussion
about the restrictions to be up amid points and links. So in the customized
version of the plane, all points are having the same links as if there’s too many
ways to change the number in the terms of the points so it makes sense that the
range of the changing of the number of points are under the restrictions as if in
the discrete range amid plane’s parameters. The completeness is the criteria to
have this bound in the term of numbers. The total number of links regarding
to the range of changes, is the production amid the number of points and this
number minus 2 and the answer is divided by 2. So in general, there’s plane
which is n-irregular when the restriction on the number, is done. In the obvious
observation, there was time to go. In the exactly common framework when the
words by words are done in the definition of the words to collect the words by
words with the confirmations of principles to be up in the exact approach with
lightening on the words. The approach of obtaining the word irregular, in the
form of having the restrictions which are obtained by the complete version after

18
 1.4. The Concept Of Embedding

getting the final edition, so the total links are getting the result. The choice of
link in the arbitrarily selection of both points and links, is entering when the all
planes are on the table. It makes sense that the existence of the restriction is
the open way to hold the case as if the prominent result is greed. The obvious
result is {{n(n − 1)/2} + 1}−regular plane. So the result is of the lower number.
There’s point not to coincide the others so the concept of not being regular
is on the table when the common definition of not, is coming up. The plane
in which all points have the distinct numbers. The way to go, when finding
the one point out of the style like regular or irregular is greed. So it could be
possible to work on the form of n-complete which is on the table. The points
in the form of n-complete on the table so the maximum number of link is n-1.
With hindsight, the 1-plane is on the table, n-1 links are made with all points so
this plane is irregular cause there’s no point out of the style. To sum up and to
wrap up, there’s no point to be out of the style of regular so there’s 1-plane out
of irregular plane. So it is the leading question that there’s no 1-plane out of
the style of regular. Amid the 1-plane, in the left hand, the arbitrarily 1-plane
is on the table. So in the right hand, the question is done. To sum up and wrap
up, there are too many ways to run from being regular plane so this leading
question, has the obvious answer in 1-plane. The follow-up question is about
the irregular planes so when the n-planes are on the table where the n is more
than one. So, there’s the 0-points which means the point has no link as if the
question is done if there’s the {n − 1}−points in the n-plane which is possible
in the all n-planes where the n is more than 1, cause the 0-points are existed in
all n-planes with n greater than 1.
The style of the embedding plane, could be on the table to have the scrutiny on
the well-known result entitled fundamental result. When the types of the planes
are on the table as the elements of the 1-plane instead of the points, there’s
the vision to get the specific 1-plane. So in that case the dynamic changes in
the hyper points in the terms of other planes, could obtain the detail-oriented
result in the matter of being closer to the well-known result. The style of the
result concerning the new embedding plane when the plane has the restrictions
of the general planes so in that case, the plane could have the customized result
regarding their essences as if the happening question is the follow-up stuff to
be when the complicated planes are on the table. The path plane is on the
table. So n-path under surgery to give us their names on the its birthdays
when the time depends on us to choose too many birthdays. Path plane is
{2, 1}−points as if the total links in the terms of this plane and in the matter
of sharp numbers, is exactly {n − 1}−links. Circle plane is 2-points and n-links.
Complete plane is {n − 1}−points and its related links. Tree plane is the acyclic
plane in that there’s an embedding plane which is covering the distances when
a point out of it, has the greater distance in when the comparison is done amid
inner distance and half of outer distance. It is different from the embedding
plane which in that the embedding plane is covering either the all points or the
all links. The kinda embedding plane which in the general, there’s no need to
have special connection with out of it.
On the left hand, planes on the table so cover plane is greed. So it is acting
when the plane is on the table. {cycle, path, complete} plane are 1-cover. On
the right hand, the number of the embedding plane which is covering the whole
plane with its style when the counting is going up so instead of counting the
number, counting the styles are ongoing. So cover plane is on the table. The

19
1. Definition And Its Necessities

acyclic plane is tree. So if the plane is acyclic, there’s cover plane in the terms
of two.
The idea of covering could be like the reconstruction of the plane when the
decomposition into some planes are doing in the way that the collecting of the
embedding planes without any intersections, have the exact figure of the plane
which is on the table.
The decomposition of the plane into some planes when in the way that the
word "there is" has key role in the way of. So this word could find the planes in
the term of decomposition which has neither any intersection nor the collection
to be the whole. So in that way, the study of consequences when the impacts
of finding this plane, are seeing to be accomplished achievements.
Compress and decompress the planes, in the way which the planes are having
the elements or are being had the elements. So in that way, the study is moving
forward to the table in that the elements are on the table.
Link is on the table. Link is the decision amid two given points. So when the
ilinks are greed in the matter of being parallel in the plane, the ilink is the
achievement in the compressing viewpoint. So the number of ilinks in the way
which the maximum, maximal and perfect ilinks are made. In the way of seeing
the links in the outline of its impacts when the links are going to be special set
where this set is said to be ilink. ilink is the set of parallel links where any of
this parallel link has two points and they’re covering the all points without any
of intersection. ilink is n-compress, 0-decompress, n-link and n-cover.
The term of being embedding has too consequences. Is there a plane or related
result which is saying about the embedding plane for a link out of the embed-
ding plane, there’s the path in the embedding plane? in the analogous to the
question, the substitution for link, could be path with the condition which in
that the comparison amid paths in the seen way with looking at limited time
in the best style of accomplished achievement.
The kind of embedding graph is introducing the new type of edge. Chord is
the edge. This type of edge excerpt from graph when the embedding graph
has the key role in making the label. The gist and structure of the embedding
graph in finding this edge is spotlight. When the embedding graph is cycle [it
could be any type of graphs], and the couple [it might be useful to change the
number] of vertices [it may be worthy to exchange with edges] from out of the
cycle’s edges as if inside the graph’s edges, this edge [in graph’s edges and not
necessarily in cycle’s edge] has two totally possible ends in the cycle so it is
the chord of cycle. The number of chord of the cycle embedding in a graph
could be obtained in the quantifier "at least" [at most, in the bound or sharp
bounds in the upper bound and lower bound, bounds and their gaps] when the
restrictions in the different types of fundamental parameters in the statistically
speaking about the creator of the graph which is the numbers of vertices and
the numbers of edges [Another parameters are satisfying as if the outcome is
desired; like the maximum degree of vertices, the minimum degree of vertices].
For example, [L. Posa] in the simple graph with m>= 2n-3, where n>=4, the
graph containing the cycle with at least one chord.
The type of embedding is about the n-plane in that the reformulation and
restate a well-know problem, without reference to any particular embedding is
greed. For example,

20
 1.4. The Concept Of Embedding

• "Conjecture [The Four-Colour Conjecture (Vertex Version)]. Every

loopless planar graph is 4-colourable." So the problem is relating to
be planar which means the kinda embedding into the 1-plane in that
every crosspoint is the point and link doesn’t pass each other in the title
without "point".

• "Conjecture [The Four-Colour Conjecture (Face Version)]. Every plane

graph without cut edges is 4-face-colourable.
Theorem [The Four-Colour Theorem]. Every plane graph without cut
edges is 4-face-colourable.
One of the remarkable features of the Four-Colour Conjecture is that it has
many equivalent formulations, some with no apparent connection to face
colourings. ? two of these reformulations, one which is straightforward,
in terms of vertex colourings, and one which is less so, in terms of
edge colourings. They have motivated the study of several fundamental
questions, to be discussed."

A kinda embedding is about the intersection amid two links. This type of
embedding, is said to be thrackle if the number of intersection is exactly one.
Or the following conjecture about being non-circle as if embedding into the
circle.

• "Conjecture [The Circular Embedding Conjecture]. Every loopless

nonseparable graph can be embedded in some surface in such a way
that each face in the embedding is bounded by a cycle."

Finding the kinda exhibition which in that plane to be said planar so this
exhibition is said to be planar embedding. So the word embedding, is now the
noun. It has the key role and main approach to be in the way of the concept.
This kinda tool for discovery to pick the cover for disclosing the attribute.
The concept of planar is assigned to the plane which has the detour to be on
the plane when the plane doesn’t accept the plane which has the quasi-point,
ghost-point as the jargon, crosspoint which in the kinda point is occurred in
the approach of crossing two edges. Crosspoint motivates to have the upper
dimensional plane. So the adjective embedding is the kinda surviver to be
on the plane when there’s some exhibitions to show that the plane has the
crosspoint. Embedding is the title as if it is the brand and the name from the
style of search and invention. Embedding plane is the kinda subjective in the
adjective when the adjective is the verb in present tense to describe the noun
which is done in the six days as if embedding is ready to rebuild and reconsider
in 9 days. So there’s a curious question to have about other style which in
that the embedding is the name to be. The kinda decreasing attribute is about
planar style. The decreasing attribute is the kinda attribute in that, deleting
the link has no effect on the the attribute of being planar. So being planar, is
the decreasing attribute to be planar by the condition of deleting the links as if
the the name embedding is the adjective to add when inject is greed to eject
the plane from being planar. The embedding is acting to be in the terms of
ghost when the host is done.
A kinda refining the results in the embedding plane, could be accessible in the
terms of faces. When the faces of a graph is bounded by cycles. The geometrical
matter and geometrical word "face", is about the decomposition of the plane

21
1. Definition And Its Necessities

into the closed space so every closed space by the black lines, are making the
face. The black color is making the white space into some white faces when
every white faces is banned to be on the infinite white space. The kinda borders,
could be the definition of cycles so the faces have the natural borders in the
terms of cycles. Cycles when are covering the surrounding spaces when they’re
said to borders, are making some faces in the kinda planes.
The planes on the table when the ingredients of the plane, are cycles. 2-planes
are created by cycle in the way that the odd cycles are the matter of minds.
2-planes are characterized by the cycles in the way that one word is sufficient
and necessary to say that the n-planes are 2-planes. A kinda finding n in the
approach of rolling into the deep concept of cycles. So the planes on the table
with the surgery’s knife of the cycles. In the time when the n-planes are ready
to be on the plates of the meal to eat. So the number n is obviously 2 when
the n-plane has no odd cycles. The classifications of planes in the matter of the
cycle. 1-Cycle is the 1-plane with single cycle. So the terms of three points are
coming up to make the cycle in the name of triangle. In the reverse movement
when the 2-planes are about n-planes without any n-cycle when n is odd number,
there’s the analogous result when every n-cycle when n is odd number, is a
triangle.
The embedding is the kind of subject and adjective when the noun is powerful
with this adjective so the lights from this style of adjective something-ing
when the embed is the verb as if being verb has no effect when in the light
of something-ing all words are acting in the matter of continuous verb. So
the embedding is the extreme form of having the verbs and adjectives. The
concept of embedding of the black plane in the another white plane is said to be
"embedding plane". The embedding cycle, the embedding path, the embedding
complete and the embedding 2-plane are the kind of exemplifying on the concept
and the role of the title. The embedding like plane is put in the bed when the
"mis" on the "embedding" is producing the triple words "in, bed, ding" when
the third word is the kind of ring to be endless in the way of mind. So "in",
"bed" and "ding" is like to be in bed forever when the sound of ring, is made in
lights of the natural signs as if the intrinsically sounds is ready to say about
the "eternity" with small "e", in the kind of "in" and "bed".
The embedding is like the property when the losing is the matter of mind.
Subset is the kind of embedding when there’s set and its subset. The prominent
property of embedding is the word "heir". When the bigger case gives the word
"heir" to its sub-cases. The example from this concept is the matroid when the
second condition, out of three, of being matroid is about the subset. If the
set belongs to the intended place, all embedding case is so. So the intended
set gives the adjective "intended" to all its subsets. The matroid is the kind of
concept when the collections of embedding elements from the style of the given
set, is the matter of embedding. The power set is the set of embedding sets
when the given set is the input for the unary operation is said to be "power
set". The given set is ready so the embedding sets of this set, are said to be
"subsets". The collections of all embedding sets from the given set, is said to be
"Power Set".
Embedding planes, embedding paths, embedding points and embedding links in
the kinds of making the embedding concepts. Is there the embedding number?
in the difference amid two sets, there’s two concepts about the set and the
number. The upper mode is about the number when the difference is about

22
 1.4. The Concept Of Embedding

the number, there’s no points about the objects in the counting ways of having
number when the counting is about existence and it isn’t about the counting the
same styles. There’s two sets so if the number of set’s element is different, there’s
two ideas. In the first case, the same objects are counted so the word "subset" is
introduced. In the other hands, the existing objects are counted so in the case
of "Matroid", the ideas to be continued so there’s the new element when two
sets has no relationship in the matter of element’s style. The number is different
amid two sets and there’s no subset. So there’s an element e [excerpt from the
first letter of the word element] is belonging to upper [the set is corresponded to
the bigger number] set to be added in the set which is assigned to the smaller
number [the word "add" implies that the element "e" isn’t belonging to the
intended set] and making the new element which is in I.
The kind of embedding in the sentences, in the words, in the figures and in the
symbols are giving some points in the matter of words which are the reasons for
impacts of the white plane. The embedding is the kind of black color when it’s
into the white space. The movements of the elements in the kind of whiteness
to get desirable results. Points are on the paths amid two points like the white
path is binary operation when two black points are coming up, the white path
is only accepting two black points as arguments. So two black points are going
to the white path when white path is functioning to produce too many white
paths so there’s the upper multiple operation in that way, the output is only
the number as if too many black paths are entering and this multiple operation
is white distance. So the sequences of embedding concepts in the changes of
colors from white to black and reversely, the white distance is playing the key
role to make the concept of matroid. The empty plane is white element in the
structure of matroid as the first condition as if the second condition is about the
white set when the set is belonging to I. Every subset of white set, is also the
white set so in the words of I as the white color and its elements are white set
and the member of white elements are white member and the other set is black
set, there’s the description about the three condition of being matroid when
the black set, E, is given and the black set, I, of its some black sets are ready
if this relatively separate couple which are the black couple are satisfying into
three white conditions, they’ll be the white couple. So they are supposed to be
white. The discussion is about the white elements of the I and white members
of the white elements. So I is including the white elements [the word element is
exclusively used for I’s elements], the white element has white members [The
word "member" is exclusively used for white element’s members] so there’s two
embedding concepts in the terms of sets and subsets. I is the sets of E’s some
subsets and not necessarily all sunsets of E. E is the set which may embed in
the I. The first condition is about having the empty set in the white set. The
second black condition is about losing and third black condition is about adding.
So the white element if losing its white member, the new white element is
produced and introduced. Two different white sets in the terms of their sizes, if
the bigger white set giving one white element to the smaller white element, the
new element is white. So the couple is white. The color of black is exclusively
corresponded to the embedding concept and the host of embedding concept, is
exclusively corresponded to white color. The I is exclusively corresponded to
set, the I’s objects is exclusively corresponded to elements and the element’s
object is exclusively corresponded to member. These jargons are forever white.
So there’s white set, white element, white member and that’s it about the

23
1. Definition And Its Necessities

jargons and buzzwords in this definition including the concept of embedding.

The pack of embedding in the kind of matroid when the element is embedded
in the kind of element and the member is embedded in the kind of element.
So the concept of embedding is streaming into the matroid. The process of
producing the new element with the concept of embedding, could be handled.
This concept is acting in deeply styles of producing and having outcomes in
the case which the attribute is only being the embedding type in the term of
word subelement. The subset of the element is the element so this is the strong
result about subset which is the kind of embedding. Adding member into the
intended element, makes the new element when the member is coming from
the element with more members than the intended element so the new element
has the intended element as the embedding element. The concept of subset is
the kind of embedding set where the algebraic viewpoint is coming up in the
terms of objects. The embedding concept are usually utilizing in the visual and
geometrical concepts.
Plane wants to take the assessments for evaluating the grade of points in the
term of master. Plane wants the points to be like the creator of the others in
the two styles of losing points and donating points. Donate is the term which
is used for somebody/something has more than another so in that case, the
number is different in the intended concept and there’s inequality. Losing points
make the points and the donator makes the new point where the point has
two meanings about the member and about the collections of members. So
the matroid is the relation amid the given point and the point of some points
excerpt from given points in the way that these two styles are satisfying into
three conditions which are passed in the terms of losing and donating with the
additional term which the point has nothing is in the matroid. So the matroid
is some structures into two sets and some relations amid these sets so this
atmosphere is, alike the planet with its rules, said to be matroid. Matroid is
like the Plane And Its Points and like The Concept Of Embedding.

1.5 Plane And Its Points

sec:third

n the terms of accessibility and availability, there’s idea to have scrutiny on

the material when there’s the approach.

• Complete plane There’s plane where in that all points are linked to
each other by the continuous forms of the points in the terms of line. If
all intended points are linked to each other in all possible ways, the plane
including the points and their links said to be complete if this process of
linking is done. The idea and approach of being complete in the situation
of accessibility and availability, are done where in that there’s no part to
be isolated in the terms of separately parts. If there’s more planes, ’tis
referred to name as multi-planes. So in the special case, when there’s two
planes, ’tis called to bi-planes. Planes could be considered in the terms of
isolated planes.

24
 1.5. Plane And Its Points

• Wheel plane When the linking process is about the one point in the
center and on the way, all others points are linking to that point and
others are linking to each other in the shape of the circle.
• Circle plane If all points are linked to each other in the way which only
and only two links are allowed to be, this plane is said to be "Circle" and
’tis called to be "Circle Plane".
• Path Plane
All points in the plane are linked to each other in the way, two links are
only and only allowed to be with the exceptions two points which are
allowed to have only and only one link.
• Regular Plane
When each of points has a specially certain number of links to each other,
this plane is said to be "Regular" and ’tis called to be "Regular Plane".
• Embedded Plane
Where there’s a kinda plane could be taken, this plane is said to be
"Embedded" and ’tis is called to be "Embedded Plane".
A kinda analysis on distance when there’s too points to choose some points
which they could locate other points so saving the time, decreasing messy
situations, obtaining better observing and determining good views on the plane.
So the distance has the main role in that case where one point will be candidate
to be in the optimal set when there’s no point to be existed to differentiate
distance amid two clear points in the obvious way. The kinda distance which is
based obvious communication in single relation when the points are linked to
each other via one distance so it seems that the continuum is broken down to
discrete unit of measurement to have the single obvious number to tell the how
many distance are related to each other in the terms of the specific point and
upper vision of the customized point where this point is accepted to be in the
special set which could be considered highlight points and superstar points in
the group with pronoun "we" to act on the pronoun "us" but when the points
entitled "Twin" they have too attributes in common like they’re identical in the
same genome so this twin points are like T+win points inducing to introduce
each of both in the set with pronoun "we". Twin points are the points which
have the same distances from every imaginative points as possible as it’s done
so they could be separated in the all possible actions which could be done. Twin
points sending the signals of being one inside in the terms of wisdom with the
operation of seeing the points but outside they’ve have the looked forms of two
in the terms of numbers and terms of knowledge. The locations of all points are
done in the terms of the set with pronoun "we" so in the all plains, this concept
are acting to find superheroes in the idealistic visions of intended plane with
mentioned points so there’s plain texts to read the qualities and quantities of
points. So in this process, the intended set entitled "Optimal Set" are seeing
the quantities and looking at qualities to determine the all mentioned locations
and they’re navigating the all possible routes to make the detour in the terms
of optimal sets.
For illustrating these concepts, when two given points are ready, the first
examination is of checking whether they’re twin or not. According to definition

25
1. Definition And Its Necessities

of being twin, when two points have the same distances from any given points,
they’re said to be twin and every couple of points which have this approach to
face with other points, they’re called to be twin. So when the couple of points
have the same distances from all, they’ve a name twin and vice versa. Like T
win in the form Twin where this couple aren’t separable by anyone or anybody.
For the sake of simplicity, I’ve given a name to this couple in my terminology
as "Metric Number" like trick in the numbers with me before or be four that.
So the numbers which coming from the same distances which twin has from
any given points, are introducing the set or in the exact words, the family of
numbers which is allowed to have same number as if in the definition of set,
’tis impossible and unacceptable. The kinda approaches are needed to act on
specific categories but there’s approach to be on the idealistic notion in idealism
of minds.
The circle plane is on the table to show its potential to be on table instead
of the floor. The kinda points creating this plane when the planes are on the
table when the essay on the table in the modes with tune of extracting now all
entries are selected by ideas entitled "plane".
So "circle plane" on the table when the essay wants to say which dimension, ?tis
about. The links amid points are taken in the alternative positions which ?tis
possible to change the points but in the optimal set and the certain numbers of
related set beyond. So ?tis desired to have the half of numbers of the points and
the optimal set consisting of the alternatively points when the counting just is
ended by two without trace of one. So in the counting one is deleted so when
the numbers go to two so related points are in the optimal set. The number will
be half number of the points with the priority of having the minimum amid two
numbers with occurring in the plane with odd numbers of points so the circle
planes are twofold in terms of numbers when the number is even, ?tis obvious
answer so in the case of odd number, there’s the answer after division in the
terms of having number when the decimal number is turning to be complete
number with deleting the decimal digits to having the complete number after
that adding the number 1 to turn the answer to intended value so in both cases
there plane is properly done when ?tis on the table.
The next plane is path plane so in that case, there’s an answer in the style of
circle plane to be done in the mode of path plane so the case is done when the
path plane is the customized version of circle plane.
The next plane on the table, wheel plane is ready to be and ?tis done immediately.
The center of this plane is the only obvious point in the optimal set and the
number is one. So the number and the set are identified and there’s well-known
in this case.
The next plane on the table, complete plane is ready to go when the number
is one but all points could be in the optimal set with the restrictions about
attending one point but there’s no difference amid points to be there.
The next candidate is on the table, ?tis regular plane where all points are
shared the same amount of linking amid them. So in this case, the points which
have the quality and quantity of having links in the terms of covering all other
points and after that amid these sets, the set including the minimum numbers
of elements will be the optimal set with the expected number which is now the
intended number.
The kinda hyper problem which in that all points are coming from the optimal
set so in this case, all points are kinda set of optimal set where said to be the

26
 1.5. Plane And Its Points

points of new situation which in that there are too many ideas to define the link
amid them. One way could be when two sets have one point in differentiations
with others. In other hands, two sets have a link amid each other if and only if
one point is differentiating amid two sets. So in this case, it could be possible to
have a sequence of points when there’s set in the terms of points so it could be
imaginable something like path in the terms of points but in the forms of links
and in the forms of points so in this situation, there’s hyper plane of planes
which every plane is point so in the sake of avoiding confusion, there are two
styles of frameworks to keep going the works of results so in the way of getting
new results, now, there’re two frameworks to go.
There’s a hyper plane. There are planes which have links so if there’s link amid
two planes, there’s one hyper plane otherwise there’re multi-hyper planes. So
there’s pure introduction to have this concept on the table like moving forward
amid concepts instead of moving on concepts to tackle the gists in the floor of
the room to have an achievement and an accomplishments but these tags are
implies to have no achievements and no accomplishments in the expectation of
something there.
Hyper planes in the form of multiple hyper planes have the consequences of
having the form of path with its results. But is there something which the
essence and the potential attributes of this concept induce?
In the form of path which is the customized version of circle, ?tis obvious to
have the certain results from them. So is there the concept which is related
to previous level and changes in the lower position implies something new in
the upper level so one way to open in that way is the study of specific changes
which are changing the optimal set so the dynamic analysis on the optimal set
could be the matter of mind but another open way to go through, could be
the study of all optimal sets or all sets which are doing the approaches with
intended results in the way which the number isn’t a matter of mind. Two
approaches are open to go one is of set and another is of number.
The ideas in the changes inside the optimal sets whether the elements are or the
numbers on, when ?tis important that the one change is made in that situation
so ?tis the point that the alternative points in the base infrastructure are forever
making the optimal sets so in the path, there are two optimal sets but usually
the number is the same when the points’ even number are made in the plane.
The number is the same but the set is different. So with analogous to the path
plane, the results are the same in the circle plane.
Is the circle plane Defining some ideas to use in hyper plane? If so, the coverage
of path could be hopeful. With reviews on the circle plane about its intended
literature, there fixed number but the set’s element could be different. But
changing of the set isn’t of changing one element even more the whole set will
be completely changed so the circle plane could be used in moving forwarding
in the concepts but the moving on the circle plane is demanded. Path plane is
like circle plane in the common attributions which ?tis entitled heir from the
circle plane.
A gentle discussion are on the track which ?tis open to use in the attributions
of the ordinary set about the inclusion and exclusion when the covering set
with one element will be used in that category of having the road to use in
hyper plane as chains called path but ?tis obvious results as if is necessary or
sufficient when the floor is on?
A based set which is optimal when there are hugely diverse ideas to adding the

27
1. Definition And Its Necessities

points and having ways to go as if the way and constructing too many hyper
planes in term of defining the "too" with counting ideas so there are specific
numbers to make hyper planes in the case of having circle plane but also path
plane is done.
So in one topic all planes are done in this approach which is about adding to
optimal set when the deleting in out of mind. So it could be considered as
exemplifying for how to go in the lights of ideas.
How to make one change in the optimal set, is going to study the structure and
essence of the points when they’re going to be on the analysis of how to be. To
clarifying, when the deleting one point, makes the need to have more than one
point. Twin points will have the different situation when deleting any of them,
implying to have only any of them so there’s no effect on the optimal set in
the term of changes with one element. Covering set in the terms of inclusion
are passed away. So there’re points that which styles are related to make the
customized version and prominent results in the level of being innovative.
Complete plane on the table to see what’s moving on. In the process, when
all points have links to each other so when the answer is all the points as
the optimal set. So the discussion is closed when the only one plane is on in
the terms of complete plane so complete plane is done as an isolated plane
and embedded complete plane has obvious approaches on the table of moving
forward.
Wheel plane is now ready when only two points are out of set, one is the center
and another coming from the circle amid center but in the ideas of having all in
the set without one point to separate the center from one arbitrary points from
the circle. Two points could be done in this plane. So in any of kind of wheel
plane which are made by adding the points, there’s just two points to be done
so the number of the elements in optimal set is something about the number
of all minus two. In the hyper plane of wheel plane, there’s just point about
covering but nothing will be done when the points and numbers are without
change in this plane or other extension of it.
The study on the plane to deem in that way which the material will be found
so there’s a general way to investigate the classification of plane or the essence,
the relationship with its new situation to bring us the visions on how this new
structure has specific attributes which is only belonging to it in the idealistic
case.
Now, there’s a hyper plane in the general which in that, like plane it has order,
size, maximum degree, minimum degree, and etc. But what’s the important
parameters in this case in the terms of results and their consequences. There’re
some parameters in that the importance of them is taking time. The order of
this hyper plane is about the number of the points are excerpt from the based
plane and the size is about the links. And may be there’s relationship amid
order and size if so, this approach could be useful about other parameters.
The idea about studying the hyper planes in general, could be like constructing
the hyper plane. In the case of having the classification of hyper plane in the
analogous to the plane like complete, circle, path and wheel so in this case,
there’re two approaches including the defining the analogous concepts and their
analogous results or making the concepts and related their results.
Star plane is kinda wheel plane in that customized version, all points are
only linking to the center and there’s no link amid non-center points. These
definitions and concepts could be brought to the hyper plane. In the star plane

28
 1.5. Plane And Its Points

like the wheel plane, only two points are out of optimal set to be separated by
every points belonging to the optimal set. The shape of wheel tells us about
the embedded circle which all its points are linking to the center. So in the
decomposition of wheel, there’s a circle which has fallen to the binary operation
titled join amid one point and a circle. This idea will be available in the hyper
plane to define and to study.
The hyper points of hyper planes are coming from the all optimal sets from
points in the intended plane and these optimal sets are related to each other
when there’s one case about them where the inclusion is the only idea when
one change is desired but if the change isn’t to be in the road of increasing the
numbers or decreasing, the twin elements are good ideas to have when they’re
only replaced by each other. So there’s need to change the definition when
moving forward the concepts are seeing the closed end in the one-way avenue.
In the definition of the hyper plane, the changes could be like that one change
in the set or replaced change on the set or in general change in the set. The
discussion is about all changes on the set and other types of set in general
and the related changes are belonging to the essence of set and the desired
attributes.
In the case of having one change, the inclusion is on demand so this case is
open to back. The case of having one replacement is about twin in the wall of
this definition.
In the shuffle of ideas, there’s point to be on the approaches of different ideas
to get over when the moving forward is a way to go.
Changes on the optimal set when the approach is on. The replacements of the
points in the definition of hyper plane so one case could be like twins making
the links so in that case, there’s an action like counting and identifying the
twins. Is this idea only available to act on this definition? So in that case, is
this definition equal to the sets of points are only twin or other points could
have this attribute to satisfy on the definition. A move on is demanded or move
forward is enough. The points are chosen to be on the optimal set if they could
separate two points in the idealism. Some paths from two intended points to
the mentioned point are finding to prove that point is separator so in this case
when the number has no change, the best case of the hyper plane is occurred
in the term of analysis on the different types of the optimal set which is done
in the terms of best hyper plane to have when the case are going to study the
dimension and its effects on the structure of the intended plane.
Finding some paths in that way, when the idealistic case is twin where all path
from others are forever the same for them. It could be an idea to be title for
the study which in that, the case is matter of mind and the best achievement is
twin so entitle "The Structure of Twin" or the points which have the "Level Of
Being Twin" or "Close To Be Twin".
In the another definition, assume, change is about the sets of separators so if
these sets are optimal sets, the change amid optimal sets but with one condition
to be optimal set yet as if the serious problem is there when something is
going to be about link in the terms of change so which change is determiner
to make the link. One change is enough so the discussion is passed about it.
The replacement or something else to have the link with these literatures. All
optimal sets are to be points and the link is happened when the change is on
demand. Change could be the number or the replacement when the number
has no change or maybe both of them or to be something else in the terms

29
1. Definition And Its Necessities

of mixing or changing maybe appearing some criteria or lemma with strange

numbers.
The structure of an achievement in the terms of optimal set, could be something
like getting closer to the optimal set in the algorithm or the different behaviours
to obtain the optimal set in the terms of approaches.
The change could be something about the multiple choices of having optimal
set in the dynamic analysis. So in the specific case, consider the change for
having link, is?
Changing the topic to the nearest concept could have some ideas about may be
to be continued.
The study of the concept like the state in that one point is said to be hidden
has the same distance in the some paths from the two intended points. So
in this case, all twins have all other points with the label hidden. So in this
concept, twins could be left from the investigations on them. Other based plane
for studying this parameter to get the hyper plane, is expected to be done in
the some classification on the plane to have ideas about how’s going the links
and the optimal sets in the intended situations.
The circle plane on the table, all the alternative points are creating the optimal
sets for other points outside them. The number is like the previous concept
about half of all points or dividing on 2 with the complete number from referring
to nearest number lower then it. Path plane is the special case even in this
study of new concept on plane.
Wheel plane as a case when it covers the star plane, is another class of plane
to have for this. Wheel plane is also the cover of circle plane so wheel plane
is consisting of both circle plane and star plane. The center is optimal set
when it has the same distance from all other points. So the number is one and
the optimal set is one-element set including center or other sets including the
center are naturally and obviously the optimal sets. In the way isn’t obvious,
all two-elements sets including two points which has a link in common, will be
the optimal set with its inclusions. So the study is done with two foundatinally
optimal sets are given.
Bipartite plane has two optimal sets which are its parts. So the number is
obviously the number of part’s points. If there’s need to find the best number
and set in the terms of lowest number of the points amid optimal sets, the part
has the minimum number of points, could be considered as the best optimal set
and the best number.
Complete plane on the table, in this case, any point of this plane will be the
optimal set. So the optimal set is one-element set but the structure of it, could
be any points from the total selection of the points creating the complete plane
so the number of the optimal set in the terms of quality when the quantity is
one but there’s no restrictions on the quality so there’s the combinatoric to
count the number of this optimal set which is exactly the number of points.
The optimal set for complete bipartite is also one-element set so in this case,
it doesn’t matter which part is introducing the point to be in this set. The
adaptation of the name "complete" is now obvious when this adjective does the
same role in both planes and bipartite planes. The number of this planes in the
terms of quality could be like the act of the term complete so the whole points
can introduce the one point to create the optimal set. The numbers of optimal
sets are the numbers of points.
Operations on the planes in the terms of unary-operation or operations amid

30
 1.5. Plane And Its Points

planes in the terms of binary operations, are such good ideas to obtain more
planes to use and study on the hyper planes. Another approach could be
like working on the common attributions and else to have some material to
have something which may create the plane or independently hyper plane or
something like that or open-topic for referring to that in the terms of ideas and
approaches.
The ideas of being on the tune of the definition for having plane, could be like
the study on the different classifications and also different types of definitions.
Now, there’s time to introduce the newly close definitions in the terms of specific
approaches as possible as it’s but.
There is the kind of covering when the adjective goes to be before covering
amid the concepts like clique. The stable set and clique are likewise. In the
selection of points from the plane if the points are mutually adjacent, the set is
said to be cliques as if the set of the points in the reversing the words, has no
two of which is adjacent. Clique covering is the kind of covering in which the
word "covering" is doing the term. So clique covering is the kind of covering
with the style of clique, i.e, if all couple of points are adjacent and the union
of them creating the plane, it is clique covering. In the right hand, Two types
of set in the form of being adjacent as if in the extreme vision then the set of
points streaming the joint decision to be hands-in-hands to play and to shoot
the ball into the basket like the game of basket ball. So if any selection of two
points, not barring the adjective adjacent so the title and the name for any
couple, is to be adjacent. In the left hand, the stable set is the attribute in that
any couple of points, are no-hands-in-no-hands like five words in the styles of
holding, are demonstrating this gist the couple in love-cut so any two of points,
has certainly no adjacency in the terms of this set. The set of points, has too
many names. So the celebration for the new names for this set in its birthdays.
Stable and Clique are the names for this set.
Set of points are having the structures in the term of second condition.
Sometimes, the second condition is about the extreme situation in that no
given couple of points has adjacency. Or any of two given couple of points has
adjacency. These types of relation are about inside as if sometimes, the types
of relation goes to outside and some condition in the proper time legitimate
inside like having no given couple of points having the relation in the terms
of "independent" set. Or other internal relation like minimality, maximality,
having cliques and etc. The external relation like having distance, having links,
having two points in distance with one point inside and etc.
The regular plane on the table. k-regular is going to be on the table when the
k=0, 1, 2, is the tool for it on the table. 0-regular is the kind of graph which
has no links and all points are isolated. So in this case, plane is n-plane in the
n is the number of points. 1-regular is like matching on the excerpt when the
points coming from another plane as metaphor so in this case, the parallel links
are existed. So, 1-regular is n/2-plane where the n is the number of points in
that plane. 2-regular is n-circle where n is the common gist about points.
The kind of analysis on the stability of planes, is coming up with the specific
points. There’s the vision on the changing in the style of plane when the absence
of the point, is the matter of plane and not mind. The deletion of the point,
makes the change in the having the plane to be more than one. This kind
of point is changing the normal situation with the specific plane and in the
other words, n-plane becomes the {n + 1}−plane. The analogous gist in the

31
1. Definition And Its Necessities

changing the word "point" to the word "link", is making the second term from
the infrastructure’s style of the plane. The adjective is greed to have new name
to the point. So the cutpoint and the cutlink are making the second concept
and second plane to have the second version of the stability. In the term of
words, the adjective "cut" is made to get the new result in the term of change
from n-plane to {n + 1}−plane.
The concept of changing point in the terms of deleting the point, is the revolution
in the plane when the plane is taken apart to have the new part to change its
dimension to the one upper than. The upper attributes in the terms of existence,
so the table is ready when the plane is on the table to be under process of points
in the kind of surgery. Like the gray sky is sparking so the white points are
acting on the black plane to be on the stage where the white links are eating
the planes to be something on the table when the moving forward is demanded,
in the background of triangle and the triples of minds. The floor is looking
forward to celebrate the attendance of the plane as if this type of the plane has
been too period on the table.
The next word is going to act on the style of plane, the word separation is on
to off the plane on the table. The separation is the plane when the plane are
getting the second type of being on the number so n-plane is {n + 1}−plane
when the separation is the second name for the plane. The separation in making
the 1-plane to be 2-plane as if one point is holding this plane to each other so
the point is the separatingpoint. Separatingpoint is the kinda cutpoint as if it
is made in the process of reproducing the new plane which its name is changed
to separation. The second name for the point, is separatingpoint. So the plane
and point are separation and separatingpoint. Cutpoint and separatingpoint
are second name for the points.
The action of coloring is the term to emphasize the types of distinct stuff in
the plane. The link coloring and point coloring are going to be on some stuff
about the neighborhood. So the neighbor links or neighbor points are going to
be colorized by some distinct colors. The process of coloring like other concept,
usually has the capability to switch from points to links and vice versa. The
actions of pouring colors, are the kinda approach in that the classes of planes
are going to be on the process when the process of having the ideal coloring is
the greed so the classes of the planes on the table to be acted on the table by
the tool of coloring to be under actions when the actions on table, are preparing
the kinda approaches in that the ideas are assisting the approaches to make the
senses about whatever is taking the concept on the classes of graphs for lasting
the process to be on demanded.
The plane on the table when the points are getting to be closer and closer in
the most version of being closer in the forms of link. The link is the smallest
distance amid points with the number 1. So the neighbor is the term in that
the distance is 1. So the number of the links in the forms of the maximum,
minimum, average and module are getting to be closer when the greek letter of
delta in the form of the small, capital, the notation d and mod are going to be in
the land of symbols and notations. The closet distance in the form of notation
amid the whole points, are depicting the maximum number of the neighbors,
the minimum number of the neighbors, the average number of the neighbors and
the identifications of the types of points in the terms of having whether even
number of neighbors or odd number of neighbors. So the terms and dividing
into the even and odd has too benefits to get the results and sometime this

32
 1.5. Plane And Its Points

technique is the survivor to be on the track of getting result. For example,

when the even goes to the cycles, there’s some benefits like the equivalence
relation in the terms of having the internal relationship amid planes. As it is
mentioned and passed, the even cycles are the 2-planes. Or in the n-plane, the
2-plane is formed if and only if there’s no odd cycles. So the classifications of
the number of points to be bold in the terms of being even or odd, could give
the deep interface amid planes or recognizing the planes.
The plane on the table, in this way of having the planes, there’s new tool to
moving forward the plane as if in the proper time the moving on the plane will
be the matte of mind to get the intended results in the form of the "moving
on". The line plane is the kinda plane in that the positions of the points and
lines in the deemed way, are changed. So speaking simply, the points and the
links will be reversely in the term of the positions of the links and points. Two
links were having the common point, now, they’ll have the common link. The
structure is obvious as if the leading question is about the consequences of this
work on the different types of planes in the matter of holding the previous style.
The n-complete is on the table after that n-planes on the table. The question is
about any changes in the matter of the words "change" in the literature of the
plane including the change in the number of disjoint points, or keeping the name
in that way or the quantity and quality of the changes in the question words,
where, why, how, when and etc. The answer to this question in the matter of
complicated proof to in the matter of interface relation amid some branches
and the concepts, are on the table in the monitoring the exact movements of
the words.
"Plane and its points" is about the white space and black points as if how about
the links? there’s no name to mention about the links. Is link the obvious
participant when the left and the right or both sides which in the the links are
have to connection is tight and closed. So there’s no point to have the links
in the matter of points. Every link has been made by two points so there’s
something about having the link when the points are the black players in the
table of the white plane. The points are having the name in the generality of
the restriction to give the name. So all points have the one name and the plane
is the owner of points. The plane is the general name in the celebration of giving
the name in the birth of name in the matter of birthdays. The plane is the
single name and this word has no plural version when the power of whiteness,
implies to having the number to get the plane on the table like the pyramid of
three points getting the toys of the sort in the arts of the words to make the
result when the problems and results are moving together like the couple of
the words. The plane has to see the points which are coloring in the few black
words. The rolling or driving the planes or the cars when the relaxation and
the excellence are made in the cells where the list of the delisting points have
the tunes of the originality like the principles are in the first lines and their
consequences are making the latter of book as if in the sales of having words,
the points are moving forward to use the one word in the its back to get the
other words in the playing on the words to get the full conceptions about the
one word. Is the pun or the arts of the pen when the last word is making the
principles to make the next? The words are in the function of "mis" on the
them like the "mis" is the unary operation to have the one input and to get
the one word to go in the matter of the importance which is something about
having the principles. The kind of number is 25 when the holding is the word to

33
1. Definition And Its Necessities

move forward amid the one word to get the results in the one book. The kind
of changes in the word when the changes have too many ways to be. The plane
is the the pan or lane when the points are making the special set so there’s the
pan to eat the food as if other points out of the set, are like the lane to go in
the back and forth when the direct plane isn’t giving the lights to open one-way
avenue. So the directed plane is the matter of points to be the lane when the
moving forward is the matter of minds as if the indirected plane is like two-way
avenue when the moving on stuff is the matter of white teeth in any possible
tools.
The points of the planes are sending links to each other like they’re signaling
the text "love" to some points or texting the concept of being "friend" from
some situations. Friends from dimension, friends from cycle planes, friends from
complete plane, friends from 2-plane like the warming up in the kind of fry and
frying are seeing their ends. In the kinds of links, or the kinds of paths, there’s
some friendship in the matter of same aims. The planes of the points are flying
upper and more upper when the points are coming up in the matter of making
the more friendship. The story of points are getting more and more closer to
the upcoming level when the upstairs are looking forward to open up their hugs
when the kiss is made in the doorstep. The points are making the points.
The styles of points in the formations of words when the embedding points
in the such plane are making the black player in the whiteness of the plane.
The white plane are using the points to make sense about time when the time
is on and the time isn’t up. The kind of relation amid words in the plane so
there’s the kind of attention in the game of points. The common parameters in
the style of ideas are showing the black ideas. The relation amid points like
the naming highlighting words as if the light is now in the lack of lights so
there’s light and there’s no light when it comes to the black lights. The kinds
of rooted relationships amid points, are desired. The fundamental parameters
of the plane, are of the points and the links. The link is the interaction amid
two points so the relation amid points in the basic way, is of link. The link is
coming up to be the upper gist in the kind of word paths. The paths are about
too many links where the points are involving to make the upper relations in
the forms of paths and too many paths as if in the downer concept, the number
of link is counted by one and the number of paths are counted by infinitely
discrete numbers. The minimum path is existed so the upper concept is coming
up as if in the term of number so the number of points in the minimum path
amid two points, is said to be the distance amid two points. The distance is
the number which is assigned to two points so in the upper level of going up,
the metric dimension is ready. The metric dimension has two words about the
optimal set and the number of optimal set’s elements where there’s too many
optimal set and there’s too many numbers.
The plane of points, is keeping the way in that the points have the links to some
points. The points of points are gathering the gates in that tagged attributes
are playing the game. The points are divided into two sets which in that the
number of set’s elements are different so there’re two sets with different sizes.
One arbitrary point is given from the set with larger size. So the union of the
smaller set with this element, is introducing the new set so in this way, there’s
possible to get the new sets from two sets with different sizes. The concept of
having and the gist producing the matroid, are the matter of minds. So in this
case, the other condition on the sets, is about producing the new set when a

34
 1.5. Plane And Its Points

set is on the collection of the elements so all subsets are in that collection. In
the other words, all subsets of the set-styled element, are the set-styled element.
In the analogous to collect the special sets with different ideas and various
approaches, there’s one idea and there’s one point in that the empty set is
forever the set-styled element.
The plane of the points in the procedure which in that points are in bold. The
style of the elements in the main concepts of the words when the links are
defined by the points. The growing concepts are based on the points as if the
all visions are the matter of points. Two points could define the link. So some
attributes are on demand to have some points for points to pose the links. So
back to the matroid’s literature, the relations amid elements by losing and
adding to make the new elements, it could be the kind of dynamic plane in
the matter of moves for links. Or it may get the link amid two elements when
the changes from one set is the cause for having the new element. Losing and
adding are the same in making the links when these operations, are made the
new element or it could be useful to consider losing and adding in the kind
of directed plane which in that adding make a direction like arrow and losing
make the reverse.
Topic of the plane could come from the peak of being on the sight of seeing
the notions of points. The points are creating the plane’s points to be on the
upside of availability and accessibility so there’s the matter of assigning the
master grade to the points when they should be different from the others. The
movement of points amid the rolling on the ways which are coming from the
different styles of points in the matter of being the set. The set could have one
member or more then one so the set could also have some sets as its member
as if the common set is assigned to the set which is named power set so the
power set is the set of all possible subsets of the intend set in the matter of the
unary operation which means that element is coming in as if finitely countable
members are coming out so there’s the point in the matter of having the set
when the set is about the inflexible approach in that the input is the set without
restrictions on the member as if the output is the finitely countable or finitely
uncountable set of the all sets which their members are coming for the input
set. The operation is made on the member of a set which in that all members
are coming to form the style of the set so the set’s member is not the set as
if in the comparison amid set and set, their subset because they’re using the
elements of the input set so in this case the number for characterization of the
set, tab be useful so 1-set is the set with one member when the member could
be any object like the set or too many embedding sets. As an exemplification,
the matroid is the plane and the input set is also the plane so in these plane the
embedding points are said to be the master grades and the embedding numbers
before the point like 2-point which means the point has two member as the set
so in this case, So the embedding number is referring and corresponding to the
number of element in the point like 2-point so in this literature, the embedding
pints and embedding numbers are making the master grade from the points in
the terms of having the specific points. In this jargons for the matroid and last
the buzzword which means both together, the necessary and sufficient naming
is coming up to name and use the words so in this approach, the plane has no
name in the matter of buzzwords, the input set has no name in the matter of
buzzwords and the collection of some subset of the input set has no name in the
matter of jargon and buzzword when they’re coming up to prove that they’re

35
1. Definition And Its Necessities

necessary and sufficient to be. So in this new vocabulary and new literature,
there is n-point and there is embedding point. The story is started with two
words and will be like following with the agreement on the empty set with is
0-point. so the story is embedding points are points and embedding numbers
are points. The concept of embedding number is about the two sets which in
that there’s only one information about them which is they’ve different number
of elements so in the worst condition, the problem must be solved. Back to
embedding number, the embedding number is the kind of function in that the
smaller set is accepting one member from the bigger set so the adding this
element, making the new point. So embedding set and embedding number are
the kind of jargons talking about this concept which in that embedding set in
both style of set and number making the new point so the subset is the point
and the subset make the new point by adding to itself the new member.

1.6 Cycle And Its Beyond

sec:fourth

he kind of embedding graph is introducing the new type of edge. Chord is

the edge. This type of edge excerpt from graph when the embedding graph
has the key role in making the label. The gist and structure of the embedding
graph in finding this edge is spotlight. When the embedding graph is cycle [it
could be any type of graphs], and the couple [it might be useful to change the
number] of vertices [it may be worthy to exchange with edges] from out of the
cycle’s edges as if inside the graph’s edges, this edge [in graph’s edges and not
necessarily in cycle’s edge] has two totally possible ends in the cycle so it is
the chord of cycle. The number of chord of the cycle embedding in a graph
could be obtained in the quantifier "at least" [at most, in the bound or sharp
bounds in the upper bound and lower bound, bounds and their gaps] when the
restrictions in the different types of fundamental parameters in the statistically
speaking about the creator of the graph which is the numbers of vertices and
the numbers of edges [Another parameters are satisfying as if the outcome is
desired; like the maximum degree of vertices, the minimum degree of vertices].
For example, [L. Posa] in the simple graph with m>= 2n-3, where n>=4, the
graph containing the cycle with at least one chord.
There are too many texts about the cycle as an independent graph, or like the
adjective to describe and to assist some operations as if in the terms of open
problem, it is worthy to note that "Gallai’s Conjecture on cycle coverings".
A cycle is like loop in the shape of the circle. There’s time in graph theory, a
cycle is loop when it goes to the one vertex in that case, going forward and
going backward to the starting point. When two vertices are ready, there’s two
choices to move when the choice is the first choice, the loop is made as if when
the choice is different from the first choice, the edge is made.
For having the definition of cycle when the existence of one edge is necessary
and sufficient as if loop isn’t allowed, which is the kind of edge having same
start and same end. So, when the numbers are being counted to lower than
3, there’s no concept of cycle in the simple graphs. So the starting number to
have the word "circle", is 3.

36
 1.6. Cycle And Its Beyond

The embedding cycle could have some conditions in the term of embedding. So,
generally, the embedding cycle is the kinda cycle which is seen in the shape of
the intended plane. So there are some conditions to make the customized cycle.
In some senes, the cycle is passing all points, has bipartite name as Hamiltonian
cycle and the cycle is passing all links, is said to be twofold in the term of
Eulerian cycle with adjective and noun.
Two types of embedding planes. So Hamiltonian and Eulerian cycles are named
to embedding planes in their birthdays. So celebrating their new names in the
lights of day.
The usage of the cycle in the kind of condition which is to have the concrete
concept which is related to other disciplines or interdisciplinary amid this field
or other fields in the terms of theoretical problem or real-world problem.
The study of cycles, could go on the another cycle’s parameter, the length
of cycle. The length of the cycle in the most attendance of points, when the
comparison amid points goes to the terms "at most" with all cycles in the graph,
the longest and the shortest cycle amid all cycles could be the topic to go when
this term is said to be "circumference" and "girth". so with the number of
specific graph and the way, it goes up when the number of points is increasing,
the style of graph is coming up. The complete graph has the shortest length
in the possibilities of being cycle with the smallest numbers of points. So it
said to be 3-girth. The longest cycle in the terms of circumference, could be
done in the concept of Hamiltonian cycle. So the upper bound is about the
availability and accessibility of the term "Hamiltonian Cycle". So in the perfect
way, the study of Hamiltonian cycle, could give us the classification of graphs
which have circumference so somehow two topics are related to each other.
The circumference of the 4-complete is 4-circumference. So complete graph is
n-circumference cause the links amid all points, are available and all points have
all links which make accessible to get the another points. So the celebration for
birthdays which are about complete graphs. They’ve gotten two new names so
the 3-girth and n-circumference names complete graph.
Some concepts arising from the numbers of the cycles into the other
classifications of graphs. The lack of cycle, could make the prominent styles of
graph which is said to be tree. Tree is the acyclic graph so every graph has no
cycle, is said to be tree. The formal definition of tress is acyclic graph.
The numbers of points in the cycle, could separate the cycles in the classification
amid cycles. So there are two classes of cycles that entitled by the classifications
amid numbers so the even cycles and odd cycles are a classifications of cycles.
The term of considering vertices in this topic is useless cause the numbers are
the same in this orientation which means that vertices and edges are going to
produce and emphasize the equality amid numbers. So the separation in the
lights of the adjective, make senses to have some results in these categories.
The path is bipartite cause the alternative vertices have no connection with
each other so the alternative vertices and their neighbors are forming two parts.
Even cycles are bipartite and this condition is the term of being sufficient and
necessary when the categories are even parts and odd parts. The even cycles
has the same numbers so the number of vertices and the number of edges are
the same. So two parts when in every part has no inside connections as if it
could be possible to have the outer connections. So in the left hand, alternative
points and their neighbors make two parts of the bipartite graphs. On the right
hand, the bipartite graph is the even cycle. Cause the move in the cycle on

37
1. Definition And Its Necessities

the way that no vertices has connection in the two length so every point has
two connections with the exception on the length which is more than one. So
degree of every vertices is two. So the even cycles is bipartite graph vice versa.
The even cycle is bipartite graph. The bipartite graph is even cycle. Odd cycle
isn’t bipartite cause the counterexample with three points in the jargon and
buzzword of triangle, is a good example to show that the alternative points
aren’t satisfying to have links amid neighbors cause the alternative points when
the length 2 isn’t ready so isn’t Okay. The connection amid regular forms and
cycles are going to interactions amid vertices. So, 2-regular graph is n-circle
and vice versa.
The style of having the concept of cycle, implies/induces that some approaches
which are based on it. Consider a given graph, the process of turning the graph
out to the cycle are in likewise ways of placing The all edges to the edges which
make the cycle. or alike the replacing specific edge to turn out the cycle. Or
vice versa, the process of obtaining the graph from the cycle with replacing each
edge by the set of one or more edges. The process of obtaining the graph from
the cycle by replacing each edge by the set of one or more parallel edges. So
there is the graph in the second stage of the graphs when the graph is ready, the
process of obtaining the second graph by replacing the edges, is the matter of
mind. The process of replacing when the placing the edges in the based graph
is done. Also, there’s more benefits in the detour of using this process when
the tour is done. The second tour is of obtaining the exact bound in the second
outcome when the bound is ready as if the graph is greed. So two benefits are
seen in the reconstruction of the graph by replacing the edges. The replacing
the previous edges in the deemed way, has too benefits. Introducing the new
graphs, representing the answers for satisfying in the bounds when the bounds
are done as if the whether-or-not bound is greed to satisfy into the "bound"
to be said the "sharp bound" when the suspicious saying about whether the
bound has reproduced the gap amid the other bounds or representing of the
new numbers may satisfy the inequality to be the equality so two cases are
available when the gap is dismissed by the example. The special kind of cycle
is path. So there’s worthy to seek the kind of this cycle. A path is the sequence
of vertices in the way that neighbors has the link in the graph. So, adding some
restriction to make the special kind of path is logical. So the kind of path is
alike something that is the nontrivial path in the super graph which in that
the path’s internal vertices are in the subgraph F as if the ends are out of it.
By analogous to this point, there’s the gist of "ear" when the reversing the key
words which the adjective "key" is depended on the personal vision, are done in
unanimous way. An ear is the nontrivial path in the intended super graph that
there’s the mentioned second subgraph which in that internal vertices aren’t in
the second graph as if the ends are in the second place in second graph. The
conditional decomposition of the specific graphs into the ear decomposition
could be the matter of fact.
The cycle on the ideas and approaches when the vertices and edges are static
in the hand-on study on the graphs. The cycle on the parallel graphs in the
dynamic monitoring of the graphs in the terms of finding the related vertices in
the matter of time when the graphs are deeming in the way of small changes to
see the effects of this approaches on the graph’s parameters.
The type of cycle in forming the concept of embedding in the formation of
graphs, implies that this formation may give some ways to relate some attributes

38
 1.6. Cycle And Its Beyond

of the graph to the embedding cycle. The minimum vertices to have the cycles,
is exactly 3. So the shape of triangle, the kind of description for the figure
in that the concept is the model with too many works on it. Triangle is the
geometric shape so there’s the natural question, could the cycle with three
vertices, be named by the word "heir" in the way, it is heir from the geometric
shape, triangle, to have the interface in the way, that some problems are going
to send into that branch and they’re going to try to be solved in both branches
in the unanimously logic texts to make sense about the journey in that way
with back and forth amid visions which are the jargons and the buzzwords are
implying.
The cycle is the noun with too much derivative forms and deeply-driven concepts
about their detailed-oriented words. The cyclic plane or permutation amid
words when the mute on the words are the kind of attention. "Permutation"
could go under the "mis" function where the permutation is the triple words "Per,
Mute, Attention" So in the changing of the place of numbers, the function is
said to be per mute attention so the mute attention is ongoing to take the place
in the mute of all when the places of the words are under the mute attention,
are done. The kind of moving the words in the proper style in which the conflict
of place wouldn’t happen. Attention is under "mis" when the separation is
done in the form of "at" "tension" as if in the matter of "attention". The style
of the cycle on the points when the cycle is 1-cycle plane. So there’s nothing
more than single cycle. Like singing the word cycle on the plane. The cycle
is the kind of having the variable positions when in that there’s one different
position which is belonging to the cycle. There’s no benefit or no difference
amid points in the matter of anything to be brought. So the points of the cycles
are 2-regular when the sample point is saying us about the all thing in the cycle.
One given point is the total thing to study the cycle. The point has two links
in every n-cycle. So all 2-point are the matter of mind in the cycle. Cycle is
the term for the points which have 2 links. So the connections amid 2-points
with the links amid them, are forming the embedding cycle. So the cycle in the
terms of finding the cycle is about the concept of embedding. The cycle in the
"mis"to extract the pun, the cycle is the kind of "sign" and "kill"when the sign
is killed in the form of cycle where the points are the same in any predicted
and unpredicted ways to be on. 2-points are making the cycle in the form of
plane or the embedding plane. The forms of the foam in the concepts of the
points so there’s nothing to change when 2-points are creating the cycles.
The cycle is the kind of term in which there’s the inspiration about putting
it as the base and principle to get the other concepts by regarding to it. The
set is the cycle when the order in set, doesn’t exist. So there’s point when the
disorder is the model. The kind of fashion in the terms of points when the
passing is the kind of surpassing amid orders and disorders. The exchange amid
order and having the links when the number of links in the cycle for points, are
the same. So all points of the cycle, are the same in the viewpoint of having the
links because all of them have two links. The order in the set, is like that when
the positions of elements are the same for the elements like all set’s elements
are putting on the cycle so there’s no point to get the merit and the eligibility
when points’ attributes are the same. The differences amid points in the planes
of points, are relating to the number of links so in the shape of the circle and
in the arrangements of the points, there’s no different attributes to assign for
points so with the analogous to this situation, the set is alike because the set’s

39
1. Definition And Its Necessities

elements have no different attributes and they only have one common attribute
which is "belonging" to the set. With the analogous to that, the cycle’s points
only have one common attribute which is "belonging" to the set.
The cycle of having elements when the style of the points are the same as if
in the new structure "Matroid", the different styles of points are the same. In
the third condition, even the types of sets are different in the both viewpoints
of objects and numbers, there’s surprisingly something new to make to be the
new set when there’s no subsets amid the sets. There are sets and there’s no
subsets so it could be the cycle when the sets are the same even in the third
condition. Third condition, generally, is about the three elements which could
be the independent elements and sets so it makes sense to use this statement in
the kind of cycle and its beyond.
The chemistry of cycle to accept the same points in the matter of their
communications when the points are the same with 2 links as their characteristics.
The cycle of turning points when the points are making the same attributes,
they could be deemed in the way that the elements of the matroid are belonging
to the cycle alike as if cycle’s elements are having one member so if cycle’s
elements are the deemed sets in the term of special modeling based on matroid,
the kind of modeling the concept of links in this situation is on demand. The
empty set is the cycle’s point. The subset of cycle’s points, are also points.
Adding one member of cycle’s point to another cycle’s point, introduces the
cycle’s new point in the way the the points of the cycles are some subsets of
the given set.
Sometimes in the cycle, one point is making the set. The formation of the
points in making the cycle of the points, could be the idea for matroid when
all subelements in the matroid, are the elements so there’s the point in that
the cycles starting from one element, is going to be empty set in the matter of
algebra when the cycle is the object in algebra in that the power of one elements
are making the closed set in the two cases are going, one case about infinite
power of the elements and the latter case is about finite power of the elements to
make the generated object in algebra via this point. So one, element in matroid,
is making the generating structure [like group, ring, field, hyper-something,
something-oid, Hv −something and etc] so in that case, the second condition
could be named the generated set by the one element and generated set is the
new collection of the set’s elements in the matter of definition where the set,
element, and member are the literature for the matroid’s jargons. The definition
of matroid is based on this three words and three conditions whereas the set
is from the style of collections of subsets form the given set in the common
words and not about us to bring the normal definition about the matroid. The
common definition is about the given set, E, and the collection of the all subsets
of E, I as if the three conditions don’t say anything about E in their texts so
the new literatures are coming up with the ideas of having customized jargons
when it makes sense to do that. In the third condition, there’s the algebraic
concept of the cycle, when the adding one member into the one element when
the word adding is only used for something new which is able to add into the
destination structure. So the intended element is the generator for making the
generated set in the form of the cycle and in the concept of the cycle. So adding
and losing are two tools to make two generated sets by two elements So it may
useful to say that the second condition, is introducing the cycle structure is
made and generated by one element and the third condition, is introducing

40
 1.7. Dropping A Dragging Novel

the cycle structure is made and generated by one element so adding makes the
one style cycle and losing make different style of cycle. The generated set is
the kind of cycle when the one element or the set of some elements are making
the all members of the set. It’s worthy to not the when the texts are coming
up with the topic of matroid, the jargons of words are used and after finishing
the discussion about matroid, the using of jargons are closed and the common
literature are coming up.

1.7 Dropping A Dragging Novel

sec:fourth

he time, the period of the day, the character, the mixture of the storylines
in the raw lines of how I like to have the readership is staring to the starring
outlet in the kind of the formations of words, the sense of how to feel and
the wisdom and knowledge in the stage of the daydream when the dream is
dismissed the the night to be in the lights and days to highlight the words
which are using in the frame as if the framework of moving on the star lines
when the five sharp edges of the star is highlighting on the words of how to
depict and inform the lines of the moving forward and moving on the obstacles
when the track is tuning on the bottom line to be in the heading instead of
choosing the footnote of the hanging tools so the way to go to remain on the
reconsiderations of the revolution when it evolves the main lines to be on the
another lines of the words to make sense about the feeling on the brain and
mind to feel and touch the reality and sensibility. The kind of information
and logic is into the novel. Personally in hypothetically ideal situation, every
choice has special attributes like logic, action and emotion, as an overcoming
direction, which decides wherever, however, whenever, and why the story goes
with hugely diverse kinds of conjunction. The kind of lines are being fulfilled
with the shocking monumental words to seek the captivating lines of the stories
about the consciousness of the minds inside the gleam of the words when the
book are sending the signals when the words are lightening to outside the book
and light’s speed are increasing the transparency when the tendency of the
words goes to be filed when in the mind and heart are profiled.
A kind of profile in the lines of the novel when the profiles of the words are making
the star lines of the words when the novel needs to have the characteristics
of the innovations, captivating scenes, unpredicted stories, and full of the
wisdom, knowledge, emotions and drama. So choosing the genre, is the kind of
approaches to make sense about the readership when the words of mind are
making the shocking stories of the resiliences and success in the best way of
existing the drama to have the kind of memoir as if the memoir is made on the
best possibilities of the event in the question words of how to be when the time
of where to be are going to pass the time of what’s done in the period of the
concrete timeline or discrete timeline when events are playing with minds and
emotions to bring the fresh styles of being human when the taste of having the
words in the matter of mind, are seeking the kiss in the words. The perception
of the kiss in either the words of wisdom, hearts, body, and mixed ways of them,
could give us the drag when the facing two thing make the kiss on the click.

41
1. Definition And Its Necessities

The kind of kiss is hidden in the potential tension when the transmission of the
words are capturing the minds in the term of the kiss. When the word "kiss? is
assigned two some of lines in the emission of the reader it’s called to be "A Way
To Go? in the best accomplished achievements of the word in the highlights of
the word "kiss?.
The kind of drag in the progress of styles with gathering the words. The ways
of getting the dragging stories could be like the attendance amid the strange
and abnormal places or having the interview with abnormal people where the
word "abnormal? is the adjective to describe the uncommon events when the
person is said to be in the prominent style, the successful person, the adjective
abnormal could be assigned to the intended person so the kind of passing
from the ordinary people or the passing to make the special lifestyle or making
something new, the adjective "abnormal? is the good word to describe all people
coming from the increasing level or decreasing level as if the holding in the
current level could be "abnormal?. The way in which the movement is made
like breathing in the way that popping in the air and popping out the air is
done, the abnormality is coming around. Doing nothing is kinda of abnormality
or doing something even doing all thing. So the way which in that the pen, are
popping out its move the white paper, it could be decider to be the dragging
novel when the dropping of the pen is falling to dropping a dragging novel. The
kind of journey, the style of travel, shape of the trip when the move is started to
begin the gathering words in the style of having words in the blue color of the
pen in the white color of the space. The kind of observant amid the thinking
or the kind of schedule amid the making responsibility, the desire of being the
memoir in the captivating way of attaining the curious audience or finding the
hero in the land os superhero when the symbol and archetype is the word of
being white. The goal of how to be to do what you want when the restrictions
of how to be is fallen into the broken glasses so the kind of screwing on the
glasses to be broken when the type of movement is threaten to be in the word
of extinction. The kind of motivation in the holding the pen when the tap on
the floor is said to be kind of knocking the door when the tap is done on the
table. The table of the contents to make the contents on the table to make the
smoothly movement of the pen when the pun of the word are saying where is
the table of contents. The kind of using the framework when the frame of the
work is cloudy so the blue skies of the pen are fighting to the hugely diverse
participant in the range of the eyes to see what is able to see and to be what’s
not to be. The kind of battle inside and outside to make the side of pen to be
off. So the kind of dynamic motivation is relatively about the person who is
depended on and the person who is depending on. The kind of study in the
darkness of plagiarism as if the kind of innovative creation and reality in the
lightness of plugin.
The arrangements of the words in the range amid words to make the lines to
be line by line in the pages of the book with the patterns of the words. The
kind of words to be the follow-up words when the pen is involved to be in the
collaborations with the words. The kind of story as if in the matter of time.
The formations of motions in the movement of the pen when the words are
written in the style of the dragging. The kind of style in the main part to hold
the words and to form the formation and to form the deformation in the way
in which that captivating novel regarding the intended readership, are playing
the framework in the kind of interaction to design the words and to behave in

42
 1.8. Cycle And Its Beyond

the waves on the words. The lines of the words are making the novelty.
Words are words in the term of lines when the lines are only accepting the
proper words. Prospect of having the novel, is more stronger than the dragging
on the texts as if the word "dropping? in the first position, is saying about the
convenient ways of the unconventional achievement. Characters in the novel and
the characteristics of the events, could give us the verbal and nonverbal clues
to pursue the traces of the dragging novel. The types of tips are on demand to
be on the ways of the design. So the scheme of the plan is the kind of idea.
Drag on the words to drop the lines of words. The kind of pen’s movements
to form the deformations of the words. Gathering the harmony of the words
in the gist and in the tune. The arrangements of the senes in the star lines of
the novel to make the eyes staring to what’s happening now. The decent words
are coming to the senses when the senses are on the touch of heart. The kind
of chat to make the lines when the lines are into the conversation. The kind
of movement on the numbers of first person like the stars are coming up. The
type of narrator is on demand like first narrator, second narrator, third narrator
and other ordinal numbers for describing the noun in the kind of restrictive
adjectives on the noun.
The novel has too genres and too styles of words. The way in that, the impacts
of the pack of words in the impressive ways on the wisdom, knowledge, bodies
and heart, is the matter of minds. There’s some ways to be continued in the
lightness of words when the impression is pressing the words. The kind of
dragging on the lines to sue the kind of words when the time’s up. The facing
challenges amid words when the words of minds are the matter of having one.
So the progress of the prohibition on the words, could be effective to attract
readership in the matter of wisdom.
Novel is the kind of outlet in which powerful credit in on demand. So the
dragging novel could be the first outlet is corresponded to the person or it may
be the contribution of person where is the resident of the stars and dropping
his/her steps on the star lines, or it could be the output from the white person
in the different versions of having the novel without any needs to take the
number like the ordinal number, e.g. first or second, or the counting number
like once, twice, three times, four times and etcetera. The reverse letters of
novel, are making the senses when the "novel? is mispronounced by "living?
which is related to us in the topic of dragging novel as the action drop to be in
the lights of present continuous form of the verb. Yeah, it makes sense, because
the verb "live? is need to be in the present and in the gradually or fast types of
being present in the form of present continuous to live in the names and have
the star in the broadway. So the novel should be the word of "living? to save
the verb of continuous action and the gist of verb for being up-to-date from all
related stuff and monitoring all things about the growth in the mode of present
and deeply analyses.

1.8 Cycle And Its Beyond

sec:fourth

43
1. Definition And Its Necessities

Open]Joint Decision On Demand A kinda decision in the way where the

roads are coming closer and closer to be one way in the lanes when the line is
only lasting toward to be given the label and title "One-Way Avenue?. The sort
of decision in the shuffle of ideas to be the approaches when the foundations
are found in the darkness to move in the lights when ’tis addressed that lights
hate darkness in the battle of dark and lights under the moonlights of how to
be. A kinda vision is included in that material to have the motions of how to
be in the profound levels leading to decision. The joint travel, a joint decision
in the joint journey when the joint is used to be when all traces is said to be
disjoint is real in the kinda reassurance when ’tis done in the races is going to
be called that joint is false so in the amid of passive voices to get the name to
the decision of mine when ’tis said to be disjoint and ’tis called not to joint, I’m
pondering the question when the "decision? is kinda word which excerpt from
"The seen season? but ’tis dropped to be in the meaningless word when the
word isn’t where the past tense is called to erase the past whereas the present
tense is said to rise the present in the new lights of how to be so what’s the
matter when the each of them are working on the verbs with neglecting the
having perfect tense in the forms of all tenses.
In the part of life when the gleam of time are running into moments to make
sense about passing time and having time, there’s too questions about the gleam
of decision when ’tis occurred in mind with the expectations of seen moves in
the lines to keep going on the road but with first word "Decision?. The gleams
are produced by decision in the matter of time when the time is live and the
time is living alive. The kinda press on the word to publish the first word when
the word is spreading the gleams of whatever go and to see however do to be
done the first single word in the hearts of word like purely red word alongside
too red gleams belong that intended word. The kinda thoughts on the word
and the kinda visions on the word when the word with single number goes to
produce intended outcomes to be done whatever needs to be done and whatever
is perfect to be done.
A flying on the air with the word from the essence when the senses of the first
word is on the heart like love is alive. The kinda kindness is making the senses of
seeing the phenomenon with looking at the details to have the tail of forwarding
the way to be on the greed and to have the power of moving on the way to be
settle on the place. Like two genres and two types of moving when the fictional
and nonfictional contributions are like achievements and accomplishments to
have the intended place when I’m located in the mess of how to be in the ways
of not to be.
I’m like the person who is fallen apart from his lover to be in the side of each
other when the polls are done to be parts of the same and parts of the death
in two segments. ’tis the departure from being on the way of giving love to
each other to have the strong heart which is beaten to circling the bloods and
producing the new bloods. The kinda breathing in the clean and dirty air when
the all words and concepts are done in the word "Love?.
In the way of having each other when the lies and truths are away from both
of us so ’tis doesn’t matter to have cries and laughing in any types of words
and any shapes of concepts. Laughing and giggling with reason or not whereas
crying and having tears with reason or not, it doesn’t work and it didn’t word
for us.
I’m in the way of the travel to be somewhere near to have both of us in the

44
 1.8. Cycle And Its Beyond

heart and in the earth. Both of us are loving each other so say the word "Joint
Decision?.
I’m smelling the flowers, enjoying from drinks and foods, drunken on the street
and dancing in the bars. I’m going into way where love is banned and love is
forbidden word to make sense whatever is real. In the land of craziness when all
are crazy there so there’s no point of being here when the heart is saying else
and the heart is calling else. Amid the travel in the lands when the everything
are talking about us so what the matter is to breath in that place. I’m making
the travel to be somewhere in the closet way to have us inside where outside
is also calling us. In the way of achievements where the shapes of going there,
I’ve chosen to have us inside to be tuned the rhythm of us.
In the middle of journey, when the way of us, is suddenly missed, I’ve settled
down in the place to be in the time of going there. In the morning, I’ve waken
up to be in the work at the store. I’m working for the person who owns the
store. "I’m Leslie?, I answered to the person which is brought to speak about
the way I’ve worked there. "Hey, Leslie?, The man is answered. 6 month ago,
I’ve hired to sell the clothes in the store in the corner of the street. After
working, I’ve walked a little to arrive to bus stop but my today’s mood has
lasted long time to finish my work in that store. I’m dismissed from the work
out of my ordinary work’s time because that man who has done long flirt with
me in the causal time in the work’s period and out of my timeline there.
I’m going back to my apartment where has small distance from my workplace.
In the apartment, I’m living with the boy who was sleeping when I’ve arrived.
John is my roommate and my friend from life. "Hey, What are you doing??,
I’ve asked loudly. He’s shocked and said "Nothing?. I and John have been
friend for 4 months but I’ve had problem with him because he’s too jealous
about my works. We’ve decided to take apart after 2 days when our decision
has been made. I’ve found Julia to share our apartments. She’s designers in
the middle-class company and We’ve had a contraction to live together for
six months. Julia is now my friend from life and she’s wrap up his tools to
move in that place. "Hey, Leslie?, she said. She’s moved fast to arrange hers
there. "what’s the beautiful rooms, innit?? We’ve started to talk about the
architecture of the apartment to compromise the chords and time to have good
time from living beside each other. She’s has a car with his driver to take his
and back.
I’ve arrived too early at work, today. "Hello, Alex!? I’ve received the voice from
my boss who has unfortunately dropped by. "What’s time is it, you’re late or
always you are in that way?? I’ve surprised because I’ve thought of being early
in that moment but I’ve realized that my watch doesn’t work properly. So I’ve
had gentle discussion about the timeline of being present and the way which
we’re doing the contracts. Today’s customer, Bernard, is coming to me with the
big bunch of flowers to say "Hello?. Bernard is a person who has delivered the
goods to the customers and he’s worked for long time in the store next to me.
When the rush hours, are passed, we’re talking about the today’s events which
we’ve spent with consumers. He’s driving too much amid the places to connect
the concept of virtual shopping in the matter of reality. I’ve had the different
structure of working which in that I’ve on the way of face-to-face shopping to
have a different types of business. Amid the discussion between us about the
gists of our works, my phone is rang. I’ve answered, she was Judie. "Hi, Leslie?,
she said. Judie is the successful person in the professional career with is related

45
1. Definition And Its Necessities

to the research which is ongoing in the medical sciences.

I’ve walked with Judie till one hour in the park where there’s a calm place to
have a relaxation there. So, each of us was talking about careers of us which in
that, each of us has communications with different styles of people in different
lines of us where each of us has lived. There’s no point of using the conversation
toward the shape’s style of place where each of us, has been living in that. After
having the conversation with Judie, I was in the way which is leading to the
shopping center which has 4 miles till my location. In the shopping center, I’ve
bought some clothes for the next season which has been predicted to be the
cold weather in unpredicted climate but ’tis reported to be in the upcoming
days. The summer is going to see the days which aren’t the smelling of the
warm feeling so summer is going to look at the hours which have no trace of
having the longer days in its timelines. The autumn are coming closer and
closer in that way which are approaching to touch the colder days with falling
the leaves and taking the nature to be in the attacks of another season when in
the fall, there’s no falling but there’s the already naked place to have the dead
moments of the four season in the harsh timeline.
I’ve arrived at home so I was thinking of night which I’ve supposed to be in
the date which has the starter in the restaurant which is located in the nearest
place. It’s 3:00 pm when I’ve work for six hours per day with the starting
time 9:00 am. The normal day, I’ve passed to have the sweetest moments of
being together. I’ve arrived on time to meet Mario who has delayed to be in
the expected time. Mario was talking about ambitious ideas when the time is
adapted to the way, he’s desired. The next day, I’ve slept for a long time in
comparison to my weekday’s time. I woke up at 8:30. I’ve fallen to be hast
when there’s no time to prepare for being on time at the workplace. I’ve arrived
at 9:40. Unfortunately, the prominent person was ready in that place for the
ordinary shopping. "What’s happening right now??, he asked. "I’ve stuck in the
traffic which two cars are colliding to each other so I’m late,? I answered. The
normal day has passed with that person. So the joint moments are concluding
when I’ve met him. The eye contacts are made amid us, in the middle of the
conversation, the appointment is made to be in the zoo at 4pm and there’s
moment to see the animals and having some funny days. The way which each
of us, were talking about, it didn’t make sense to continue our relationship in
the next day.
In the way where I was on the sidewalk, I’ve momently faced with the familiar
person. ’tis my friend from college, "Hi, Leslie?, she was suddenly lightening
on me. I’ve paid attention to her, "Hey, Samantha?. She’s asked me to spend
a period of time in my apartment for finding the job and doing his related
interviews. She’s a beautiful girl with the attractive body and sexy clothes
which in that way, she’s taking steps, she’s taken attentions of too many boys
in the 6 miles away her. The selections of clothes in the way she’s matched
them, ’tis informing the impressive style of people, are catching in the delicious
way. "Okay, I’ve to buy some material for my apartment, you could go to my
address and my roommate is now there, I’ll join to you soon?. ’tis 7 pm. After
having the worst day when I’ve waken up late, has broken up with somebody,
be ready late at workplace and the life was going to the next dominos of ruining
my day. I’ve gone to the night’s club where I’ve met somebody to have flirt
and drink and been drunken. I’ve gone to his home and I’ve spent whole time
in his home. "tis 7am?, I’ve eventually seen the clock. "I’ve to go, where am

46
 1.8. Cycle And Its Beyond

I??, I wondered when I’ve passed the joyful nights and I’d no trace form the
drunken person. This time, I’ve on time at work and I totally forgot Samantha
which has dropped by. At the place, Bernard has had suggestion to spend the
weekend in the place away the town. I’ve accepted.
In the weekend, I’ve spend a lot of time in the joyful moments with happy
people. I’ve met William who is a handsome person. I’m flirting too much
and decided to be in the continuous connections but ’tis preferably in hidden
styles of having friendship. William is easygoing and extroverted. He’s telling
too many jokes which in that way, you’ve enjoyed too much times of being
happy and you could preserve laughing inside and outside in such way to get
energy and ideas to continue your days in the best mood as possible as ’tis
imagined. I and William are going to watch movies in the different genre
to make flexible relation and having new ideas to be fresh in the cyclic days
of boring communications in the predictable principles to face with strange
people. That was a great weekend in that way I’ve found a worthy person to
make sense the days which are going routine. The days of being a person in
complex situation with the highest complexity in the different levels of people
which implies that having the common behavior to be accepted in the critically
logic community. The level amid me and William is cloudy at first but in
that way, it affects on me, I think that ’tis allowed to try more this style of
letting somebody to be on the face-to-face position to make the contact in the
specific way. After spending the worst day in which the unpredicted behaviors
inducing some misinformation in the way I’ve pressed in the communications
with social partners, I’ve obtained some gifts to be on the rhythm and to back
on the track of my life to be continued my happy days on time. The next day,
I’ve set an appointment with William at the coffeeshop to discuss about the
way we’re going to pursue our relationships in the way we’ve gotten in touch
with the sensible behavior and sane ideas with the common ideology in the
understandable foundations which our lives on it. "He’s late?, ’tis my perception
about the time he’s going to choose in the way he’s doing to attend in place.
The starting moment doesn’t seem to be on the common expectations amid us.
We’re starting our greeting with coffee but there’s too long to be somewhere in
that point we’ve made the common lines on the pages’ our lives. He’s talking
about the literature of the famous writers whereas I’m on the way of the styles
of authors who have made the famous literature in the term of my visions to
use them. We’re talking about something which isn’t in common at first glance
but there’s point which could be useful for our greed to make the upper level at
least in our minds. So we’re continuing our session entitled as first one as if
my ideas and senses don’t make sense to set another meeting which both of us
could see each other in face-to-face connections. So William is coming down in
my eyes to be my friend from funny moments of happiness.
After coming back from the session with William, I’ve decided to make the
leisure where I’ve made some peak points to get the energy to use in the my
weekdays. I’ve had weakest position in the career which involves different styles
of communications with acceptable skills adapted to the related atmosphere
which is coming from my choice to select the job’s income. I’ve gone to the
beach where I’ve had the meditative moments in the calming place which is
covered by the sounds of water, the beauty of seas and the people are ready
to have fun outside the pressure of city’s life. In the day when I’ve laid in the
beach to have tanned body in the sunbath, I’ve met a buddy who’s coming from

47
1. Definition And Its Necessities

different cities with interesting cultures for communications which he’s doing in
that way. We’re both laughing a lot at the people who are next to us by making
jokes and telling lies to make funny moments which are only belonging to us
as if too many people have became upset and disgusting about misbehaviors
which are coming from us. I’ve taken the my love’s number, a love from funny
moments, to have upcoming weekend in the circle of us again. I’m going into
special kind of relationship which in that there’s some benefits in the terms of
happiness and getting positive energies. William is the type of person who is
typing in the forms of words to bring the happiness and energy into the life. So
I’ve tagged him with "love? and I’m thinking that the tag "friend? it doesn’t
work in this case and proper description which is adapted to the person. In my
terminologies, friend is a tag of knowledge and love is the tag of wisdom. So
that’s it.
Mondays where the days are coming back from the weekends and holidays so
I’m ready to be at work where the kind of energy to make the beautiful days of
the debris of my life. A kinda seeing is done on the holidays and the weekends
to have the opportunities to keep going in the stage of knowledge to bring in
my wisdom to make the person who is full of knowledge and wisdom. I’ve taken
some classes in the different courses including some stuff in the degree of levels
but in the overcoming gists in the wisdom and knowledge to have the view and
to have birds in the form of word "bird’s view? so seeking the idealistic person
to be in the life with two wings of the angels coming from the knowledge and
wisdom. I’ve been entering to the kinda proportion which is defining the best
styles of having person as possible as I’m eligible to achieve and accomplish.
On Monday, I’ve arrived on time but I’ve faced to the word "Fired?, a kinda
word with 2 syllables with the stressed syllable at first proportion. I’m seeking
to get the job but I’ve gotten some skills in the forms of taken classes which
were training and adapted courses for being eligible in the terms of getting the
knowledgeable skills with the normal credits which the certificates approved
and proved that the standard of having skills in the mentioned topic. I’ve
gotten some different CV to different job’s center which every CV including
some related and specialized information about me which are related to the
positions and precisely with strongly familiar references. One day, I’ve had an
email which tells me about the vacant position in the job’s title "Accountancy?.
I’ve started a job at the middle-class company with minimum salary for the six
month as internship and after this period excerpt the contract which extracts
some predicted principles without any exception but the normal wage could be
on the table for the title to get the deal.
First month of my internship, I’ve just been like the postman or delivery person
to transport something like letters or foods in the terms of my title’s job.
Bethany is my supreme moderator of internships in that positions where 7
people are accepted to be in the place where ’tis 2 people will be eligible amid
mentioned people. I haven’t had serious works or related duties for a while but
others were different. So I’ve fallen into some cloudy thoughts which aren’t nice
enough. I’ve spent a lot of time to do something like chords in the home to
clean up the floor and arranging the table in the open communication in the
lack of open window or bunch of flowers.
These approaches are going to be in the six month when the sixth month
of being in that company, there isn’t nightmare or daymare in the forms of
something-mare but I’ve moving forward to get the chance to move on as if

48
 1.8. Cycle And Its Beyond

the deadlines are done in the deadliest day on the dead-something more in the
shuffles of words floating on the air and mess of letters hidden in the words or
is there a need to have scrutiny on the syllables or stressed syllables or going
to sentences after that being on the paragraphs, counting the lines to be in
the page to have a lot of words in the forms of words with the topic which
is given but lost in the page to find the cover when ’tis on epilogue when the
introductions are opening the page for acknowledgements.
I’ve going to the next option for the job when the birds are singing like they’ve
need something to eat in the backward signs on the air when the floors aren’t
alike to accept the bodies of them. Birds are "Be Red? but has "s? in the end to
be "Be Red S? to take somebody or someone on the air when the air is open to
the birds to carry. I’ve interviewed for the next vacant position which is related
to design of accountant but in the parentheses, I’ve like the accountant which
are dealing with the numbers and money to make sense what’s happening in
the foundation of the power to be on the decision and forwarding the deciders.
A kind of gentle discussions to be on the table like table of contents like table
tends accepting the contents on its surface to face the content on the flat styles
of how’s going there. Three interviewers and one interviewee on the tables like
the battles are ringing to start the arts of fighting like gladiator on the historical
place in the Roma, are starting to make 7 minutes but in the specific hour is
about 7am.
First question is asked by the woman with yellow hairs which has long length
of hairstyle in the curly waves of movement in the appearance of his day. The
second question is coming up with old man and the form of elder father when
the "O? in word "old? is changing to "e? to have the sight of "eld? in the
noun, instead of adjective. The third question are represented by the man
wearing glasses with gray hairs with face like wiser man with the wisdom and a
perspective on the ideas. I’ve accepted to that position without any internships
but the dynamic salary with dynamic period of attendance are supposed to be.
The contract is illustrated for 6 month as staff. I’ve the responsibility to
gathering data where the informing categories for intended duties were my main
job under scrutiny and discernment to decide about the issuing the contract or
withdrawing the request for the mentioned something-ship like readership.
The first day, I’ve used the plans for moderate modes in that way which the
categories are being facilitated in the diversely information which the company
is supposed to pose some narrow ways for the tax which the clients are going to
find the ways to get over them. In the sixth month, I’ve found the way which
is possible to make fault in the analysis of the situation where the benefits of
having information could be affected in the reverse ways so I’ve gotten the sense
which in that there’s no need to have the hope to issue my contract after that
intended sixth month so I’m again in the situation which my location in the
job’s offerings, are coming up to be in that way where I’m seeking to find two
points which in that locations are done again and again to have the job at least
for six month.
I’ve filled applications for some jobs which in that I’ve thought of being qualified
for some parameters which I was thought of. In the company where their
clients are coming from the low-class modes in that expectations are going to
be somewhere amid calculations of their properties alongside some approaches
to be on the track with certainly numbers of how’s going the suggestion in the
lights of legal logic. I’m employed in mentioned company. I’ve the floating time

49
1. Definition And Its Necessities

in the type of freelancer in the my collections from money entitled job is going
to be on my tune when the quantity is missed in the lights of quality but in the
jargon and buzzword, it means the project-center period. A period for getting
money when the outcomes are on the table which I’m able to invest on the time
in the worthy style of being on my tune. The kinda material in that mature
time is mutual to get the full-grown of quantity and fully developed quality in
the terms of delivery and library. The singing of the sound in the rhythm of be
born when the birthday’s time is done amid job and budget to get the buddy
to get financial approach when the idea is born to get the buddy-get. I’ve
entered to the return of turning points when the approach is like app and road
to reach the apple in the rounds. I’ve had the good moments in the monumental
morning when the time is collapsed on the loop of the polls.
I’ve spoken with the supreme manager to get the starting word of contracts on
the floor to approach to visions of how to be born. The acts of progress are
demanded to be in period of keep going amid words and results.
A kinda decision is going to be a side of heart when the art of the haunt on
the sort of joint moment is the monumental modernity to be the sightseeing
by the eyes where the places are replacing the palace of the desires when the
siren of the inability to get the tag when the abolishing chains are changing
the hangs to be on the beating heart when the kinda actions are written down
on the white paper when the movement of the pens are going to use the black
color when the spirit of the existence. in the lights if the highlights heart are
going to make the situations when the design of the signs are singing the songs
of being the parts of the decision when the vision are disjoint when joint eyes
are opening like to power of eyes to see the light and seeing the words to tell
the words are discrediting the validity of the word to be popped out in the
inside of creations of the credit when the editions of the words are erasing the
words to be decided in the deceiving ways of the joint moments of the matter of
minds when the tough texts ate the credit of the word to be in re-something to
make the pro-something with too many dash when the ashes of the spaces amid
words are coming up the be in the demanded mindful storms when the armed
words are attacking to the frame of word when the raving is the kinda of credit
to discredit the words to be art like the movement of the painter to make the
lines in the black color when the credit the words are going down to have the
something special in the kinda movements when the words are only signs in
the black color when they’ve written in blue color as if the re-something like
reconsider, the permission for pronouns to make the flat space to edit the word
as if only changes is made in the colors. No words are changed and nothing
is made nothing. Just the color is smoothly moving on the lines to change all
colors to be black so enough is enough when the color is only changed.
Changing the colors in the extreme way of changing the credit when the black
color is ready to so the colors are go to be in the black color so so if so, there’s
no words and there’s nothing to say when the color is changed without any
reason, any reviews, any memoirs, any letter of words. Just do your words and
after that the moving forward and not moving on. the kinda move to accept all
things and to have all as if the simple conditions are made in the black color.
Too long essay in the too many words a=with the perfect epilogue when it is
released in the cover without any title in the formations of all black in the white
space when the colors are banned to be so only black colors are moving on the
lines to make sense the word are moving on the page in the another game of

50
 1.8. Cycle And Its Beyond

the white book in the white pages with the white line as if the permission is
not ready to be as if in the end of the books, the permission is ready in the
texts of how not to be in the pens of writing the non-seen rules to the the right
to make the black on the all words and on the all stuff. The movement of the
black colors in the six minutes, are done whatever to be in the however kinda
words in the firm decision whir the vision is done before the mourning the all
in the nightmare of the black colors. The kinda death is written by the white
color to live in the black and pour the black on the all contributions of the
wherever to be on the whenever the clock is the time to go as if the clock is
stopped in the minutes when the process of being is done the be the time of
whoever is singing at 6.5 am.
The kinda demand on the common decision of the minds to get rid of the whole
as if in the black color and at 6.5am. The kinda heart attacks in the middle
World War II, in the shuffle sounds of the death amid the appeal of the words
to be refugee somewhere to get rid of the black color. The kinda black on the
essence of all movements when the monumental heroes back to the history of
the dinosaur. The kinda long neck on the whiteness of the black heart to ring
the bell for having the open door when the road of being in the death time when
the six points are polling to the black time. The kinda flights as if then styles
of lacking the light entitled "black? to remove the all just by bringing to the
black. The kinda discredit in the hand-written texts when the machinery-text
in the darkness of the smoothy cursive written by the hands in the mode of only
hands-on, are going to the black color to see the black in the very directions of
the mind in the matter of the grief to excuse the all words to be amid the sky
and ground with the circle covering the neck when the neck is producing the
words as if the words are now in black and screaming the loudest sound of the
time to be heard when the heart is done in the love to be on the love-beating
when the live is on to off the words of love and bring the bitch on the way to
fuck the fence of the love’s words to have nothing in the color of the lack of
lights. The kinda lights is disappeared when the lack of lights is on demanded.
The joint decision on demand to amend the mentor of the toy when the toy is
yelling on the time. The time of escape on the captions as if all are ads when
the black is on demand. The dread words are being read as if the black on the
sense, is on demand. The sort of the tort is included in the black when the color
of mind is now black. The kinda heart beat is lost in black when the lack of
lights is on demand. Delisting the words is online when the listing are showing
the words. The demography of the words on the tune as if the rhythm is on the
straight lines in the heart to say the black is on the mode to off whatever is on
the board the kinda table is spreading on the whole when the floor is dismissed
to be on the board like hand-on is the terms of buzzwords when the all words
are dismissed themselves to be jargons. The kinda game is on demand as if it
is not familiar to play with hands when the game basketball is on demand as if
in the deformation of the all forms to make the uniform of the the roof when
force of the black is on demand. A kinda re-something is on demand when the
remove is refugee to the black as if move is reminder to mind the gap amid the
"re? and "fog? in the word "refugee?. The kinda seeing is lost in black when the
everything is out of line like blind as black when nobody is seeing out of black
like posing and popping in the heart, black, as metaphor alike. So everybody is
seeing nothing likewise black.
The kinda color is done in the black when the spectrum of the color are losing

51
1. Definition And Its Necessities

their lights to be somewhere in the lack of lights, is called "black?. The colors
have the names when the lights are said to be on the tattooed heart. The kinda
second heart in the clockwise movements on the lines of the dead heart as if the
shocking beats are streaming the bloods in the veins when the body is empty
from red color and empty from lights when is done the call for darkness. The
kinda lights are done to be colorless as if the essence of colors are depending on
the lights so in the death of lights, everything is seeking the second life when
the call for darkness. The kinda bitch time is sending the second life of time
when it is done the art of pouring black colors and taking the all colors in the
substitution of the life with the second life. The kinda kindness is done in the
troy’s horse with the style of phone when the calling for the black is done.
The kinda position is done in the trans-something as if it isn’t the transgender
in the transmission like the mission is escaping to the trans-something when
the black color are off to off the all lightness. The kinda "mis? is done in the
speaking language when the position is process in the "mis? on pro-access. The
kinda "mis? is done in the world of black color to deform and to kill the colors
and lightness so the kinda ring is done in the form of "miss? in the black colors
when the aa screaming is said to be "mis? on the black stuff. So laughing on
the black colors to make the "mis? via high five in the form of the number 25.
The kinda holding on demanded to be the joint decision on demand. The kind
high holding in the battle of minds when the 15 versus 25. The kinda approach
on the life when the lifestyles are on demand in the lack of logic on demand
when the "mis? on logic on demand to be "log? when the "mis? is on logic and
"miss? are vice versa. The the kinda "mis? on the "formation? to be "reform?
on the demand when re-something on the high as if the black is entering to
pour the "miss? on the "formation? to make the "deformation? on demand.
The kinda forcing communication to be amid the life and death when the "mis?
is the high five in the form of the number 25 versus the five without any merit
in the black’s authority with the ordinary number 15. The highest winning
number, 25, in the colorful land of super heroes as if the losing number, 15, in
the lack of lights with black color in the land of heroes and not super heroes.
The land of "and? in the any form of "L? as if in the black color. Versus the
island of mind when the conjunctions in all of their styles, are "mis? to go in
the where there’s no gate to be back when the "back? is now the "mis? style
of killing the black. "Mis? and "miss? are two titles on the prominent book
when kick on ass is on demand to off the off is called black color. The kinda
spreading the lights on the sky when the sky is on "mis? of the colorful island
when this island is only using theirs own lights without any needs to the back
color and its "miss?.
The high five, 25, is telling the story of how "mis? on the resiliences are to
be on the rhythm when the tune of dance is done in the drunken buddy to
be on the body in the style of "mis? so the getting rid of the black when all
formations is on the "miss? so the black is black without any name else when
the all works are done in the style of "miss? by black. There’s no choice to
get rid of the black when the get is the tag and rid is the read in the "mis? on
the words. Words are fallen apart in the black color when the black color is
going up where there’s no place for the black as if replace is only available in
the lights to see what needs to see in the way, loving to see wherever is going
to SEE in the forms of sea when the black is READY to be GREED when the
seventh letter in the English is ON the BACK of the word ready.

52
 1.8. Cycle And Its Beyond

In the tag of gotten guard to drag the grade as if aced the exam with big bold
E. Bold on the table to be old in the form of double erasing the black’s words
in the on and off approach of 25 in the worst holding in the history of time.
History is the host of toys when the battle isn’t war in the lightness’s vision
when the war is the raw line when the host has toys so battle does the tab on
the bath to pour the waters on the court when the track is the act to tact on
the trace of rise. The Siri to find the words when the all words are in black
so the speaking ways of telling the words when on the written styles are only
black in the white color of the snow like now the Siri is only four-letters words
to cause the black on the back when the black is be lack in the kinda lightness.
Siri in only four-letters words to seek the intended four words are being written
in the styles of handwritten to last like the machinery-written texts. A track
of process in the excess of words when odd words are on in the black color of
unavailability at the world of lightness.
The kinda decline in the lines of recline when the backward is award to draw the
raw lines when the words are written as if mentioned like mis is on "mention? to
be "Men+nation? when the nation is form the men so men nation is the kinda
word when two nouns are coming to follow each other in the form men-nation
or men nation when the men is the plural of men as if in the irregular form.
The "miss? on the word "mention? to be whatever is smelling the words in
the black color of the free to freeze the rise of tree when the three is ready to
be counted when the black color is pouring on the lines to be blind the words
of minds. The kinda word is gone when the black axis in the action of "miss?
on "exist? and the action of "mis? on "exit? are moving forward to ave the
excessive access on the words when the orders of the old words are doing the
back style in the second life of its word in the pouring of black color to the
words of color. The black color is the kinda dirty stuff when the try is on the
role of the club where the bulky attacks are going to be in the form of black
eyes when the rainbow are showing the multiple colors in the minds of lights.
The blind loyalty in the yelling of laying lord in the bed when the debt are done
in drilling as negation in balance. The license of the seen senes are sending the
decent sorts of nuts toast when the net of tens gate are seeking tag of nagging
game into the mug is fulfilled with the dark color. The decent cent are sending
the dense doze of dollars to buy the bags of bug to make the gap in the page of
words as if the black words. The fresh words on the refresh of the black buttons
to be the kinda "but? to tap tab of dead words in the six days as if the 7 words
are written in 7 days. The kinda date in the up-form of the words when the
add date going to be update.
The numbers of decisions when they’re in common as the kind of resolution. So
there’s the matter of time when the joint assistance is coming more sensible
than a decision is on demand. The thought of word in the joint joy in the hope
of being on demand where the amendment isn’t on set. The kind of kindness is
settled down in the "joint? as if in decision, there’s no amount of mouthing up.
The kind of opening up the doors when the last word is "on demand? as if in
the decision, there’s no sessions to discuss when the case seeks the points cause
the points are done in the unanimous way in the term of "Joint? with the word
of "Decision? when the view is "On? in the kind of "Demand?. The element of
elimination is runaway person when the vision of decision is mentioned in the
title. The tiles of the movements in the schedule of the exact actions when the
attic of the words are fallen into the floor so there’s no way to back when cubic

53
1. Definition And Its Necessities

styles are forever on demand.

Dragging on the words to make the words when the decision is made to be
joint in the word and precisely at most one word. Joint decision is the kind of
demand with the normal accomplishment where the way is going on the kind
of "joint? and "decision?. The kind of accomplishment is done as if it could be
the kind of achievement. What is the "On? before on demand so there’s the
point like ongoing or the kind of expectations or predictions. It may be the
kind of waiting or the style of hold when the word is looking forward to the
kind of decision in both ways like the "Joint Decision?. The kind of blocking is
the matter of mind when the decision could be given via one side. So it is the
joint seizure when the decision isn’t available or the word is the word in the
matter of minds. It is demand or it could be dimension like the joint decision is
okay in the on the dimension when this word is coming up when the more than
one is on demand.
The kind of decision in the matter of time when the demand is informing about
the wasting the time. The kind of join in the word "joint? when the invitation
isn’t the word so "joint? is the fierce kind of force in the matter of right to
have the point. The kind of collaboration isn’t the joint work when the work
of art is on demand. The formations of the words have the shadows on the
decisions when the adjective "joint? has the kind of negative impacts on the
firmly combination of the strong words. So, the availability and the accessibility
of the words are ruined in the term of word which is now like the describer and
the giver the kind of credit and the style of discredit in the elevator of the words
to be up or down the kind of noun. The noun "decision? is now discredited by
the adjective "joint? when the weak part is ready to be into the decision as if
the sharing words aren’t on demand. The kind of "off? is made by "joint? as if
the word "on? is the third word so the contradiction is done in the mixed using
the words. There’s the end to make the delusional words.
Deciding on the sides when the sides don’t have any words. The word "joint? is
added to the word "decision? to make sense what’s going on. Join could be like
the word in the past tense or past participle when the part of words are coming
up to be participle like the kind of participant. Knocking the word to be joint
when the ring has rung to the endless struggle on demand. The peaceful words
are on demand when the amendment isn’t on demand. The kind of freedom to
producing the word when the minds of word are on demand. Joint decision is
the kind of vision when the action of "join? are doing in the darkest place from
the style of past tense. The kind of visitor is about "joint? when the invitations
of the words haven’t send yet.
The kind of decision is made in the joint tune like dancing in the street to be
drunken in the bars. The kind of harmony in the lines of seen words when
seeing the mode in the fashionable ways of the show, informing the timeline
in the matter of the growth. The demand or dimension is fallen into decision
when the joint is wild as if the dimension is like the negotiations. The request
for having the joint in the kind of decision when the decision isn’t aim and goal.
The conversations on the words to get the four words in the minds as if the
word isn’t done when the adjective in the first place is done about how to be
continued all.
Decision is the power of mind to make the potential power in the forms of the
noun. Is there any restrictions about the noun when the adjective in the left
side and the back of the noun, is saying all things? The kind of laughing style

54
 1.9. Metric Dimension In Depth

in the forms of the couple when the decision is made the adjective is coming
up with sticking to the ass of the noun to do what’s need to done. The joint is
the kind of killing words in the gradually approaches when the joint is already
up to pouring the black colors on the words. On demand is like the theory of
conspiracy when the public decision like folks are up. The kind of electoral
votes on demand when the electricity is off in the top of the clouds when the
screaming are on the word "joint?. The situations are getting to be the worst
and the worst when the word of wise is undone. The knowledge is off with
black colors and the wisdom is off by black theory. The body is off when the
craziness is coming up and the heart is off when the all things are coming up.
The decision is the word when the second position is haunted by the black
words, "Joint? and "demand? so the kinds of appeal is leaping on the minds to
buy and to cheat the whole to make the crazy land in the matter of the words.
The compelling word is coming up with the style of the adjective when the
decision like the eagle is flying on the top place on the sky amid blue sky and
white clouds. The second position is on demand as if the attacks of black color
like the black symbol of the death when the six months are passed so they’re
black in any formation of death and remaining like ashes.

1.9 Metric Dimension In Depth

sec:fourth
m

A group, in terms of own definition, has four principles so if somebody has

these four these conditions, it’s group. #Pairing and #unpairing inside after
that having #association, having #one #neutral element resulting from #pair

55
1. Definition And Its Necessities

56
1.9. Metric Dimension In Depth

57
1. Definition And Its Necessities

58
 1.9. Metric Dimension In Depth

elements without any exception in paring.

#TopicI
A circle discloses. A number "1? is all need. If all points and elements have 1
unit distance from the center fixed point, they’ve made a curve with length "pi?
which is irrational and has infinitely unpredicted numbers. 1111: 1 point & 1
point with 1 unit & 1 unit to be. #TopicI
Exact Length of "Pi?: -number: extremely impossible -figure: obviously easiness
It makes sense that an unit circle of figures is done by a number and number is
done by CIRCLE so "-? & "-? in "=? are turned out to " ? & "-? so EXACTLY
became APPROXIMATELY in all circles.
#TopicI
On the cold weather, it’s poss to foist to somebody on the whole way where
is on the specific moments so what’s about the cold climate in somewhere to
be passed the word "poss? in all moments to shape all "fossil? from moments,
ways, people and weather: "anybody= whole?.
#TopicII
/Ship Sheep/
Some numbers to make ip so what’s "sh? from "shit?, before "ip? and "eep?.
#TopicII
Moving on the process of finding results in easily fast way and moving forward
to somewhere to get rid of obstacles which are moving on doer. So moving on
obstacles and move forward the process to find the way to ignore the obstacles
so:to be continued & get your greed.
#TopicIII
A noun and an adjective to form the phrase when you’re sure about your
process which is done in logically scientific ways where all stuff are done in the
best forms of wisdom, knowledge, however you’re faced with contradiction or
paradox.
[Turning Points] in that place.
#TopicIV
Metric Dimension is something about the new dimension when ’tis used to
define dimension by numbers like two dimension, three dimension as if the new
dimension in the terms of words, are coming up without numbers and colors just
only words so what’s happening to the dimension? If there’s an object which
could be able to have a location amid locations which in that ’tis a changer
in the finding two objects which different distances from every of two objects,
implies to discover the location which in that two objects are done so this object
coming up to be on the intended set which is the set of power but now, ’tis
optimal set of power. The challenge is ready amid twins when they couldn’t be
apart in every operations and functions so there’s no object to taking apart two
twin objects so one of this object is also into power set of the intended set as if
they’re coming up and on simultaneously to be in the optimal power set just in
first glance once when they’ve taken the label of "twin?, there’s sufficient and
necessary to be with one step by the title to goes the upper place when its title
aced all exam so twin are on the optimal power set.
The style of the metric dimension in the passing the words by words, the kinda
set is desired to be seen when the set is done by the selected points. Searching
the kinda points amid the points when the criteria is of the style of distance.
Two points are deciding about which point will be in the optimal set like the
optic of sight in the experiment with the symbols of seeing is written to be

59
1. Definition And Its Necessities

in the E and it is done. The kind E for seeing the points are ongoing. The
given two points are the deciders to be sider the one point. One point has to
prove that its actions are necessary and sufficient. In the n-cycle when the n is
even, the alternative points are in the optimal set so the points in both sides
of the word "alternative? could be in the optimal set. The matter of positions
of points, could be the fate for them in the cycle attendance of the points in
the optimal set like two words "optic? and "mall? is in the symbols of "E? and
"goods? are dynamically changing the points as if the relation amid points are
the characteristics and criteria to be in the optimal sets. E of optic is selecting
the points in the mall of points. The distance amid three points like triangle of
points, are introducing one point to be in the optimal set. "Distance? is the
term when the points are tanned in the sunbath in the beach. In the other
words, the sequence of the points are said to be distance amid two points when
this points in the backward and forward positions, are the neighbors. Beach or
bitch in the process of getting the points together when the colors of points are
black in the process on the table. The black audience are on the table to make
the one white point in the optimal set. The distance are looking forward to see
the decent point with the white dress of how to be raised. Two given points
are only the black players in the game of throne when the power of whiteness
are starring to the end of the game. n-cycle is on the table to give the white
points in the terms of the optimal set. n-cycle is introducing the all points in
the process of having the white points. When the neighbors are out the points
has the white colors so the word "neighbors? is the black and other points
in the same style without any connections are the white points. The number
of the members in the optimal set is the half of the all points in the n-cycle
with the n is even. The path is the specific version of the cycle has the same
approach in the style of the n when the n is even. The complete plane on the
table. n-complete has one black color in the terms of optimal set so all points
with the exception of one point, are forever in the optimal set. The finding the
objects of the optimal set is keep going in the n-planes and its styles when the
n-plane is the general planes and its styles are the classification of the n-plane
in the terms of the names which are assigned to them. The names on the table
when it is done for the n-plane so there’s too works to see what is going on the
way in that the color are pouring on the points.
The type of epic is depicted in the tips of speed when the distance is the keyword
about the all paths amid two points. Distance is the binary operation with
inputs of two points, from the plane, to get the minimum length of all paths
to say it the distance. So the speed of the travel amid two points, are the
matter of mind. The kind of choosing the path which has a few points in the
comparison to other paths. The shortest path amid all paths to start from one
point and to end to another point. There’s a need for two points. Two points
in the process of binary operation, are separately inputs in two function of this
binary operation. There’s one point from the optimal set. This point is finding
two points to be in the couple entries of the operation to get one number. So
when the point is getting the intended points, there’s the real element of the
optimal set when it’s seen to be there in the potential functions of eyes to see
something. See the one point so there’s the starter to find the two points with
two different numbers in the matter of minds. At least two points are enough as
if there’s satisfactory to have too many couple of points to separate these points
with different numbers in the matter of distance. When the mentioned point is

60
 1.9. Metric Dimension In Depth

genuinely and purely in the way of making different numbers, the other points
are the shadow or in the darkness in the lights of original ways. The metric
dimension is the concept when the meter is acting into the dimension when
the distance is acting like meter so the dimension is no longer about the static
number in the form of n-plane. The new dimension in the dynamic dimension,
is making the sense of how near and far could be to the two points. Two points
are on the table. So there’s too many points to act on the two intended points
as if the successful point on the table, is said to be mentioned point and the
element of optimal set. All points are on the offensive style to introduce the
mentioned points so the point which gets the two different numbers in the terms
of distance amid it and any of two points, is forever the optimal set’s point in
all upcoming events.
The dimension is the name in the part of speech about "noun?. When the new
dimension on the points are making the set of special points. Dimension is about
the number to having and to leaving the position so in the gradually selection
of the points in the unseen ways of experiment, there’s the common way to test
the all points when "seeing? is leaving the position in behalf of "looking? at the
points as if "seeing? the points causes the smart picking the points up. So the
downside and the upside of the process to get the number in the way which
the point is added to the optimal set, it could be the matter of words. The
points are in the optimal sets, there’s nothing to do when the optimal set is
formed as if the new optimal set is made when the new collections of the points
are on demand. The points are about the distance when the number is about
the distance. Two points are ready to give the different numbers in the matter
of one point. The points are in the circle when the circle are analyzing the
points so there’s too many ways to have the special points when the optimal
set is open to has. Distance is from the styles of the links when the links are
extending to be the paths and in the shuffle of the paths, the minimum path is
representing the number of its point to be said "distance?. Path is about the all
connections amid the two points when the points so the third point is taking
the positions of the second point to have the new lemma to get the result in the
lightness of the different number of the two points as if both the points in the
first position is examined by the second point where it comes from the third
sets.
The point is named the element to be different when it’s in the optimal set.
So when two given points are ready, the element is using the kind of concept
about link. The distances amid two points and the element in the separately
measurement, are giving the different numbers. So there’s two styles of points
when two names are assigned to them. The element with white color and the
points without new names with black colors. So every white point is under the
unary operation to separate two black points in the matter of the distance. So
the distance from the white point, are making two black points to be in the
kind of formation fallen in the paths.
The metric dimension when the number of dimension is said in the term of
word "metric?. Metric dimension is ready to be in the unfamiliar name as if
this adjective is universal. The kind of dimension for having two parts when
the increasing number is unable to cover them. The kinds of unit and the styles
from the numbers when the distance is measured by numbers. The distance is
about all possible paths amid two points and it’s an analysis on the all paths
to get the number. The number is used to select a point in the shuffle of points

61
1. Definition And Its Necessities

and their analyses. The kind of approach in that one point is acting on any of
two given points and in the last moment, all these types of upper points with
black color are putting under the analyses [in the term of their functions on the
all points] to be on the optimal set and to have the white color.
New kind of measurement in the terms of words when the distance is the term
to make sense what was going on. The way of the approach where to get the
optimal set in the minds of the two black points which are coming up to the
white point. The white point is the jargon where is claimed to be on the optimal
set. The kind of approach in that the number is determining which point is
white. There’s the rule to be amid the white points of the optimal sets. If
there’s the point which is uniquely getting two different numbers, in the terms
of distance, from two black points, the point is white. So the uniqueness of
the point is the matter to get the optimal set. So there’s the curious question
about the matroid. The optimal set is white set so the white elements having
three conditions, in the matter of getting the modeling for matroid, the empty
white element is the one point and forever is existed and there’s no problem
with this condition when the optimal set has at least one element. Losing and
adding the member[s] from/into the white elements, are producing the new
white element. So the points are in the optimal sets when the relationship amid
points are satisfying these rules or the links amid points in the planes are doing
that rules. So there’s some points to bring the ideas based on matroid into the
other concepts.
The distance amid words are making the distance amid points so there’s the
point when is finding two points which the point has the different distance from
them. The point is finding two different numbers. So it could be white if its
work is unique and other points couldn’t do that. Two points are necessary and
sufficient to be white for that point. Twin points are introducing one of them,
as the white point and any points out of them, there isn’t qualified for using any
of them to make own as the white point. The twin points are leaving by other
points because the twin points have the same distance from any possible points.
So any of the twin points and one point out of them on the table to separate
these two points in the other ways of considering them as the participant in the
situation in which one point is ready. It’s impossible because any of the twin
points with every points, has the same approaches which are making the same
number and same distance. So all twin points are white with one exception
which is one of them. The distance doesn’t matter when the distance is coming
up in the matter of twin points.

1.10 Cycle And Its Beyond

sec:fourth

h] The universal language is of figures, pictures, photo, graphs and etc. Two
entries are coming into battle’s field so the graph G when g is the seventh
element in the alphabet are coming up to depict the battle or the war. G[X,Y]
is a notation about G when G selects two notations X and Y when y is the
notation in term of painting without any line on its head, like y has no mind

62
 1.10. Cycle And Its Beyond

and head to think. So X is chosen to be in the court of tennis. G is bipartite so

G has two parts which in any part, all elements are living in peace and freedom
without any connection with each other so the battle is amid two parts entitled
X and Y. Isolated is about isomorphism amid elements and late so isomorphism
and late isn’t allowed to be in both parts of this statement. ’tis written that
damn is the characteristic of any element in any part so damn(x) is always
greater than damn(y) when xy is kinda connection amid [between: bet win]
the small element x and small element y so by the connection amid these types
of element, battle and war is started to be begun. So X is forever winner in
the battle and war so X overcomes Y as if peace is available when the damn(x)
= damn (y) in quality and quantity of the adjective damn. The connection
amid x and y must be equal in the terms of being damn. So when the number
of small x if is equal with the number of small y so ’tis possible to have damn,
the same, when in the battle, the connection means attack. So starting the war
when beginning the battle:
The show is about finding something in the trick and nix in the mathematical
background when the logic is up. In the matrix, X is from left to right as if
Y must be from up to down when in the row of this space X, summation in
one as if in the column of the piss Y, summation at most could be one. For
having this point in mind, G is introducing the kinda adjacency [been so close
like something amid something or something inside something] but in the form
of twofold and in that matrix is kinda math trick. Every element in the row
from left to right is called to be small x. So every small x is divided by the most
offensive styles of attacking, is said to be damn(x) so x is divided by damn(x) to
demonstrate how far x from its damn. ’tis possible because damn(x) is forever
something but not O. The summation on the row assigned to small x is forever
one in the words and 1 in the numbers and the movement from left to up but
when ’tis moving down ’tis on the ground with two branch on the lines from left

63
1. Definition And Its Necessities

to right. So the the summation of all rows in the lightening matrix B highlights,
is always, forever, evermore, one in all languages and all symbols. Moving the
hands like the basketball game when the hole is small to shoot the ball into
opponent’s hole. In the other hand left or right will be discussed in other results
belonging to math. So in other hand, the summation of the column which is
assigned to y, in the highlighting matrix B curve, sharp teeth and 1 on the
damn x, when x is incited by y so at most and ideal case, the sum will be one.
Because 1 on the damn x is in all ways, greater than 1 on the damn y for all
incitations by the hyper-something like hypothesis. Because y has nothing from
itself but violation and threaten to fear on the world to make war and battle
when all residents of the world like chord are complaining about this evil of
bitch. This battle and argument goes to be in the universal language after that
chords up to the sky when ’tis blue with white cloud and dark with white moon
in the gray November. So war and battle goes to the symbol of the universal
and pandemic language as if just and only in one lines to get the result, forever,
always, evermore and all ways.
The number of small x has teeth to make bottom lines of teeth for every inciting
element of Y which are small to figure out the painting when a line from left to
up goes to down to be a line so a line in the bottom to have a line with hole in
left side to be continued the sadness so x is coming to have the happiness so
two lines are follow-up. So changing the bold and capital greek symbol of teeth
to enter the battle so this is always lower than with two teeth but changing x
to y as if the same situation so now changing the symbols of teeth to back to
the origin when the winner is x, but ’tis the number of inciting-small-element
y from the part Y. Father is more when daddy isn’t, So father is coming to
make the footnote. When the number of small x is the same with number of
inciting small y when they’re inciting by ruining and destroying all things to
kill any body in the form of styling inciting inside the world of freedom and
peace when the y’s all are piss like Y’s is piss form the styles of alliance and
foreign of world like age became Eigen- in the form of eigenvalue, if this occurs,
father told, called, said and texted, so damn(x) has the effects and number like
damn(y) which are all useless, unnecessary and inciting and breaking all things.
A square in black in the white space is proving the end is done when the texts
are in the black color of six bitch when six days has back color of the ending all
stories about it. So by writing in the black amid white space the white square
is humming, screaming, writing and suffocating to be the end.
arXiv:2002.08503v2 [math.PR] 15 Jan 2021 (Open)
"arXiv:2002.08503v2" means that the direct link toward the intended art-
icle with the characteristics "arXiv" goes to the typing "2002.08503v2"
after the static texts https://arxiv.org/abs/ so in this special case: ht-
tps://arxiv.org/abs/2002.08503v2.
I’m going to consider words by words from special articles in the intended
categories as a standard framework.
"METRIC DIMENSION OF CRITICAL GALTON-WATSON TREES AND
LINEAR PREFERENTIAL ATTACHMENT TREES" The title of the article
is passed.
-What’s the adjective "Metric"? Is it about the measurement of the distance
amid points? Is it coming from "Meter"? Like A meter forming from a centi-
meter in adding two zeros 00 after the 1: 100. So 1 meter is the time when
100 centimeters is a joint of length but is the centimeters is coming from the

64
 1.10. Cycle And Its Beyond

"Cent" in the calculating to have 1 dollar. What’s the hell is "Dimension" is

coming from the "Dim" or "Mention" or "Men" or "Di" in the telling the arrow
is "directed" and not "indirected" in the categories of graphs into two worlds
of being twofolds. Or is it "Damn She" is "missing" on the pronunciation of
"dimension" as mispronunciation. Or fast processes of "Damn men seen" or
"Damn Men shine" or in the different multiple language "Damn Men See On".
What’s "s" in the starting "square" and "sneak"? Does the "square" have two
meanings in the terms of shapes like four lines are closing the space or a curve
within straight lines are closing the space? Circle or square? So why don’t I
get "sneak" and "sneaker"? How about them? "Metric" is a word to identify the
distance amid two points or like "me trick" wants to have special benefits. Why
can’t I go in clear space when dimension is ready? Metric is something about
a unit for measuring the distance amid two objects with an exception about
twin=two+in so this concept always has a clear rule to take apart twin in two
different places, obviously and clearly. But why "meter" is chosen as a unit for
this kind of measurement? "Metric Dimension" is done in all imaginable paths
amid two objects for an analysis about how near and how far two objects are
taken place in the position.
There’s time to have the accomplishment as if in the term of obvious achieve-
ments. The kinda achievement in that the results are obvious and useless as
if the process of having the word "accomplishment" like the bold word in the
white texts are lightening in the form of high five in the style of the number 25.
The form of number in making the desired ways to go when the ways aren’t
in common as if they’re coming from the intension and the love-style to get
what it is preferences and not priority. The kinda text with blue color and the
holding from the five sharp edges belonging to the stars. The kinda benefits in
the mode of the claim when the aimed "let me know" is only done in the kinda
"mis" on the word "lemma". The kinda move of the pen when the tap on the
bottom is the kinda being. The kinda approach on the ideas when the idealism
is runaway in the kinda of red color of the pen when the red color is left away.
The kinda love is ongoing to make the intended results.
The frame of the rate when roots are trade in the trend of the word.
The trends of achievements are arranging into the accomplishments. So the
word "obvious" are dropping down the personal achievement when the adjective
"obvious" is assigned to the achievement and putting in the back of the noun
achievement. There’s point to get the result from this title as if the risk is
greater the other hand of the story. The left hand of being obvious, making the
guess and doubt about the complexity and being original as if the right hand
of achievement is something about the accomplishment. How to get together
these two words, when in the left hand, there’s "Obvious Achievement" as if
in the right hand, there’s "Accomplishment" with the conjunction "AND" so
there’s something about the goal of the texts when it is hard to age this gate
where is opening up to let the words there.
Obvious is the kind of word which in that the intended noun has the predictable
effect on its intended area. The obvious achievement, it is the failure which in
the first consequence which is coming up to the minds as if the four words "Ob-
vious Achievement In Accomplishment" when two words "In Accomplishment"
are added to them, the debris of this hurricane is dragging like the most de-
structive effects in the minds, are now available and it’s accessible. The obvious
achievement is the type of useless trying which it may fantasize that opening up

65
1. Definition And Its Necessities

this book isn’t the matter of minds and wisdom. The kind of achievement with
the adjective obvious, could be the achievement when the obvious is describing
the noun. The adjective obvious, is the kind of discredit to the whatever is
coming up so the matter of this word when the main noun is intended, it doesn’t
make sense. The kind of "giving up" is in the two contradictions and it makes it
the worst when the next word is added. So what’s the matter of wisdom to tell
the story about what’s going on the first word obvious when the wisdom is off
at this first word. What’s the matter of mind when the second word is up so
the mind is off when the all ways are forever closed. So there’s the movement
of body when the third word is up so the word doesn’t satisfy to make sense
about the body so the movement of body is off. The last word is coming up
as if there’s heart which became off when it sees the word in the kind of love
and the breathing from the heart when the lung is dismissed themselves where
the all senses are off. So it doesn’t make sense nothing at all instead of the
tattooed heart in the form of getting the end to the explorations on the words
when the "look up" is off.
An achievement in the lightness of the greed to get the tag of gotten aim when
the it’s done in the form of adding word with abusing of the space amid words
where in the hand-written text, there’s no space amid letters to be in the kind
of "mis" on the words. The obvious ideas in the form of embedding concept
when the first word "Obvious" is acting like the host and the achievement is like
the embedding concept in the land of "obvious". There’s word after the word
and there’s conjunction after the word and there’s the end with noun in the
matter of word and in the style of four words as if it’s useless stuff even it’s
useless trying when the first word is obvious.
The achievement in the progress of having accomplishment as if unusual word
is obvious. The sort of arts in the middle of mild word are going to make the
wild word like the action of "mis" is done on the first letter of the word which is
"m" to turn this letter out "w" so in the artwork of minds, there’s the portrait
of mind when the word mild is said to be wild. The kind of achievement is
changing the game when the achievement and accomplishment are about using
the skills as if the word obvious as the first number of the word in the title, is
positively, about getting skills and optimistically, there’s about finding the way
to get the proper skills.
The sort of achievements in the term of judgement when the word obvious is
giving the dark color on the words. Accomplishment is the word when the
obvious are acting in the riverside as if there’s the upside when the conjunction
"in" is telling about some of achievements are taken the black color. There’s
downside for the achievements which are done by the adjective "obvious" as if
the embedding words are acting on the upside of the story so there are ways to
be on other adjective to be couple with achievements or convincing this word
not to accept any adjective. The conjunctions are lightening on the words to
say about the undone part of accomplishments.
The kind of achievement in the matter of word so there’s something new in the
matter of wisdom. There’s the movement in the matter of body. The style of
having sense in the matter of heart. Hurt is made from word when it comes
from the adjective, art is the tact from the verb, dumb from the conjunction
and chef from the preposition so the words could be change in the matter of
"mis" and "miss" as if pouring the black color is on demand and done. The type
of pie is made on the word obvious to make the vague the word achievement

66
 1.10. Cycle And Its Beyond

when preposition for making the cloudy judgment so the word accomplishment
is to make the pi in process of being endless vagueness in the top of tallest
mountains and white clouds in the matter of critical attendance and growing
ambition. The achievements about the having something to be in top as if
the open case is on to be on and off. The structure of having fundamental
infrastructure when the word achievement is coming up so the empire of having
5 stars in the high five of having achievements so there’s point to make the
stars when the staring eyes are on the starring. The motion of body with the
rhythm and tunes when the drinking is done in the lightness of seen tights. The
formation of the accomplishment when the positive mindset is on demand. The
companion of the words achievements and accomplishment when there’s no need
to have them even in the leisure. The kinds of assurance is on demand when the
achievement is the word for us. The accomplishment is the word when the works
are done so there’s the celebrations on the words and on the minds. So the
word accomplishment is the declarations of the done claim when the signature
is written in the smoothly cursive hand-written styles so accomplishment is the
kind of signature in the end of the assignment of knowledge and wisdom. The
word of progress is on demand when the movements of pen are saying obvious
so there’s way to be continued when the word obvious is declaring the time’s
up is the matter of being twice. So the word obvious is the word to open the
door of the time to pick the time up up and put the time up twice. So time’s
up twice.

67
 CHAPTER 2

Detail-oriented Groups And Ideas

2.1 Groupoid And Its Definition

Groupoid, Graph, Matroid with

connections amid them

roupoid And Its Definition #1

The matter of going on the ways which the collections of objects, give the
perspectives of the inspections on the objects which are chosen to be in the
chaos of the objects without rules. The matter of the functions on one collection,
is going to define the structures which are fulfilled with rules of wisdom and
knowledge. The first step is making the first notions of having the structures
of the functions. Functions in the matter of their arguments, could have the
number when their production is one element like n-function as if the multiple
elements are possible to be as if in this case is like having, n parallel items of
1-function which is useless in first glance of study on the set of objects. Objects
are coming into the 2-function as twofold. The common function, could be
like minus, plus, production and division. So the set of objects is demanded.
The set and the specific 2-function on it alongside the interactions amid the
objects of the set under 2-function so there’s one condition. If all objects in
the actions of this 2-function, are producing the object in that set then the
set is groupoid. One starting steps toward up to be the group. The object are
coming up to be the arguments of 2-function, as pairs. Any pairs of the set’s
objects, are considered the two possible arguments of the intended 2-function.
So the work of the 2-function on the pair, is expected to be the object as if
in the used set. If so, the atmosphere and the planes which are including one
set of object, one 2-function and one condition are said to be groupoid. In
this groupoid, the important idea is the set. So the selections of the objects
could be the determiner when the discussion is about being the group in the
communications amid objects to introduce one object from the set. The set of
minds are demanding to bring the objects together. The notions of finding the
2-functions in the proper communications with the set and the condition, are
necessary. The condition of being the closed set in the term of the 2-function is
all about the condition. The condition is about set’s two objects is corresponding
to set’s one object.
Groupoid And Its Definition #2

69
2. Detail-oriented Groups And Ideas

Groupoid is the kind of planet which all people in that, under the attributes,
are coming together in the way of communication amid two people for making
the result of their session introducing another person of the planet so if the
communications amid any pair of people, are closed in the matter of planet’s
people, the planet is groupoid. It’s worthy to note the number of participants
into the sessions could be any number so in that case, the word n-planet and
the word n-function are making senses in the term of n-groupoid and n-array.
The n-groupoid is the term when the only slight change is about the function
which is now, n-function. The closed set is accepting the internal connections
so this is the general definition which is said to be n-groupoid. The n-structure
is coming up in the terms of necessary and sufficient words. The permutation
is the better word to describe the concept in the single word. So there’s some
consequences when this word is coming up. n-permutation is the term when
n is about the number of arguments of the n-function and it isn’t about the
number of the intended set. The set could be infinite or infinite in the terms
of possibilities. Groupoid is permutation in the terms of definition. So it’s the
discussion about the rearrangements of set’s objects. Going into the simple
model entitled 2-permutation. Two objects are ready so the interesting question
is wondered. If the ways in that, two objects are entering, is the matter of
mind in the terms of permutation amid two objects. In other hands, the term
of permutation on the two objects when is said to be where the outputs are the
same. Two inputs are coming up when the first argument and second argument
are changed like rearrangement amid two objects as if the one output in these
two cases, is the same so this groupoid is permutable. The permutation is
the fresh idea about the set when the ineffective rearrangements are made
in the terms of the set’s objects, and the permutation is the refresh notions
when the ineffective rearrangements are made in the terms of the function’s
objects. The output is forever single when the n is coming up in the terms
of fierce pressures on the output when the inputs are spreading the n in the
arbitrary numbers. n-to-one is the compressing vision on the definition of the
groupoid. So n-groupoid is n-to-one in the closed sets of objects. The suffix
of -oid is the reminder about the sketch and scheme in the previous word like
the adjective is changed its style to change the noun in the ways of totality for
changing all nouns with single wordoid. Like word is changing to be, in the
kind of something-oid, wordoid. The single suffix is sufficient to change the all
nouns in the kind of living in the ghost style of the noun as if in the worst way
when the suffix -oid, is telling us about the noun is only like ashes of the noun
or it only as the least analogous attribute to the noun before the suffix -oid.
Back to the word groupoid when the groupoid is named permutation, n-to-all
in its birthdays and its celebrations for getting the new names. The kind of
getting the name in the matter of words when the word is the name and vice
versa. The kind of geometric modeling when the objects are the vertices and
2-function is making the link amid two vertices if the answer is the same in
the replacing the argument so there’s the communicative graph to open the
ways for getting its attribute in the term of graph theory and in coinciding the
results amid these two branches for solving the corresponding problem in the
effectively fast ways. The notion of closed set is too close to having the kind of
graph modeling. In the kind of finite groupoid when the set is generated by one
element, the cyclic groupoid is ready. In the term of modeling the 2-groupoid,
it’s possible to consider the vertices like all possible pairs of the object and the

70
 2.1. Groupoid And Its Definition

links are possible when the first array of the vertex is the same with the output
of 2-function. With analogous to this approach, there’s idea to open the study
when the second array is the matter of mind.
Groupoid And Its Definition #3
The kind of movement in the upcoming formation of the objects where joint
connection has the single answer forth same style. So in that way of having
the closed relations, the attention is about the exchange of two points with one
point. The set of objects where they’re closed to accept new object so there’s the
point in that way which is acted to be in lines of the study. The set and a subset
with a function to make the connections amid them in the matter of groupoid.
So in the comparison to others styles which are too close to this formation,
there’s the set and the set of the its subsets with three conditions only about
the second set like the first set is the opening way to start the definition and
its world in the matter of matroid. There’s set and a set with a function to
make the connections amid them in the matter of graph. The kind of starting
when all have the given set as if in the way of adding the words, a subset, a
set of related subsets, and a set, are coming up to make the formations of the
words in the lines of words. The perspective of the suspicious words are going
to be declined in the matter of minds. The kind of generating members in the
form of generated set is coming up to show the directions on moving forward to
make the foreword on the definition when the result is off. Generated set in the
kind of something-oid in the matter of result and it’s the kind of customized
ways of the definition to open the ways to have the open results to moving
forward on the ways of results in the matter of embedding words. There’s the
set and the function on its subset, so there’s point which in one hand, they’re
the open way to permute the words so the function could be the base so every
function is desired when the function is acting on the set. So the set in which
the function is defined on it and to go in another set, could be the intended
subset and intended set as if the challenging word is the set when the process of
doing via function, implies that the set must be closed in the terms of function
when it’s acting on the all given subsets excerpt from the set. The permutations
of the words when the keywords are lost. Next is the subset so in this case, one
subset is greed. The companion is up when the function has the necessary and
sufficient word in the definition of groupoid. In the left hand, the function has
the intended subset and in the right hand, the function has the intended set
as if in the bottom line, there’s the pattern in which the function is relating
the left hand to the right hand in the matter of covering all subset’s members
in the way that there’s no need to cover the set’s members. Another way of
moving forward, is about the restrictions on the functions when the customized
versions are existed in the matter relation amid these two subset and set which
in that, the set is forever as if the subset is the given subset from the intended
set. The types of functions are coming up. The one-to-one function and onto
function are coming up. The styles of function could make the new groupoid if
the upper function, without any restriction, couldn’t do that, if so, there’s the
new groupoid in the matter of minds which are pouring the black color on the
new groupoid when the action is done in the general case so the new groupoid,
is the obvious word so it’s colorize by black. The kind of specific examples
could be the new definition for the groupoid when the all things are coming
out to see what is the word as if in the stage of giving the new name in the
matter of words. Groupoid is function in its birthdays when the celebrations

71
2. Detail-oriented Groups And Ideas

are done in the kind of having the new name. Introducing the specific function,
could be the survivor, when the words are getting to be closer and closer to the
numbers when the color of having the generality is going the sense of having
the certainty. In the matter of having customized words, the definition of the
function could be started with the words, numbers or the mixed combinations
of them. With analogous to this process, the similar approach, could be done
in the terms of seeing the set and all its given subsets.
Groupoid And Its Definition #4
The groupoid could have the internal changes amid its words in the matter of
definition or could be done in the external changes amid internal structures or
external structure in the matter of field and branches so there’s the point to
find the word to reassure the ways are coming up in the ways of the continuous
traces.
The set and the set are on the context of the definition is assigned to graph so
there’s a need to have the 2-function amid them as if the left hand and right
hand in the 2-function are too different in the way 2-function is acting on so
the set in the left hand, is said to be vertices and the set in the right hand,
is said to be edges. There’s the analogy amid the concepts of groupoid and
graph. so there’s the curious question: is any of groupoid, graph? or it could
be? with changes in the styles of adding and losing, is there something to make
sense? The story is about set and its subset and also the story is about two
independent sets. So the graph couldn’t be the groupoid, generally. Because the
gist of grouped is the customized version of graph and the analogous sentence
in the reverse, it isn’t true. Deep rolling in the texts and words, The set is
the vertices and the subset is edges in the matter of making connections amid
groupoid and graph. The term of subset again the independent set are making
some doubts and it’s making some suspicion about the consequences of having
the obviously strong relation amid two sets as if two independent sets are ready.
There’s no problem in this case because in the context of definition which is
assigned to the word graph, there’s nothing more than three words, set, set and
2-function. So every groupoid has the exhibition from the style of graph. So
there’s a leading question, is there some attributes in any of this branch to make
the sense about the adaption or making the solution about their problem in
the interdisciplinary visions amid two different styles? The number of vertex’s
neighbors aren’t the matter of mind even in the specific structures in the term
of groupoid. In the literature of the groupoid, the neighbor is translating to be
the number of using the object in the 2-function. So sending the word neighbor
into the foreign world to see welcome as if in groupoid. One object is chosen in
the given way of having the given object. One object is going to have the name
argument in the number of the set’s objects so the object is the word argument
in the literature of groupoid, in n times which has the adaption with the ideal
word in the graph which is complete graph. Any vertex in complete graph, has
n-1 edges which are also denoting the number of its neighbors. So there’s one
obstacle when n neighbors of the object in the groupoid, couldn’t decrease to be
n-1 neighbors in the complete versions of graph in the perfect potential abilities
of having neighbors in graph. There’s one way to moving forward when the
obstacle is showing the red circle with the white word with four letters stop in
the form of adding s to the word top. The permission to the graph for using the
loop so the graph is getting new structure which there’s no longer about the
exhibition of simple graph so the line is writing and drawing on the word simple

72
 2.1. Groupoid And Its Definition

so the simple isn’t existed as if the two words with loops, are allowing to back
to the word simple. So there’s the simple graph with loops and without parallel
edges. The parallel edges in the term of groupoid, means the same inputs has
two different outputs when they’re coming into the 2-function. So the parallel
edges aren’t allowed when it doesn’t make sense where it comes to groupoid.
The gist of having the word vertex and the word edge, are sending into the
groupoid with comparison to its partner in the exhibitions of the graph beyond
the terms. The vertex is the member of the subset in the groupoid and the
situation even goes to be the worst when the subset is changeable and the set
isn’t changeable in the graph. By neglecting this point for completing the lines
of words, the vertex is the member of the subset so the edges are the members
of the set so there’s something coming into the minds about having more edges
that vertices so the ideal version of groupoid, is demanded so the obvious subset
is needed. In left hand, the subset must be the set so there’s the notion about
the graph which is missed, it’s about the 2-function, the 1-function in graph is
one-to-one and onto. There’s more point, it’s 1-function and it isn’t 2-function.
There are too many obstacles when the moving forward amid the customized
versions, is unable to work. The 2-function could be 1-function in the terms
of changing the words to have one word. Or 1-function could be 2-function
in the analogous way when the fatal error and critical obstacle are about the
n-function. Every case could go into the customized version of its perfectness
to see some adaption at least with first glance. The 1-function in the graph
could be changed to be the 2-function when the subset of the set is acting like
the process in the groupoid. The edge is the pair of two vertices so the set of
edges, is the subset of vertices. So the problem is solved when the graph has
the word, subset, set, and 2-function when the 2-function doesn’t need to be
one-to-one and onto. So the groupoid, in this illustration, is graph. So there’s
the celebration for the groupoid which gets the new name in its birthdays when
is done by getting the name in the terms of getting the new word. So the graph
is also the groupoid in the terms of groupoid and its definitions.
Groupoid And Its Definition #5
Again the material of graph, is sending on the groupoid. In the left hand is
the graph as if in the second hand, is the groupoid. The corresponded number
to the vertex, is n and the corresponded number to the object is n. So the
first set in both functions are acting in the same way. Going on the second set,
the corresponded number to the edge, is n power 2. On the right hand, the
corresponded number to object is n power 2. So the obvious adaption on the
both hands are obvious as if the customized cases in both hands, are humming
the obvious editions. In the left hand, the 1-function is from the set to another
set with the same sizes in both sets so on the left hand and on the right hand,
there’s two sets with different objects as if the numbers of objects are the same.
On the right hand, 1-function has two same sets in the terms of objects and
number of set’s objects. So in this case, there’s the sense to be open. The cases
about the graph’s definition, are coming up to find the words in that the good
sense is made. The graph could be defined in the way that, the set and its
subset are ready to have the bigger generality to take the actions. So in this
new word in the term of definition, The groupoid is giving the complex process
of making edges amid the vertices which are given subset’s members of a given
set. So the vertices are the objects in the 2-function when it’s producing one
object with the certain rules. So in the right hand, there’s a need for function

73
2. Detail-oriented Groups And Ideas

which in that there’s the rule from function’s left hand to the function’s right
hand, in the way that in the left hand, with the pattern’s vertices, has the
complete adaptions. So the discussion in this customized atmosphere, is about
the patterns and functions. The complete graph with loops, which in that
the number of edges are n power 2 so the intended subset is the intended set
so what’s happening when the graph like a geometrical object with the edges
and vertices are coming up as if there isn’t forever the rules for the ways of
connection so there’s the another obstacle. Back to the open case which has the
obvious modeling in that, two sets of objects, in both left hand and right hands,
are the same when in the left hand, the set of vertices has as the same size as
the set of edges has. So there’s the idea to change the definition of groupoid
in the matter of words when the generality is lightening on the words. The
groupoid is about two sets of the objects with same sizes and the function which
gives the rule for connecting these two sets to each others. The kind of naming
on the vertices and edges of the graphs, are demanded because the vertices and
edges are the same so they’ve created one-element set. After naming, there’s
the same situations amid graph and groupoid. There’re too works to do in the
left hand about finding the patterns amid the connections which are made amid
vertices and edges. The complete graph with loops is ready when x and y are
the objects to make xy with the rules for defining the sticking two objects as
if the numbers are demanded as the objects to have some principles to make
sense what’s going on.
The symbols for two given objects, are like x and y or u and v. As if the
discussion is landed amid words in the definitions of graph and groupoid. The
algebraic pattern and geometrical pattern are the matter of word. How to get
the pattern from the algebraic structures to use in the geometrical structures
and vice versa. How to give the names to the objects on the graph or just
making the modeling for the algebraic structure. There’re two objects in the
inputs and one object in the output as if the ideal case is about having one
object in the input and one object in the output.
There are some ideas to affect on the left hand of the story. The collections of
the graphs are coming from the groupoid. Any of groupoid’s object is modeled
by one graph in that way, which the intended object as first argument, is always
the same in the putting all groupoid’s objects so the graph could be named by
this object. There are n graphs as the modeling when the n is the groupoid’s
objects. There’s no vagueness because every two objects under the 2-function,
are giving another groupoid’s object. So the input’s new object in the second
argument could make the edge with the output’s object.
Matroid is picked up for being on the left hand. The situation is too close to
the partner in the groupoid. There are some internal relationship amid the set
of some subsets in the matroid in the left hand as if the internal relationship the
members of the subset of the set in the groupoid, are only about being closed.
There is an agreement about existing one given set. Next, there’s a given set of
some subsets in the left hand as if there’s a given subset in the right hand. So
there’s no meaningful connection amid these two concepts. The concept of being
closed goes to pick up the concept of function. The concept of being closed in
the left hand, could be slightly different. In the third condition, there’s two
elements, like two arguments of a function, so if the size of these two elements
are different, there’s output’s element. So this process could be considered as
ghost 2-function like groupoid in the right hand because there’s the problem

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 2.1. Groupoid And Its Definition

when two elements have the same size. The modeling of losing element and
changing to new element is another problem in the second condition and having
empty set is else in the left hand. The matroid is telling about making new
elements in the kind of losing member or adding one member when two elements
have different sizes with the agreement about having the empty set.
Groupoid And Its Definition #6
The structure of having the set and the function is the notion of groupoid in the
word of closed set. The set is coming up. So the way in which the set is closed,
it’s named groupoid. Groupoid is closed set. The kind of naming is ongoing.
The groupoid is closed set in its birthdays and its celebration for getting the
new name. The name of closed set is the word in which the material for having
this word is on demand. The 2-function and the subset are some concepts
in which the notion of closed set is the spotlight. So finding the word closed
set in some structures without any material to get the analogous notion. The
graph, in some viewpoints, has two sets which with the corresponding function,
there’s a way to go. There’s two sets and the concept of the closed set is too
complicated when the set is about the word closed. The kind of approach in
that the approximate modeling is greed as if it isn’t about something I’ve called
moving on. The perception of the closed set, could be implemented on the tool
of a function so if it’s the set, an 2-function could be proved that the set is
closed under the certain set. So the word closed, is about the set and it’s about
the function. If there’s the 2-function on the intended set, the intended set is
said to be closed set.
The concept of being closed is assigned to the set as if the word closed is about
the existence an 2-function. So the set is closed under 2-function and this
sentence is the gist of groupoid. The groupoid is the kind of notion about the
interaction amid set’s objects when the desire is about being the interaction
only amid set’s objects in the term of the adjective closed on the noun set.
So the set is restricted or the function will be found, otherwise the set isn’t
qualified and isn’t eligible to have the adjective closed. The formation of the
objects to make harmony amid the 2-function and the objects, is the matter
of mind. So the kind of harmony amid the objects are greed. The set whose
objects are under the 2-operation, is said to be closed. The sort of harmony in
the matter of output, is about the set whose objects are only the black players
in the kind of white word, closed. In the left hand, the graph has 1-function
whose attributes are about being one-to-one and onto. So two different sets
are alongside the 1-function so seeking to find another words in the terms of
definition. The hypothetical situation in that, there’s the 2-function and the set
are going to build the definition of graphs. The kind of modeling is a matter
of mind when the edges needs another name and word in the word of vertex.
The kind of translation from the edge to the vertex when the two vertices could
create one edge.
The edge could be the subset of the set whose members are ordered or unordered
pair, couple or twofold. The sense of having seen edge is approaching to be
closed to the matter of mind. The formation of the groupoid is about the set and
2-function when now is something about that. The subset of all pairs of vertices
is on left hand of 2-function and on the right hand, there’s the generating
word and the base of the definition, intended set. A set with 2-function on
it, is coming up to made to concept about the groupoid and the graph in the
matter of words. By analogous to the groupoid, the definition is made so there’s

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2. Detail-oriented Groups And Ideas

the work to examine the geometrical confirmation. On the left hand, given
edges, given vertices and given 2-function are the keywords in the matter of
the definition. The kind of rolling into deep to find theses concept on the
2-function. The edge has two vertices so the kind of identifications and the
style of characteristics, are made. The left hand of the 2-function is about two
vertices so these two vertices could be chosen from the two vertices of the edge.
So the specific subset of the set including all possible pairs of the intended set,
is analogous to the given subset on the right hand, in the matter of definition
groupoid. Back to the left hand, the subset on the left hand of the 2-function,
is corresponded to the set of edges. So the problem in the left hand of this
2-function, is solved.
On the right hand of 2-function is the object so there’s need to have the
corresponded concept in the matter of this object which is now useless when
the edges on the left hand of the 2-function, are said the whole thing about the
vertices, the edges and the relations amid them as if there’s something which is
coming up to the mind. The vertex on the right hand, could be the new name
of the edge from some set’s member when the one-to-one and onto attributes
are deleted. So there’s the new definition for the graph in the matter of word,
groupoid. The graph is neither-one-to-one-nor-onto 2-function whose elements
are the corresponded subset to the edges, necessarily and having no attribute’s
onto and one-to-one when the right hand is the intended set as if there’s the
something about the notation when the definition is too close to each other in
the terms of graph and groupoid. On the left hand, the notation is the previous
notation as if the modeling the definition has the same ways with groupoid. So
two sets and 1-function is said to be in the atmosphere is named graph if the
set of the edges are corresponded to the subset of pairs coming from the set of
vertices so the subset in the groupoid’s 2-function is Okay. 2-function is also
ready when the left hand, is Okay and in the right hand, the set of vertices is
Okay so always there’s this 2-function as if the rules of this concept, couldn’t
obtain like groupoid and it’s never minded in this case because the consequence
of 2-function is now ready. As if it’s worthy to note this clarification so it’s
open to get the new result concerning this restrictions. The 2-function with the
two subsets from the intended set in the left hand and the intended set in the
right hand, with the all consequences about the function’s rule in the matter
of seeing as if there’s no word to describe and get the rule for it in the matter
of minds. To sum up, the graph in the left hand is the groupoid in the right
hand by this new modeling of the principles. The gist of the graph implies the
word groupoid. The words of set of vertices, set of edges and one-to-one-onto
1-function which has the key role amid them when the set of edges are in the
left hand of the function and the set of vertices are in the right hand of the
function with two words onto and one-to-one to made the ghost rule for this
function, now have the same groups like neither-one-to-one-nor-onto 2-function
in the the left hand of it, there’s the corresponded set of edges and on the
right hand of it, there’s the set of vertices when the rules are coming from
the relationship amid edges and vertices. So there’s the spidering definition
with the ghost function and all is done in the term of words in the kind of
definition of groupoid when the necessary condition for being groupoid is done
so every graph is the groupoid. The kind of convenient definition in the terms
of having the framework to move forward on the ideas, approaches, contrast
and comparisons in the term of groupoid and its definition.

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 2.1. Groupoid And Its Definition

Groupoid And Its Definition #7

The sort of being equivalence in the terms of two words, the graph has the name
groupoid in its birthdays and its celebrations. The class of graph is complete
graph so it’s time to send them in the groupoid to make sense what’s need to see.
The formation amid words are going to the land of names. So the objects are
all the vertices and the left hand of the 2-function is edges. An exchange amid
graph and groupoid is done in the terms of classification as if the attributes
are now the greed. The complete graph in the type of groupoid, there’s the
closed set which is now available when the edges are left in the style which has
to accept the all edges as the set so the set of edges is closed set. So the set of
edges is groupoid. As if this concept may be new when the term closed is about
the set and not about the specific subset then if it could be about the specific
subset, it isn’t about all subsets. By considering this new algebraic structure,
there’s the fundamental and destructive question which is collapsing everything
like dominos: What does this concept have? The advantages and disadvantages
of this statement in the form of definition. The term definition implies that the
words of its sections must be investigated and after that proving the critical
attributes about well-defined definition is on demand. The section is the term
which is using for the description of definition in the total ways as jargons
and buzzwords. So when the buzzword and the jargon groupoid is leaving its
umbrella on the section, there’s too much to rain on the section when it hasn’t
gotten the name yet. Name is the kind of security and safety when it’s about a
way to go so way to go to be a way to go under the name and the brand. The
formal definition is demanded when the action of doing crime is obvious.
The title is quasi-group in the hope of changing the word title to the name
when the lightening words are coming up. There’s the given set from the given
objects. The subset of this set, is said to be quasi-closed where there’s an
2-function from the cartesian product on the subset which is implying the styles
of pairs/couple/twofold members/two-element set to the set of objects. So using
the word groupoid is wondered about the types of using this concept in this
word when the biggest claim is coming up which is about the extension of the
word groupoid in the general word which is the base. Groupoid is closed set.
So the concept of quasi-closed set, which is about the specific subset even isn’t
the closed set. The specific version of having the concept closed set which is
available when the second hand of 2-function is extended to the bigger set so
it’s the kind of absurdity. The second hand of 2-function is changed to be about
the subset so the subset is became closed set. So the both titles, quasi-group
and quasi-closed, are invalid and discredit so this titles are done in the way
of getting the name then back to the notion of closed set. There’s an ideas
about deleting the vertices in the way of getting the name. So there’s the
new definition with the title of closed set. So with retrospect, it’s exactly the
groupoid. The groupoid is the set with a binary operation on it. So the graph
is the set of edges with a binary operation on it where the edges are twofold
about two vertices which are the ends of edge. The term of groupoid is the
name for graph so when there’s the graph then there’s the set of vertices, the set
of edges and the one-to-one-and-onto function amid the edges and the vertices
as its consequences. With hindsight, the set of edges is the intended set in the
definition of groupoid and this set is obviously closed so there’s the groupoid.
In the illustration of this situation, the word edge implies two vertices so the
edge has two useful vertices where the vertices could be isolated then there’s the

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2. Detail-oriented Groups And Ideas

need to change the section of the word graph, in that way which the adjectives
of the function, are deleted. Then open to back.
On the left hand, the matroid is ready. So the kind of approaching to the
concept of groupoid, is the greed. The term of closed set is studying on the
all sets in this word. The set is consisting of some subsets of E. This set is
named I. In briefly reviewing of its literature, two given elements of I is ready
to explore the concept of being closed. In the matter of element’s size, two
elements are comparable so if there’s the inequality amid them in the term of
element’s size, the new element is introduced so 2-function is the comparison
relation so if two elements have the same size, the problem will be opened. The
third condition of the word matroid, could be considered to get the word closed
set for word matroid with the exception of having the same size. When two
given elements have the same sizes, there’s one case to be follow-up. The case
of having at least one different member in the comparison amid two sets when
the binary operation is the comparison of the size and not the members in the
general viewpoint and the ideally extremism. Going on the embedding concept
when binary operation is the comparison about the member so the equality
is solved as the problem then the definition is. Every two given elements are
either the same or not. In the left hand, in the term of conjunctions either?or,
the case remarks the same elements so it’s Okay to have the contract/deal
for corresponding/ assigning the same element as the output. On the right
hand, the problem is solved prior/in advance when it remarks to create the new
element which is already in I, in advance, which is credited and valid by third
condition of the word matroid.
Groupoid And Its Definition #8
The groupoid is the kind of fantasizing about the size of connections where
two words are trying to get the names to each other. The groupoid is the kind
of set with binary operation and the new word which is closed set. The term
closed set is implying the set is involving with the total amounts of its objects
in the kind of combination which the production is about the its object as the
singleton. The singleton is the kind of answer to acting on given two arguments.
The graph is seen as if in the hope of having corresponded one set and the
corresponded one binary operation on it. The kind of acting on the set with
output of having one object. Graph is the kind of corresponded edges to the set
of vertices. So the relation isn’t about using the total potential abilities of one
object as if the least abilities have no problem which means the vertex could
have no corresponded edge and no neighbor in the kind of having connection in
the term of edge in the word of being isolated. There’s the trying to find the
set could it be the intended set when I’m talking about set of edges?
To convey the groupoid to the graph and vice versa. There’s seen chances
about the set of edges. Edge has two ends. So the input of binary operation is
ready so what’s about the right hand of 2-operation when the situation which
is the worst when this way wants to redefine the word graph as if the story is
going beyond. If the binary operation is redefined on the set of edges, there’s
some pros/advantages and cons/disadvantages. On the right hands, there’s
the gist of vertices when the edges are twofold including two vertices as their
exhibitions so there’s the word graph because there’s the word vertices and the
word edges with the word relationship amid them. As if on the left hand, the
algebraic structure implies something about the appearance so when the left
hand of the function/map is ready, there’s the implication about the right hand

78
 2.1. Groupoid And Its Definition

which is about the set of edges. 2-operation is the structure which the input
is twofold and the output is appearing once so the output is one objects. To
sum up word, 2-operation is the kind of two-becomes-one when the restriction
and the adjective aren’t the matter of minds as if in the word groupoid, there’s
adjective/restriction to handle the situation with adjective and restriction "on
it" in two words and parts of speech preposition and pronoun. So there’s the
2-operation on the set of edges as if it’s done on the customized version of set of
vertices. If so, the edge in the form of two vertices, has the unseen rule of the
selection about the object from its style is made in the categories of vertices.
The 2-operation is precisely on the specific set. The set is about the formation
of vertices regarding to edges so the set is including vertices which have the
connections with the vertices inside their sets. Another exploration implies
about the unordered couple when the first array and the second array aren’t
the matter of minds so there’s no ordinal number to use. 2-operation on the
intended set with the adjective about two inputs so how to write these in the
principle of math when the description isn’t the matter of minds where the
matter of mind is defining all words in obvious ways of having the common
principles.
The set of vertices is chosen when the vertices have the attributes of making
the edges so there’s the fundamental question and not monumental query, the
2-binary operation has the need about the set, it’s Okay to give the customized
set as if this set is giving something to restrict the 2-operation when the slight
change is impossible as if the open way is ready when the word 2-operation
isn’t used. The restrictions are about the selections of vertex which implies
some vertices aren’t used which is in the contradiction to the word operation,
map, function and any word is related to the word as if there’s the open way
to do when the kind of sub-something is coming up. The subset is the good
word to have the intended vertices as if it’s in the contradiction with two words
"on it" when the same sets are on demand so the changes on the right hand of
the function is done on the obvious way of having triple same sets. So there’s
2-operation on what? the situation is getting worse than the time when the
rule of 2-operation isn’t well-defined in the matter of words or mind, there’s
no way to bring something. There’s the way on the relationship amid couple
of vertices and edges as if the adjectives "opened" or "closed" is the unknown
words and the open is about the word and not ways.
The relationship amid edges and vertices usually have no rules. So in the
case, the kind of study on making quasi-rules or ghost-rules is on demand in
the matter of 2-operation. The Matroid is popping out the set which could
be the intended set in the form of groupoid with the viewpoint of birds’ eyes
instead viewpoint of words. There’s two common sets with some ghost-sets and
quasi-sets. Firstly, there’s the runaway set E because it only appears in the first
word and first line as if after that, there’s no information about it like it left.
On the other hands, there’s the ghost-set I which is the set of some subsets of E
and finally, there’s quasi-sets which are either the member of E or the member
of I in the matter of formation about the word set when sometimes they’re sets
and sometimes not in the matter of styles as existence. The binary operation
on any of this set is getting the way to go like exploration on binary operation
in the kind of impacts on some structures, too.
Groupoid And Its Definition #9
The kind of word is making the love when the topic is open a lot. The discussion

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2. Detail-oriented Groups And Ideas

about how to be groupoid, it takes the long time to be on demand. The term
groupoid is about the term when the matroid and graph is on demand. The
kind of sort on the lines when the love of groupoid is on demand. The topic
of being the groupoid is the kind of term where the principles are on demand.
The scrutiny on the words to find the words from words. The kind of closed set
is saying about the communication amid two objects and the point is about the
membership and belonging as if in this case, the outcome of this communication
has to be in the intended set. The binary operation is the tool to have the word
closed in the term of set. Three copies from the set and the function are all.
The kind of set is on demand which in that the objects could find the kind of
attribute in that given two objects are introducing the other objects in the set.
So in the first step, finding the set in every structure for having the result in
the word of groupoid to write the dot and entering the space to start the new
line of words. The result from the style of groupoid to make the groupoid’s
result once. The move of groupoid in the way which the hope is the kind of
directions. Groupoid is the kind of group which has the necessary relation to
have the word group. Every relation amid sets, could give us the groupoid.
Groupoid is the set and a relation on it which this relation makes the word for
groupoid. The set and the binary operation could be the couple in the word
of groupoid. The set is seeking amid all binary operations to find the adapted
binary operation so they are the couple which are said to be groupoid and vice
versa, the binary operation is seeking amid all sets to find the adapted set which
in that its attribute, make the couple to be groupoid. The kind of machinery
for typing, is seeking the results for groupoid, generally, to press the key about
the ending of paragraph so the sound is heard to be in the first line of the new
paragraph when there’s one paragraph concerning the groupoid’s result. The
kind of reviewing the literatures and the results are on demand in the term of
re-something on demand. Redoing and reconsidering are on demand when the
process of the pro-something is on demand.
Tackling the words are on demand so the kind of set is going on. The track
of words are going on. As if the words aren’t ready to give the second. So
the function of finding the one, is turning out to find the couple which is the
groupoid in the other branch of the world when the word says us that it doesn’t
has the one. The process of finding the couple are doing in the branch of
matroid and graph. The set with three copies of it. The kind of progress is
on the walls as if the doors are closed in all directions. The kind of recreating
the concepts to make what’s need to be. The three sets from I. So there’s the
set which all members are the sets, now, it’s left behind where the customized
attributes of this set, are making the word matroid. The kind of approach is on
demand to cover all directions on demand. Three sets with set-style member so
there’s no need to mention the name I. In graph, there’s the set of non-set-style
members as if in matroid, there’s the set of set-style members.
Two sets in left hand and one set in right hand as if all the sets are the same.
Going a little up, two given members are ready, it’s worthy to remind that the
words member is non-set-style and element is set-style. A jump to up, the style
of member is considered to be number so the flexible discrete set is on demand.
The set of integers are the case so this set is seeking the binary operation. The
well-known binary operations are plus, minus and production. As if the division
isn’t amid them because there’s one exception about the zero. So integers have
three couples with three different binary operations. The natural set is the

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 2.1. Groupoid And Its Definition

kind of set which is seeking the second part for being the couple. The binary
operations, plus and production, are found for natural so the natural has two
couples. The process of taking adjective apart for getting the word alone, is the
kind of process to go in deep as if less harmful.
Two sets and their coupling, are exemplifying for the concept of groupoid. To
make the more clarifications, the other type of sets are on. The set of some sets
in the ideal case, is named to be the word power. Power set in the kind of set
which its all members are set-style members in some viewpoint. The power set
is the unary operation and it depends on the input set in unnecessary viewpoint
which is firstly passed in the minds. Power set is the set of all the intended set’s
subsets. So it’s the obvious set about being the complete in the term of word.
The binary operations, union and intersection, are finding the set to be couple.
The power is found for both so the power with union is the couple as if the
power with intersection is couple. The power has two couples. The permutation
of the set’s objects with counting the size of set, could make couple when the
set of number is ready. So the set of some numbers, has the couple with binary
operation, permutation, when the order is the matter of mind as if the order
hasn’t existed in the set. The set is the collections of obvious objects when
the existence is important and the rearrangements of objects, doesn’t implies
having the new set as if the permutation is the collections of obvious objects
when the order is important and any rearrangement of objects, implies having
the new permutation. So the permutation is the collection which is found its
binary operation which is the combinations amid two functions so permutation
has at least one couple.
Groupoid And Its Definition #10
Groupoid is the point when the point and the pointer are the metaphor for the
closed set. Two objects are made in the form of finding the way in common.
Ways are leading to the binary operation when the time is for coupling. The
groupoid is the couple of styles which are about the set and the function. So
the styles of input and output are the matter of words. A set and one function
on it, is inspiring the word automorphism which is the unary operation on
the input set which is the idealism and extremism about the function. Two
well-known functions are homomorphism and isomorphism as if they’re unary
operation and not binary operation. The style of set and the style of binary
operation are the style of couple. The circle and the line are the couple in the
matter of shapes. The term circle could be the name for the set when the set’s
objects could be rearranged without any change on set. The concept of circle
and cycle, are about the lack of order. The set’s objects are the same in the
matter of all words so the set is cycle in its birthdays for getting the name in
the celebration. The cycle and set are the parallel concepts. All attributes of
the set’s objects are as the same as the cycle is. So the cycle or set isn’t the
matter of word. Binary operation on the cycle when the cycle is graph’s object
in the matter of finding the door which is open to enter. Set is substituted by
the cycle so the binary operation on the cycle to find some senses. Two given
vertices, are introducing another vertex when the new vertex is the next vertex
to go on the cycle. Every vertex has two choices so it doesn’t work when all
given two sets are desired to work when the number of inputs n power 2 in the
matter of all existed vertices which is n. The class of graph is too close to this
concept, the complete graph has n power 2 number of relation amid vertices in
the matter of edges.

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2. Detail-oriented Groups And Ideas

The complete graph is the ideal graph when the perfect situation is made. The
complete graph is groupoid so the right hand is ongoing: is the groupoid a
complete graph? The left hand of binary operation is Okay when the complete
graph is up. The right hand of binary operation is about assigning the vertex
to these two vertices. There’s the option to assign to the one vertex involving
the edge so every vertex is assigned three times which isn’t the matter of
binary operation. So complete graph is groupoid as if there’s groupoid which
is complete graph and not all in the matter of groupoid. Tour of the word
with the title groupoid which is coming from the style of having the closed set.
The set is closed by function like fuck-something and something-tion in the
form of noun as id it’s used for verb in the matter of fuck-tion which is binary
operation on the set of objects where the objects have too many styles as if in
the form of set which is the word about obvious having the objects and not
necessarily obvious objects. So back to set, "obvious having objects" means
the word "membership" is obvious as if the objects could be unseen and vague.
Membership could be presented by objects as if in the upside of this word, the
word membership must be clear and obvious. For instance, having the rules
for getting the word membership having the same approaches or having the
same ideas. The kind of membership is popped in the texts which are defining
the word set. The set could have obvious objects which is the weak situation
and the customized version of the word set. The set should present the word
membership so the set is the obvious collections of objects when the order
doesn’t matter just seeing the objects, is enough. So the set is "Obvious Having
Some Objects". In the other hand, the set is which "is" is the kind of verb is
using for the simple present which is applying for the routines and habitual
conditions. The set is "seeing some different objects". The set is "Seeing The
Different Objects" has the overlap with the word family, family is "Obvious
Seeing Some Objects" in the matter of gathering the objects. The collecting
the objects, proposes two choices or two options or may be two possibilities or
two ways of seeing. "Different" is the word for having the detour from the tours
of set and family. Seeing different or not. So seeing different objects, is leading
to word set as if else is concluding to the word family.
The word "set" excerpt from the definition of word groupoid, telling the mindsets
for word. The set is the word with its couple family which are completing the
definition of the word "collection" "and "reunion". So the reunion of the objects
could say in the terms of two words "set" and "family". Having or assigning the
objects to the hugely diverse set or family when the object is the word could be
defined by anything. The visa versa is obvious when the obvious objects don’t
imply the need for obvious having. The adjective obvious is finding the noun to
stick to it in some ways. Obvious having or obvious objects so sometimes, the
choice is obvious having as if the choice of obvious objects could be the matter
of ways like the chess with different players settling down in some squares which
is dominated by 4 lines. The groupoid is the set and its function when all
things are twofold. Set is testing its word if they sucked? Like the embedding
question when the embedding words are up. Binary operation is the word in
the word groupoid or standalone. Like standing on the mountains so two cases
are ongoing about the functions of the words to be clear to verb about them:
"Fuck" or "Suck" four letters are embedding in one word as if in the matter of
verb in the question form as if stated in imperative form.

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 2.2. Groupoid And Its Connections

2.2 Groupoid And Its Connections

Outlines of necessities for

groupoids, Ideas to seek as detour,
The comparison amid ideas,
Finding new approaches

roupoid And Its Definition #11

The groupoid is the term in the lights of word as if the word set is something
on demand. The binary operation is something about the function when the
function is about the same sets. Two sets are ready so when in every side,
there’s one set, then the function is said to be automorphism and the set of all
automorphisms, is making the famously group which is the kind of group when
the book is started to make the chapters in the way the chapters are going to
be closer and closer, they’re going to be customized so the general concepts
are going to be the special concept then the texts are going to be shorter from
pages to paragraphs to lines to sentences to be remained four words which are
the title of book which is passed on the style of category. Binary operation
has the different style when two same sets instead of one set, debut. Binary
operation is the common stuff amid n-operation where n is increasing discrete
number from one. The kind of finding the all 2-operations or finding the all
n-operations so there’s too much details when the 1-operations in the way any
of them, is found, the set of all 1-operation make group and groupoid. So
there’s the example in that n-operation make the groupoid. By analogous to
this concept, all 2-operation make the groupoid. So there’s the result from the
style of highlight in which two words 2-operation and groupoid are aside.
The same set is the kind of notion in which the copies of the set are becoming
the critical points so there’s two same sets in the lowest level of existence when
the notion of Cartesian product in the algebraic structure are introducing the
couple/pair/2-set. The couple could be presenting the two same objects when
the parallel objects have the permissions to be there like the gist of matrix
which have the parallel objects when the parallel is up. Has anybody called
matroid? matroid has the discussion about triple. It has the discussion about
three styles of the sets. The set of member, The set of some sets and the
members. It seems that there’s need to have three jargons and buzzwords
so "member", "element", and "set" are coming up. The matroid isn’t saying
something about any kind of n-operation in the matter of special functions.
The matroid is the kind of relationship amid three sets without any n-operation
when n is the natural number. The kind of discussion about the objects of the
set which is too close to power set. Three principles to have the characteristic
of the set’s member when the word is matroid. The matroid is the atmosphere
in which adding member is the matter of minds. The first principle is about
having no member. The second principle is about losing member. The third
principle is about adding member. There’s something about the downside and
upside of the set. There’s set’s member and its extension. The kind of moving
on the set when the set is going on the way to produce some elements in losing
and adding members even with having no member. Three parallel frames to
have three kinds of sets to have the way to when moving forward is the word as

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2. Detail-oriented Groups And Ideas

if out of minds, is standing. The kind of n-operation is greed when the function
isn’t there. The kind of gist is desired as if inspiration is operated. Set is the
kind of lack where the lack of arrangement, is the principle. The set is about
the shuffle of members when the eyes are seeing the member so there’s no order
when eyes have the order in the matter of arrangement. Family is the extension
of the set when the copy is legal so it could have too many copies when the
copy is the matter of mind. Two notions from the style of having collections
when the third notion is about the order. The kind of product amid two sets,
makes the set of couples in that the couple is presenting the order as if in the
out of this couple, the disorder and having no order is the principle in the
kind of word is called set. The kind of search is greed to find the collections
with order when the ordinal number is made so there’s no place to use them.
The smoothly moving of the words amid finding the order. Back to groupoid,
binary operation in groupoid, has no sense of order when the couple of points
are demand as the inputs to tell the starting point.
The kind of closed set or the word close is up when the order isn’t when the
shuffle of objects like the disorder in minds are coming up with quasi-red box
to dread from the red light. The order in inputs, is the matter of mind, when
minus has became nominate to be the candidate in minds when the order is
out of minds so there’s the election to get the votes as if the order in minus,
implies having special set. Natural number is out of dispute as if the set of
integers, is open to dispute in the matter of the word closed. Division is out of
mind so there isn’t binary operation when the extension set of integers are the
mart of mind with the zero as obstacle.
To find the rule for binary operation when two sides of the idea, are about
the set and the rule. The rule of combination amid binary operation, is the
rule for having the binary operation on the set of all binary operations. By
analogous to this, n-operation has the analogous rule and analogous set to be
binary operation in the matter the word "all" and "combination". So to sum up,
the rules and the sets are on demand to have a class of binary operations as if
other branches have unwritten rules in the matter of seeing the rules.
Groupoid And Its Definition #12
The groupoid is the concept about how the couple of different styles are coming
up. The paragraph and its structures concerning the word closed set. The set
and binary operation are introducing the new word "closed set". The type of
structure concerning both words set and binary operation on it, is creating the
new word "closed set". Turning words on the new word so there’s too much to
be the word. Groupoid is the word where the joint words are the event. So
the kind of "a" became "o" in the transition of the word "aid" to "oid" in the
form of "groupoid". The couple like co-up are introducing the kind of up in
that the set is deemed in the quasi-closed when the number of objects, usually
says about being closed as if in the ghost of situation, the binary operation
on the set, is telling the kind of being closed as if the number of set’s objects
could go to infinity. Binary operation gets two set’s objects so if it gets out the
set’s object, the set is said to be closed in the term of closed set. Closed set
is the word when there’s the binary operation on it which means there’s the
combination or coupling amid two objects, which produces the one object like
the symbol of heart as if in the love story. The groupoid is the love story in the
word of coupling. "Conscious and coupling" could be the word to describe and
to illustrate the groupoid. The kind of modern concept of being group in the

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term of modern love.

The groupoid is named coupling so there’s another birthdays as the kind of
celebration for getting the new name. Coupling is the machinery function in
that two objects became one object. The kind of approach is turning two out
one. So the love is coming up as if the coupling is coming up. The spread of
love is done in coupling like conscious and coupling are on demand. Conscious
is coming up when the coupling must be on the set so set’s two objects become
set’s one object and it’s "conscious and coupling." Conscious implies the object
is coming from set on the right hands of the game as if the coupling makes the
couple when the set’s two objects are entering.
The kind of citation from two to one so the two elements are making the one
element. There’s available the kind of extension when the set could be the kind
of sets of the embedding sets like the embedding into embedding as if in the
second level, the set so some sets are on demand so the terms of element in the
words are saying welcome. The coupling on the I, when it’s the set of some
subsets, so the I’s two objects get one object and amid this time, conscious is
coming up, so one object is I’s object. The progress of concept in the matter of
coupling, there’s the move on the word when there’s "binary operation: closed
set". The kind of excellence in the excellent word when the cells are excelling
like ex-cell. The kind of word closed when the ex-closed is going up. So the
cell should be ex-cell in the kind of lens with contact as excellence. Moving
on the way of getting the couple in the word where the word is the word in
any form of "closed". The binary operation is the kind of approach to make
sense about close in the matter of set in the way which is moving forward by
knowledge and wisdom. The process of success is done in the achievement
and the accomplishment so the new definition is coming up to make the new
notion. Back and forth in the kind of making word when the word is faced to
restrictions or ambitious. The kind of relation amid all two objects to make the
couple in the form of new object.
Groupoid is moving forward to add customized member to itself so the lines
are decreased in the losing of the word in the progress of time to make 4 words
on the book’s title. The adding member makes the eyes to be stared from the
area to be on the smaller area like magnitude is greed to have the restricted
area to be on the eyes like the death is growing closer and closer. The member
from the style of binary operation when the member is neutral so every object
could be chosen to be pair argument of binary operation when the output is
guaranteed not to be the new object as if the object is in the input, is now in
the output. The kind of ambitious greed for the word close. So when the goal
is about having the objects inside the set, there’s the ideal case in which when
the object is entered, this object is left so the process of finding new object
in the set, is changing its direction to choose the object again. The kind of
coupling in that the new term as object, could be couple with all objects and
the conscious implies in all case the upcoming object is out of the new term
and there’s the obvious rule for making the same object as the result so there’s
the curious question this object is neutral and unseen objects in the word of
impacts so is there the binary operation which have this attribute as the word?
For clarification, the type of function in that, all pairs of objects have to the
consequences like the identity function to be neutral amid all pairs. As if it’s
complex in binary operation because two objects have to propose one object
amid them somehow. So there’s two binary operations on every given set when

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2. Detail-oriented Groups And Ideas

either the first argument is output and or the second argument is output. To
sum it up, all sets could be closed because there are two binary operations,
naturally and obviously. So there’s binary operation in the right hand of this
story. In the left hand, there’s need to have one object to affect on the set in
the somehow being closed set. So there’s modeling object as a model for objects
in that set which all binary operations could make set closed. To back this idea,
the set which is consisting of some objects as if in the style of neutral, could be
the set which all given binary operations could make the set closed. The word
set is doing the limitation which in that the repetition is impossible so there’s
the only case in that the set has only one element in the efforts to finding the
set for all binary operations. The empty set which is the set has no object,
is nominated to be good candidate. And also it’s elected to be the set for all
binary operations. The step is going up more than one. The set with one object
is the set for all binary operations so it doesn’t matter what object is or is the
object neutral because there’s one object and one work to do, the combination
of this object with itself, have to be that object so one binary operation is at
least available and accessible in the word of close. So the attempts to find
the set for all binary operation is failed. As if the concept could go to be
more embedding when it’s embedding in the upside and downside to open the
way for the word close. The member with the attribute of close, is said to be
neutral. So there’s the sketch/scheme of the word "close" on the member of set.
The neutral is the word like death and numb so this adjective is done on the
member to get the name for this word as twofold. Neutral member in every
binary operation, could be the ideal symbol/brand for all objects in the term
of word close. Neutral members are the vision of being closed when all binary
operations are acted the same. So all neural members in the output, is giving
the object is belonging the set. The object is entering to be with the neutral
member and in the output is the object, too. So all objects in the customized
version of all binary operations, could make the word closed with the neutral
members. So the attribute in the set is violating the rule of copyright in set?
if so, there’s at least one neutral set. The couple of neutral member and the
given objects are forever introducing the object in the set for all given binary
operations in the matter of word close.
Groupoid And Its Definition #13
The kind of groupoid is done in the matter of wisdom when the number of
members for the having the word "close", isn’t the matter of wisdom. In the
right hand of knowledge, the word close has pun like the end to the number
of objects which are in the set so there’s something about the countable set
and finite set so the set is finitely countable. The close is the term which is
used for some attributes which are related to set with the title "closed set."
The attributes of set are the matter of words. The number of objects is only
attribute. So there’s something new to be defined on the set and it introduces
some relations amid the objects like interrelation amid objects. The concept
of functions is coming up with the ideas so it’s sensible to have the binary
operation on set. The binary operation is the idea to redefine the concept close
over the set over and over like circle and cycle to have the cycle on the close
and have the circle on the close both in the matter of word closed set. The set
is said to be closed set if the objects are connected to each other in the some
related attributes of binary operation. If binary operation takes two objects
from the set as if it gives one object belongs to the set, the set is said to be

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closed set. Another attribute on the set, is redefining on the set in the way
which the term subset is the word to get some subsets on the set and with
three sets and three principles, there’s something about set and its objects in
the way that using of set and its subset, is obvious as if the binary operations
are redefining the relations amid objects without using the set.
The term of closed set, what’s the new word for it in the word matroid? The
word closed set, is about the E as the base. So E and the set I from some its
subsets, is said to be closed set if the I is closed set. The kind of word moving
forward or sending forward when E sends I to be the topic in the word of
closed set. So if I which is depending on E, is said to be closed set, then it has
empty set; losing of member from its element, makes the new element; adding
member to its element which doesn’t have the greatest size, makes the new
element; and vice versa. So E is closed set when the kind of set from its power
set, is closed set because its elements are closed amid some operations to make
new elements. The term of closed set is the name for matroid so the matroid
is closed set in its birthdays and the celebration for it. The study of closed
set in the term of graph, two sets and the related one-operation as if in the
geometrical presentation. The graph is the term when the concept of closed set
is up. The set [of vertices] is said to be closed set when the forwarding set [set
of edges] from the two choices of the set, is closed set in the matter of having
two vertices when they’re on the figure. Is it obvious? Is there some attributes?
Is there something new? Is it new definition and its specialized consequences?
The closed set is the set in that the two pairs of the vertices are putting in the
way that the set is closed by the edges so the term of closed, is done in the
form of set.
The kind of being closed in the forms like some attributes, some operations,
some associated sets and something like that. The closed set is the word in
the kind of structures to be closed in forms of words. The edge set is the
forwarding set when the notion of being closed is up. There’s an 1-operation
amid vertices and edges which are the rules about connecting the objects in
the way, there’s second definition in that the edges are being decomposed into
the couple of vertices. So there’s no need to have the 1-operation which is
onto and one-to-one as if this 1-operation is the kind of congruency amid two
sets so there’s no point about the left hand and the right hand. The kind of
congruency amid two sets, is the closed set when the set is about existence of
the customized function in that, two sets are closed to each other. So the graph
is closed set so there’s the celebration in its birthdays. The kind of closed set is
interpreted to close the set by set. To sum up, the set is closed by 2-operation;
the set is closed by the type of its power set; the set is closed by the set.
The set of the objects, in the kind of words, are moving forward amid different
concepts when the moving on words, isn’t the matter of knowledge and wisdom.
The moving forward amid the different dimensions to take the ideas about the
closed set, so there’s some viewpoints which in that the points of view are on
demand as if view of points are left behind. The kind of finding the words to
see the trace of closed set where the closed set is aiming the kinds of attributes
in some words. The new visions of closed set, are being created by some notions
as if the concept of the word closed is acting to make the "stop" somewhere.
There’s one point about closed set which is the stop on every growth so the
kind of becoming closed is only the matter of point. Closing on the growth
of numbers, closing on the combinations of the objects, closing on the growth

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2. Detail-oriented Groups And Ideas

of having elements with the rules on making elements with adding or loosing
members, closing the growth of both sets with the customized 1-operation.
Groupoid And Its Definition #14
The circle and the cycle of finding the concept of closed like words are moving
forward to make the aim of word. The concept of closed in the circle of finding
some attributes to make sense the concept of closed set and after it’s done,
then do it again and again. The directions of finding the concept in the term
of having notions to get the result for the title of chapter which is about:
"Groupoid And Its Definition".
Groupoid is the kind of couple when one notion hasn’t enough, anymore. The
kind of adding the concept to the set when the set of objects are the main like
the set is the key to be so there’s some notions from the style of the set when
other styles are getting the directions so moving on the ways which are adapted
to the set or may be adapted to the others. The kind of adding the functions in
the matter of spreading the arguments as if the numbers of sets are increasing
like the rise is on arising ways so there’s the point in adding into ways when
the directions are getting the deep-oriented of the word. The word is done in
the matter of time when the movements are the visitors of the place. So there’s
some notions on the words when the place is the kind of thoughts to say about
the kind of unifying in the matter of word closed set. The retrieving sketch on
the words when the words are about the word.
The kind of getting the notion when the objects are on the ways so there’s the
way to be on the formal duration of the notion, which makes sense about being
there in the logical ways of possibilities which are done in the words. The kind
of adding else is up. The term closed wants to be word when the word is doing
at the world in the strong foundations of the words with too many credits
which are up. The set and its finite number of its objects, redefine the word so
the set is relatively closed in the relatively matter of set’s number. The kind of
calling the set with its number, is coming up so closed interactions amid objects
are going to redefine the word closed so there’s the basic notions of using the
operation when the using are coming up, 2-operation is coming up to make the
interaction amid two objects, closed so there’s the new redefining of closed set
when the two communications amid word is closed to be in the set then the set
is relative closed and it’s closed by regarding to having the interactions inside
when two is the first step of defining the communication and communications
are started to define with the starter number which is 2 like the concept of
cycle which it has sense when the starting number is 2 or like the concept of
path which are made sense when the number is 2. The relatively redefining
of the word "closed set" goes to have the another set in that, the concept of
the word is coming up. Word of closed in the matter of words, Closed is the
adjective in the kind of being objective so the subjective version of the word,
isn’t the matter of mind. Mind is the combinations of knowledge and wisdom.
The kind of versions in that, the process of increasing the number of objects
are closed in the second stages of getting the objects together which is in the
matter of word matroid. The matroid has the concept in that, the increasing
ways which in that, increasing number of objects, is possible, is relatively closed
in the ways. The matroid is using the set in the terms of basic notion which is
about its power set. The set of some its subsets, is the set of the background for
making the word, closed. So when I, is closed, then E is said to be closed. The
kind of making the word when the word when is the word. The kind of finding

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 2.2. Groupoid And Its Connections

the correspondence or making the descriptions in the new literatures or the new
dictionary including new words when the name of dictionary is "Groupoid And
Its Definition" with subtitle or title-logo about closed set. The words are moving
fast in the matter of the word so there’s too ways of have the word in the light’s
speed. The concept of being closed set, is going on the way which the words
are grown. The directions of making word, is in kind/sort of progress when the
word is depicting the picture in the sides of the residence. The resiliences of
the word in up, are showing the matter of words. The groupoid is the kind of
structure in that one operation is allowed so in the term of making sense, the
binary operation is used. The binary operation is about the interaction amid
objects. In other structure, the graph has two different sets and one operation
is allowed so in the term of making sense, unary operation is used. In the
structure of matroid, two sets which are related to each other when the second
set is obtained for the first set, and three principles are used which the concepts
of subsets are up. So the concept of being closed, are going up in hugely diverse
ways. Sometimes, the function is deciders in the matter of unary and binary
word. Sometimes the way of adding members when there’s no rule for making
communications. The term of making the congruence or the equivalence amid
the concept in the matter of being relatively closed. The going on the words to
calcifying the concept of groupoid when the definition of groupoid is under the
study in the luxurious behavior of having words when the words are coming up
in the upsides of other definitions which are related to other branches and other
discipline in the matter of belonging and in the matter of ways, ways are going
to the kind of descriptions, classification, characterizations, upper visions of
open problems, giving the deeply-rooted views from the conjectures, proposing
the new problem, taking the deep interface amid concepts and problems, the
kind of translations amid concepts, the kind of illustrations in both sides in the
matter of all words as if with the back and forth focus on the word of being
closed as the subtitle for the groupoid and its definition, which words are totally
inside the epilogue of the book which is the cover of the chapter.
Groupoid And Its Definition #15
Groupoid is the idea about the set of objects in which the collections of objects
are. The collections of objects could be either family or set. The case family
induces that the repetition of members are permitted as if the case set implies
that the copies of members aren’t allowed. The repetition of the members
induces that there’s some same objects. The term of objects could be any
kind of the existence like shapes, symbols, numbers and letters. The same
objects could make the situation worse because the same objects have the same
attributes so any of study concerning these objects, should be deemed in too
restricted ways. Positions of objects don’t matter. In the other words, any
change of position as doesn’t imply having new set as any copy of members. So
two operations, changing position and copying members, are ineffective. The
set of objects, and the binary operation under some conditions, are said to be
groupoid. By making the detour, the change of position and the copy of objects,
both are unary operations as if in the case of this set, there’s said to be identity
function. For example, the copy as the unary operation is taking one object
and in this operation, any multiplier to this object, has no effect and gives one
object which is input’s object. To sum up this, the object enters and leaves so
there’s a deal with identity function which is the well-known name and concept
in the way that every object is corresponded to itself. Another example, change

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2. Detail-oriented Groups And Ideas

of position is the unary operation which the object’s position enters and the
object’s position leaves so this function is identity function in the way that,
every object’s position is corresponded to itself as the same position. Any of
these concepts is at least unary operation because their rules has no change on
the entries. The groupoid has the binary operation which in that, one output’s
member is assigned to two input’s member when two words are used when
the object is the general concept and the member is the object which belongs
to the set. So there’s a set and a binary operation with two words which are
exclusively used for this concept. Member is the object which belongs to the set
and the object is the kind of existence. Binary operation takes two members
and gives one object which is also member.
The term of object means that the condition of being function, is satisfied by
the existence of the object. Back to the tour, in the binary operation, one
member is assigned to two members. So the binary operation and the set is
said to be groupoid. Two examples for groupoid, as follow. The set of infinitely
countable numbers, which is called natural number, with well-known binary
operations plus and time, make two structure which any of them, is called to
be groupoid. The well-known binary operation, plus, with two sets, natural
numbers and integers, is made two structures which any of them, is called to
be groupoid.
The graph has three stuff which are the set of vertices, the set of edges and
the corresponding unary operation which is corresponding the set of vertices to
the set of edges. It’s obvious that the unary operation is onto and one-to-one.
In the other words, the word "correspond" and its derivatives, in the topic of
operations, means that the operation is onto and one-to-one. Two examples for
illustrating, the set of even numbers and the set of odd numbers, which are
named the set of vertices and the set of edges with the corresponding unary
operation, are making the graph. Another exemplifying on graph, is the set
of objects in the groupoid and the set of member in that group. The kind of
equivalency amid two sets which in that, the number of objects is out of dispute.
The sets are relatively equal in the terms of having the same amounts of objects.
In the other words, the term, equality, is using for two sets which have the same
numbers of objects. Going to the detour, the term equality could use for two
sets which have the same numbers. This style is the extension of ongoing style.
The next to detour, the term of equivalence is about some stuff which has the
same types of attributes so in that attributes, they have relatively equivalency
and they’re relatively equivalence. Back to the tour, the graph in this definition,
is the kind of equivalency amid two sets so this algebraic structure could have
the kind of geometric structure in the form of the exhibition amid two sets.
The matroid has the set of objects, the set of elements and the three principles
in the way which the literature of words in the specific visions, are used. The
set of objects, is called E; the set of elements, is called I; and the term of
principles are the conditions in which E and I have to satisfying in them, if so,
the situation is said to be matroid. The relations amid I and E have two aspects.
Firstly, I is the set of some subsets which belong to E. Secondly, the third
principle is about the relationship amid these two sets. The first principle is
about belonging the empty set to I. Going to the detour, this principle declares
that the existence of the I, is obvious because the I has at least one element.
In other vision, the definition isn’t about well-defined by only this principle
because the E could be empty set and I has the some subsets of E’s objects

90
 2.2. Groupoid And Its Connections

so it could have no element so the definition is well-defined. Back to the tour,

the second principle is said that deleting the I’s element, makes new element.
Taking detour in moment, I is said to be has the decreasing property regarding
to the losing element and being element. So deleting any of elements, has no
effect to be the element of I. In the other words, I holds the losing attributes or
being element holds when deleting elements is done. Back to the tour, the third
principle is said that adding one object from the bigger element to the smaller
element, makes the new element where the comparative adjectives, smaller and
bigger, are comparisons amid the number of elements in both sets.
Groupoid And Its Definition #16
Group is going to propose itself in three stages which in that the group’s hands
are taking the stones of mountains to be on the peak of mountain which is
the title of this book. Definition of the groupoid, is determining some avenues
which in that, the notions of this concept could be on these avenues as if it’s
using some detours in which the topic could experience some topics in that the
familiarity with other topics could be possible in the literature and its words.
The topics of graph and matroid may get some clarifications alongside some
positions to try to get some studies in the matter of the chapter’s title. The
groupoid is the structure in the the notion of adding the positions to all sections,
could be available. The groupoid is the set in that, the number of the set, could
be increased so there’s the internal detour which some prominent results may
make it the avenues. Another internal detours, there’s no mentioned texts about
the number of objects so the number of objects could make some classifications
to have some internal detours. The binary operation is the characteristic of
the groupoid. By having quick look, the characteristics of the groupoid could
be the set and binary operation. Taking the internal detours, The number of
binary operations may give some detours as if the kind of operation could be
changeable like unary operation and other ordinal operations which in that,
the arguments could be increased to the bigger number so ’tis some numbers
to remake the definitions in reconsidering of the characteristics belongs to the
groupoid.
The groupoid is the concept in that, the set has some results in the forms of
examples and statements as the relatively avenues which are the avenues for
this book. In four paragraphs, the first couple are about the groupoid’s avenues
and the second couple are being taken apart to two detours in the forum which
the first paragraph is about the graph’s topic and the second paragraph is
about the matroid’s topic. The notions of groupoid could make some wings to
have the gradually movements up to position in that, the unanimously deal
is done. The examples for this case could be taken from the famous sets and
famous binary operations when the characteristics of the groupoid, are being
studied. The illustrations and taking the problems from the real-world styles
aren’t any position in this book as the disclaimer and any kind of forums which
could be used in that way won’t be present.
The graph may have some definitions as if in this book, the abstract visions
are the principles of us. Two sets and their equivalency, it seems that there’s
nothing to do as if the algebraic visions are up to do. The customized version
of equivalency, is the matter of mind so unary operation is chosen for this
customized version of equivalency amid two sets. Two sets with different names
so the equivalency could be about some common attributes which could be
equivalence. The set may have some attributes, based on the related notion

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about set or other notions, so two sets could be related to each other in some
avenues as if there’s some notions about the situation in that, the equivalency
of these attributes are the matter of study in the terms of wherever, whatever,
whenever and however, this equivalency is achievable. Back to the definition,
the number of objects has the common attributes amid sets so in the customized
version of equivalency, the same number of sets’ objects is kind of equivalency.
Going to the detour, The notion of equivalency is customized to implement to
the number of argument in the common notion which is used in this case as the
function which could be the general term for n-operation or the customized
version of n-operation when the n is one or the convenient sake for uttering the
concept. Back to the definition, 1-operation is used for uttering the equivalency
amid two sets. onto-and-one-to-one 1-operation is the customized version of the
notion about equivalency. This type of operation is used for the equivalency
about the number of sets’ objects. One kind of exhibition for the equivalency
is making the geometrical object which is said to be graph because the most
number of studies on graph, are about attributes of its geometrical exhibition.
The notion of degree and neighbor or the symbols of delta in both capital
letter and small letter are coming from the some attributes which belong to its
geometrical exhibitions.
The matroid is notion and its characteristics are in some views, about the set of
objects and its related set including some its subsets alongside three principles
which are about the the set and its related set. The first principle states
that the empty set belongs to related set. The second principle declares that
deleting one set’s object from related set’s object, introduces the related set’s
new object. The third principle mentions that adding one set’s object from the
related set’s bigger object to the related set’s smaller object, creates the related
set’s new object. Going to the detour, the related set could be considered as
unary operation which the set is only argument. The first principle could be
imagined as the statement to prove that the second principle, is well-defined
because deleting one set’s object has no limitation so the end for this process,
occurs in the situation which the related set’s object has no set’s object. The
first principle could make the convenient avenue for having the notion of power
set when the customized version of power set, is the related set. The second
principle could make the example for the notion of decreasing property or the
notion holding of the attributes under some situations. The kind of chain could
be obtained by the second principle when one fixed set is intended and this
operation could be considered as unary operation in the follow-up using. The
decreasing chain could get the example by second principle when the structure
of the set with its attribute about inclusion, makes the decreasing chains of
subset from this set, up to empty set by regarding to inclusion as the ongoing
attribute. I’ve no idea about the third principle in the detour.
Groupoid And Its Definition #17
Groupoid is used to make some avenues. The set of objects, is the topic for
study as if there’s at least two words so the set is considered. The set is
changed to have the new versions of changes as following. The family of objects
so the important point is about having some same objects because it’s the
characteristic of family and in the lack of this situation, the set could be proper
word for using. The family of objects and making senses about the binary
operation. Consider that there’s two same objects. So there’s one solution to
have the binary operations. The image of all same couples, have to be the same

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by the definition of the n-operation and function in the general. The process of
this book, is placing one notion as the basement and after that making some
avenues to get some results as if the tour is the case which is the main study
and the detour is getting some avenues either for study in the upcoming orders
or clarification of important words for study of all impacts. Back to the tour,
binary operation implies that case as if changes on the binary operation, could
affect on the situation. To take some detours, the concept of function and
n-operation could make some limitations so there’s need to have the kind of
notion. Back to the tours, the concept of getting two arguments, could be in the
cases which the number of arguments, could be increased. The structure could
be available in the ways which some arguments involving in their attributes for
communications.
The kind of number could be feasible to increase the number of objects as if in
this case, there’s some points to get some ways. The notion of t-norm could be
the example for this case when the set of objects, is continuous style of numbers
amid zero and one so the type of members makes another vision of set. The
set have too many styles like the rules, writing the members when there’s no
rule. The latter case implies set could be seen in some structures like discrete
and continuous. In other words, the member of set could be rearranged in the
kind of continuous members in that way, there’s too many objects could be
there. The interval is the example about the set with cover style and continuous
order of members so there’s too many members amid two given numbers. The
well-known notion in this topic and about binary operation, is the t-norm.
t-norm is the binary operation on the unit interval is bounded with zero and
one. t-norm is the kind of binary operation in which, there’s no rule as if
there’s some principles so having the principles could be the good replacement
for obvious rules which are pointing to relationship amid two numbers. The
kind of presentations for set, may have some attributes which are arising from
it. For example, the exclusive attribute which is belonging to the geometrical
aspects could be notion of planar in which the kind of seeing the figure when
the crosspoint of the edges, is exactly the position of the vertex in the terms
of existence. So in this case, there’s exclusive attributes for introducing the
geometrical rules instead of the algebraic rules and principles.
The set and its attributes could be considered in deemed ways. As mentioned,
characteristics of set are about having one object in term of similarity so the
repetition isn’t permissible if there’s repetition, the collection is said to be
family. The number of objects could be infinite, finite and finitely countable.
The type of representation about the set, could be as discrete numbers or
continuous numbers. The type of function on the set, so there’s some avenues
which in, the domain and image could be different as if in the notion of groupoid,
the function has the same domain and image. In the case which, the image and
domain are different. The kind of function on the set which the domain and the
image are different and function is unary operation, is said to be homomorphism
when the structures of the domain and the image are similar regarding to
some attributes of structures of groupoid involving the binary operation on it
and in the form, taking two groupoid’s members and the homomorphism is
sending two members to the another groupoid, as the result, in the left hand
of the function, the homomorphism acts on the binary operation which acts
on two set’s objects and the result’s object is the same with the impacts of
homomorphism on two objects, individually and getting the result by impact of

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binary operation on this couple of impacts. So there’s some avenues to compare

two groupoids with regarding to their binary operations.
Another avenue, could be the kind of having or the lack about general attributes
of the function. The attributes of functions are about being one-to-one and
onto so if both are function’s attributes, the function is said to be isomorphism.
Taking one of tours, the notion of having continuous member could get the
notion of unit interval so in this case, there’s the well-known binary operation
on the interval which is bounded by zero and one, ’tis t-norm and t-co-norm.
These types of functions, have no rule as if the principles propose the definition
and process of these functions so ’tis the example in that, the binary operation
is introduced by principles and the famous notion which is introduced by
principles are passed on the notion of matroid. The notion of groupoid, usually
uses the binary operation which is introduced by rules. The kind of defining
the binary operation could be like defining the impacts on every element which
is passed on the notion of graph. There are some obstacles which make these
notions are gone to be on the detours as if the tours will be open when they’re
getting some results. The kinds of notions are going on the extensions and the
customized case for groupoid and its definition.
Groupoid And Its Definition #18
The kind of setting for the groupoid, could be possible. When there’s something
about passing from one groupoid to have two groupoids. There’s new story to
have some questions about how to be the growth. The adjectives for the ques-
tions, could make some detours in the hope of making the tour. Computational
or mathematical questions could make some ideas to seek the words for making
the definition. Back to the tour, the torus of the detours are on and off in the
ways of having the tours. Two groupoids and the relation amid their attributes.
The structure of the groupoid could be like assigning first groupoid’s object
to second groupoid’s object and the couple of the objects in the way that, the
coupling is coming up. The type of coupling of two objects in every groupoids
could be available in the structure of the function which is binary operation so
there’s the concept of unary operation on the binary operation.
The way in which, two objects are joining to each other, is the matter of mind.
So unary operation is the tour when the algebraic question is coming up with
the idea about how the structures of two groupoids are close to each other or
have the coincides? The computational question, about how many groupoids
do have the same structures, is coming up? The kind of considerations about
taking supposition and making the directions. So One way could be about
fixing one groupoid and making some questions which are relating to kind of
perspective which is hidden in the context of question. How if the groupoid has
the same structure? So the leading question makes the tour. Two processes are
on demand. So the first is about the computational viewpoint which is about
the number of objects amid the type of comparison as if the second tour is
more stronger. Impacts of the binary operation on the couple of objects in both
groupoids are the matter of words. So the unary operation is the first answer
to this question so this type of function makes the existing and math magical
question about this relation. The yes/no question is embedded on the viewpoint
so the second answer is about the existing viewpoint in the mathematical
question: Is there the unary operation which in that, two groupoids has the
same structure? The word same structure is making follow-up questions about
the philosophical questions what do I mean about the same structure? The

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impact of binary operation implies having unary operation which its rules aren’t
about the principles or the geometrical rules. The kind of algebraic rules are
coming up. So the rule is about the impact of binary operation on two objects.
Unary operation is used for this. Unary operation is changing the impacts of
two objects in the first groupoid to make the total impact which is the same
with the impacts on any of two objects and after the impacts of the coupling of
them. The kind of rules which in that the coupling could be in and out. So if
the coupling inside, could go outside, the unary operation is existed and the
answer is positive/yes, about having the same structures of the both groupoids.
The couple of groupoids have the same structures if the coupling from inside
goes outside. The unary operation is found and used for this, is said to be
homomorphism.
The study on the coupling, could goes beyond so the coupling could be the
name of the approach in that, the yes/no existing question is answered. The
type of couple choices to the answer the question. Two groupoids which goes
beyond in the term of analogues styles when the number of objects are the same
too, the word isomorphism is assigned to them. So having the same structures
and the same number of objects could prove that the answer is yes about the
existence the word, isomorphism. The isomorphism is homomorphism as if
the butterfly’s result and relation isn’t existed so the homomorphism isn’t
isomorphism.
Groupoid And Its Definition #19
Groupoid is the concept in that, there’s too avenues to pursue the results.
Sometimes, one general groupoid is used and sometimes two general groupoids
are the foundations of the study. Two groupoids are passed in the literature.
The kind of sense about the groupoids in the way that, two groupoids are
making same structures. The structure of the groupoid in the common sense,
could be like the relations amid objects so when two given objects are entering
into the relationship, the new object is introduced. It makes sense that the rule
must be the same to have the same structures, if so, two groupoids are the same
because the objects has no attributes and the existence of the object is the
matter of mind. So this detour isn’t leading to the tour at this open tour with
this obstacle. So the study is about the how the word same is redefined. The
word same is about the structure so the detour could be the kind of wondering
about some ideas. The kind of related ideas, about the symbol of relation. The
rule and relation as the first stage, concerns two objects. Two given objects are
entering to the relation with each other, so there’s sense which the outcome of
this relation should be the aim for redefining the new analysis on this relation
in the first group.
The analysis could be possible in the common way with the notion of function.
Unary operation is the first stage to go from the one groupoid to the another
groupoid. So unary operation accepts the outcome of the relation amid two
objects in the its left hand. The kind of working on the new outcome with the
foundations of relation amid two objects so the unary operation does desperate
this outcome to two new objects when the separation depicts the result of the
work which is done with unary operation. In the other words, two objects are
assigned to two new objects. The kind of transformations amid the couple
of objects. The couples are in the transition to be another couples. Couple
becomes new couple. The same structures are making the new notions about
the conscious and coupling so the kind of consciousness makes the new couple

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like the couple was sucking in the previous versions so the kind of new edition
makes the new coupling in the lights of consciousness. Couple is coming up with
the idea of new coupling. So the new coupling is the impacts of a transformer
so there’s trans-something in the kind of prefix with kids so the transformer
and transition could give the kind of notions about two groupoids. The kinds of
making the principles as if the middle of both having the explicit rules and the
extreme principles as if it’s referred in the upcoming chapters. The groupoid
is considered as the abstract objects or like the communications amid two
groupoids.
Another detour of notions, there’s something about the kind of coupling amid
two same objects so the binary operation is restricted to be on the same objects
so the follow-up behaviors on one objects as the couple with the repetitions of
one object. The new notation is allowed to be on the tour as if for the short
terms when the new notation is the kind ghost-result. So the kind of power
is up so the new notation back to its detour to be continued when the power
has already been redefined. The kind of notation is about the receptions when
the power is written at up so the receptions are seeing up. The kind of upward
notations when the notation is the kind of note which is written at up. When
there’s some same objects, the number of these same objects, is written at the
up on the right side of the up. When these communications amid two objects
in the kind of iterations, introduce the repeated outcome, the object is said to
be the kind of cyclic groupoid when the binary operation makes the cycle with
this specific object. The power of the object, is the kind of new idea to make
new avenue or new detour when the tour goes into avenue.
The power is the number of counting when the times of using the binary
operation is counted. The power is also the word for the customized version and
class of groupoids, which is said to be cycle where it has one characteristic which
is one object. The kind of rewriting about the sets with the specific object. In
the new detour in this detour, there’s the new idea to pick up one object and
make the new groupoid as the power of the object so there’s two cases in that
the power introduces the cycle or not. If there’s no cycle so there’s the infinite
groupoid when the word infinite, is about the number of the objects. So the
power is the verbal clues and nonverbal clues to show some attributes about
the number of the objects by the existing question about what if there’s the
power? The yes/no question when the positive answer goes to give the credit
about the finite set as if the negative answer says about the infinite groupoids.
In seeing other detour, groupoids in the classifications about the numbers of
objects could give the couple classes which are infinite sets and finite sets and
in the finite set is the classifications about the cycles and acrylic groupoids, too.
The types of detours into the detours so there’s some senses about how the
redefinitions of the groupoids have the flexibilities about taking detours with
predicted and unpredicted obstacles to go down and bridges to go up. So the
detours could come up with the ideas about both guesses and conjectures. The
kind of groupoid could be presented by the parallel groupoid in that, the kind
of seeing in matrix-style, is coming up with the word of productions so there’s
the productions of many different groupoids, too.
Groupoid And Its Definition #20
Groupoid needs the word to make the detour to go when the its car has no
the bottom of break so there’s need to find the detour in the shuffle of detours
for having the tour. The kind of word is about the attributes about how to

96
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communicate about two objects so there’s the idea about some objects in which,
the first and the second object could be substituted by each other. In other
words, the result of having order, is the same. So this detour, could assign to
the two objects which could be as the first and second argument and reversing
the argument has no effect in their communication and their results. So this
two object are relatively abelian. Going one step to up, the collections of these
objects are the matter of mind to finds or in the another detour as the matter
of generality, the groupoid which its objects are abelian, could get the attribute
which gets the name as abelian groupoid. This ideas in every mentioned three
steps of generality in the way in which the move on the one object goes to the
move on the collections of the objects and in the last, move are spreading its
wings to all objects, in all of steps as the obvious results, the couple of same
objects are also belonging to these type of notions so there’s another detours
to find and to count these types of objects amid these three notions. The
word abelian is the adjective as the parts of speech so this adjective gives the
restrictions to the intended noun. The abelian couple/pair, abelian collections
and the abelian groupoids are the four detours when the fourth detour is about
the connections amid them. The kind of scrutiny and discernment on the
objects of the intended sets so there’s way to get the result when the detour
sending the nation on the tour so ’tis possible to address the result. The kind
of finding the couple of objects amid some attributes, some equations, some
relations and some senses with the title of conjectures and guesses. So there’s
way to be on the moving forward which is possible in the detours to make sense
about the tour in the term of moving on.
The kind of finding in the term of existing questions or the type of counting in
the term of combinatorial or counting questions when the finding is somehow
impossible. There’s way in that, the existing question doesn’t cover the counting
questions as if in the general, it doesn’t work and usually the existing question
covers the counting question. So there’s some notions for making the detours
in other places. As taking the detour, the kind of follow-up detours could be
possible so the study on the every four notions in the terms of having the
attributes or making the inter-relationship or the outer-relationship could be
some detours including follow-up detours in which some ideas to make the
detours having some analogous because of their natures as if some detours are
rely on the scrutiny on the behavior and as the follow-up needs, the discernment
on the all notions, make customized detours and all could have make some
detours like the detours are endless. The kind of notion could make the detour
like the cyclic groupoids and the cyclic objects so in this case there’s one object
so the cyclic structures like objects and groupoid are abelian structure in the
term of abelian objects and abelian groupoids. The curious question is about
the reverse relation so if there’s abelian structure in the form of simple version
which is the groupoid, because there’s too big enough and its attributes are
well-known, then is there the cyclic structure in any forms of getting principles,
ideas, explicit formulae or something else?
Detour to abelian notion, some attributes about the objects, are when the set of
objects could be relatively abelian with all other objects so this case, could be
considered as the customized version of abelian groupoid with the name which
is center of groupoid. The collections of the objects which have the common
attributes, could indicate some detours. The kinds of objects could make some
equations or reversely, the kinds of equations could be satisfied by some objects.

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Back to the tour, in a graph, the word communications amid two objects in
the form of vertices and edges. So there’s couple of vertices which have no
communications which are the edges. So there’s the couple of vertices which
have no edges. In the relation amid groupoid and graph, ’tis the obstacles
because the definition of binary operation implies objects makes the couple
in the form of another objects, in ways which the all objects are involved so
there’s the contradiction amid these two concepts which in the total ways, all
objects are involved as if in other, there’s objects which isn’t satisfied. The two
words "as if" are good words to describe the relation amid graph and groupoid.
Detour of finding contradiction, the matroid is the set in the terms of com-
munication, there’s the two curious questions in that, two words "as if" are
up. Existing question is about existence of couple objects: Is there the couple
of objects which have no communications? The counting question is about
the most numbers of the objects involving in the communications: Do all
objects have communications with each other in the way that, all imaginable
communications are done? the answer to this question is going to be yes in
the notion of groupoid and the answer is no in the notion of graph. So there’s
a reforming question: Are there some notions in which graph goes to say yes
as the answer to the previous question? the first notion is about finding some
objects in the term of embedding notion. The complete graph is the threshold
for graph to add communications in any levels of having vertices so complete
graph is groupoid as the reminder about what’s passed about this. So one
notion is finding the embedding complete graph in the other structures of
graphs in the word of clique or in the other words, the word groupoid. Finding
or adding groupoid makes sense when both of complete graph and groupoid
have only had in common attributes yet.

2.3 Addressed Groupoids With Semigroups

General notions, Addressed ideas,

Roots of definitions, Comparison
amid words

roupoid And Its Definition #21

The groupoid is structure in that, the notion of the points, is coming up. The
points about the structure of the objects, could show themselves as tours and
detours. Traces of the objects in the predictably eligible positions so the kind of
work on the objects to get customized objects in which they’ve satisfied in some
principles, e.g. the cyclic objects, the abelian objects and their relationships. Or
the natural extension to the bigger structure like groupoids so cyclic groupoids
are abelian groupoids where restricting adjective cyclic for groupoid, is the
kind of notion about the generated groupoid by one object. Cyclic groupoid is
abelian groupoid because the abelian operation could be satisfied by the one
object so adding the same object on the left hand or right hand of the object in
the way, the couple has two same objects so it could be countable when the
same objects are coming up in the common notions as if the number two could
get another adjective so there’s two same objects or two different objects or two

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 2.3. Addressed Groupoids With Semigroups

anonymous objects in the matter of seeing the objects or the counting eyes. So
the adjective abelian could use for object, operation and the set or relations
amid them to make the detour. In the chain of progress, starting point could
be from objects after that the collections of objects or finding the embedded
collections or decomposition to the separate collections after that, could be
spread to the set or the operation on the set when the customized properties or
specific attributes of the binary operation could be featured.
The notion of the power could be appeared in set and its objects. In the familiar
notion, the power set from the intended set, ’tis the set from all subsets of
intended set so the kind of reforming on the set, could be like the set of some
subsets of the intended set. The notion of the power could chose the object as its
host. So the nilpotent power in which, the object in the binary operation with
itself, makes new objects as if the power gives the end to this story when the #
power makes specific object in which the object is ineffective when attending
in all binary operation as the couple with others. The general concept power,
could be the specific couple in that, the couple introduces the objects so the way
of this function, could make the starting object in the term of cyclic object or it
could make the neutral object in the term of nilpotent object. One object could
get some adjectives like abelian, cyclic, nilpotent and neutral. In the detour
and viewpoint about the result of these adjectives, the kind of comparison amid
the abelian objects and others, An abelian object, could be communicative
with other objects like going on the first position of the couple or going on the
second position of the couple as if the introduced object in both left hand and
right hand, are the same so this move, doesn’t introduce the new object. The
cyclic object gets back to itself as the object in a power which is only using
itself. The nilpotent object gets the neutral object in a power which is only
using itself. Neutral object gets itself in any power which is only using itself.
So in the viewpoint of the power, the object get some detours in the different
ways of using power which is only using itself. The using all/existing #, or
the outcome would be the matter of minds in the way which others involve.
So there’s object. Object could be what? The analogous question could be
available for embedded set and set.
Finding some equations which make the butterfly’s results in the matter of
equivalency. Like an object whose attribute is the square of the object became
itself so there’s the equation which objects are intended. Abelian could be
the notions in which, the uses of it, are relatively. So couple could be abelian
couple when two objects are moveable in the matter of positions. When the left
hand accepts two entries, there’s some notions when the right hand, is exactly
intended entries. The kind of stop is way to be on the detour when there’s
equation which could lead to have abelian couple. The kind of having some
questions in the shape of the equation which is involving relation amid objects
and vice versa. The kind of extension could be available when the embedded
set is the term of inputs for objects so the inputs of the binary operation could
be given by the name embedded set with #2. In this viewpoint, embedded set
and its ways to have some objects, are facilitated. The kind of move in the set
when the move is ineffective. So the embedded set is carrier of objects when
the order doesn’t important as if the binary operation implies that the order is
important. Binary operation could accept the embedded sets with different #.
Groupoid’s objects, could be the set of embedded sets with different #.
Finding the objects when the intended object is supposed to be relatively abelian

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so the kind of embedded set is on demand, whose objects form the abelian
couple with the intended object. The kind of operation in the form of binary
operation, in which the intended object forms the couple with set. Or the
extended set in that, all objects of the groupoid, form the couple with the
embedded set of the set. So there’s three set. The set, the extended set and
the embedded set where the set is the intended set in the matter of groupoid.
So the kind of extension on the two parameters of groupoid so the extended set
and the extended binary operation are coming up. One given set’s object with
the embedded set make the couple in the term of extended binary operation. So
with extension of this concept, The set of all objects as the mentioned sample
with the embedded set, form separately couple with the type of extended binary
operation.
Groupoid And Its Definition #22
Groupoid is the term in that, the notions of being in the group could get the
different notions. So the set wants to be in the kind of group which is groupoid.
Groupoid is the form of set and binary operation on the set. So ’tis on the table
as if not floor. The kind of extracting the notions and wondering in the kind of
words which are up to notions. The set and function. Two different styles which
in this word, are the couple which is named groupoid. So the set and its binary
operation is the couple with the name groupoid. The groupoid is the word in
which, the kind of getting higher ambition is on demand so the kind of passing
from the number of arguments, is the matter of mind in the journey which is
from the couple algebraic structure up to the couple algebraic hyper structure.
The kind of love story when the binary operation only pops in the set as input
and pops out the from the set as output. The kind of couple is making some
results in which the couple is purely works on their abilities with using else.
The kind of progress in the number of arguments and the number of binary
operation. The word groupoid is the first level up to make other notions in the
way that, the kind of acting on the couple is only permitted. The conscious
and coupling for the progress of this couple when the couple produce all brands
in the kind of notions.
The ways of having changes on the groupoid with specific object and specific
function, could get some results which in that, the detours may obtain to get
more tours. The kind of increasing arguments could be obtained by adding sets
to the cartesian production amid sets so this way could be the tool for making
new argument. The kind of labelling on the word and on the way which is
couple is made. The kind of analysis on the objects and their behaviors go to
some birthdays. Neutral objects or abelian objects, abelian couple, acting of
binary operation on more than couple which could be triple. The word triple
refers to the kind of objects which are counted to be three and they introduce
two couples as partitions and the act of binary operation on the singleton
and the couple as same as the act of binary operation on the couple and the
singleton. The kind of order could make same consequences which in that, the
order is analogous to the binary operation. The kind of acting on the couple.
The couple in the kind of process which in that, the principles are featured.
Partly order set (poset) is the kind of set with relation on it. Relation has
the same concept with binary operation. Three principles are making the set
to be poset. The kind of relation and communication are on the table. Two
object has the different positions as principles so it’s the way which must be
as if in the binary operation, the texts are open and every situations could be

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 2.3. Addressed Groupoids With Semigroups

achievable and accomplished. The first principle is done when the object could
have the order itself. So the kind of viewpoint from the one principle in the
right hand of binary operation which is saying about the belonging the object
to the intended set as if on the left hand, one principle is made in the way that,
all objects must be inputs as if in the poset, it isn’t necessary.
The first principle is permitted to have all objects in the relation itself. So ’tis
the rule for naming the couple of set and relation as poset. The second principle
is about two objects as if the principles are going up in the matter of #, the
number of objects which are used in them, is increased so the first principle is
about one object, the second principle is about the two objects and the third
principle is about the three objects. The second principle is about two relation
when two objects are abelian in the term of relation, the new result is about
being the same object. So if two objects are ready without any information
about being the same objects or different objects, this principle is the criteria.
So if both have relation with each other in the way that, the first and second
place, could be substituted by objects, both are the same. The third principle is
like the circle and the cycle so if three objects have the relations in the way that,
the first object with the second object and second object with third object, have
relations so the new result is that first object with third object, has relation.
The three principles are like conditions and implications so if something is done,
another things happens. The kind of new couple so there’s the couple with the
name groupoid about the set and binary operation on it and there’s the couple
with the name poset about the set and relation on it.
The forms of being on the set when the poset is coming up, is the kind of
notions about the set’s objects so in the case of poset, the structure is only
talking about objects which are in the set. For example, the relation inclusion
in that, two sets are used if they’re comparable in the term of subset. The
set is the subset itself. If the set is the another set’s subset, two sets are the
same. If first set is the subset of second set and the second set is the subset of
third set, so the first set is the subset of third set. So there’s the set of some
subsets alongside the inclusion on it, this is the couple with the name poset.
The kind of order which doesn’t introduce the new object and only is worked
on the objects and say about them as if the another couple introduce the new
object which belongs to the set. So there’s two different couple.
Groupoid And Its Definition #23
The kind of couple could be like poset in the way that, the type of the second
notion is changed. The kind of notion could be like hyper groupoid in the way
that, adding of parallel binary operations are done as if another notion is ring
which is alike in the form of having two binary operations with the slight change
in that, the parallel operations don’t existed and some principles concerning
binary operations and the relation amid binary operations are done. So the
structures of the groupoid could take the detours. Binary operations on the set
of objects, could be like the set of sets when the objects are corresponded to the
set of numbers with the definite index. The kind of groupoids in the matter of
number when the number is talking about the number of objects. The number
of objects and the permutations of the objects. When the set is coming up,
the set has different objects so labeling on the objects are possible as if the
order isn’t the matter of minds. There’s curious question about the structure
which in that, the order is the matter of minds so ordered set is the matter of
minds when different objects have the order or ordered family which the same

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objects have order. So the ordered family is the kind of exhibition in that, the
objects are separated by the comma without any relation with the previous
object and upcoming object. So the kind of extension on the previous notion,
could be the collections in that, the objects has order and could be the same so
right now, there’s the notion of ordered family. The kind of exhibition in that,
every object has the relation with previous object and the upcoming object.
The exhibition of the permutation in that the move is done on the numbers so
objects are corresponded to be the numbers.
The kind of exhibition like the ordered pair as if the extension on these concepts
when the separator, comma, is deleted so both extension on the number of
numbers and the way to show. The permutation on the set of numbers so the
exhibition is about the number and move on number to get the next position.
So the kind of n-operation in the the set of numbers are inputs. The output
could be like the separate permutations which in that, the set is become to
be multiple permutations in the term of involving all numbers. So there’s the
detour. The kind of progressive notion, in that, the arrangements of the number
is matter of minds in the terms of being peak or being valley so the number is
said to be peak or valley and the positions of the peaks and valleys introduces
the second set. The set of numbers could make the cycles in every permutation.
So the permutation is the cycle and the geometrical exhibition in the field of
graph theory, is available so assigning the number to the vertices of the graph
in the kind of labeled graphs. The labeled cycles when the vertices aren’t the
same. To capture this difference, the groupoid has no orders, no positions, and
no relations amid the way of writing of the objects in its related set.
The groupoid is the algebraic structure in that, kinds of moves amid objects,
are obtained by binary operation as if in the permutation, the moves on the
objects, are done in the n-operation. To capture this difference, two numbers
are inputs and the another number is output in the topic of groupoid as if
one number is input and one number is output in the topic of permutation.
Changing the order amid numbers in the form of writing, could be the detour
in the hope of deleting the modal verbs to have the fact and certain verb in the
simple present. The kind of using numbers as the names for objects. So there’s
the extension for numbers when the numbers of numbers are increased and in
this case, the analogous digits as the separate numbers could make the order
in the kind of writing for the detour which is originated from the permutation
which is used one number. So there’s the discussion about the types of objects
when the object has the number for using in some detours. The kind of using
order in the poset with exhibition, is the Hasse diagram in that the kind of
order is making the position for object from down to up. So the top object
has the most values like ’tis greater than others and as going to be on the up,
the objects are greater and greater to be in the top of diagram as the up. The
integers are the set in that, the left hand and right hand, has no numbers as
the smallest number and the greatest number. So ’tis the infinitely countable
number is the matter of some characteristics with the binary operation plus
and it could be the equivalence for the study on the infinite set. There’s some
partitions for classes in that the number of elements are represented by the
representative which is named in the symbol of class of remainders with plus
of remainders as binary operation. The number of these classes could be the
integer classes for having good equivalency related to infinite set.
The finite groupoid is the term to refer the finite related set to this structure and

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as the analogous to the infinite groupoid is about infinitely related set. Both
sets could have the equivalence structure like the set of classes of remainders
and the set of integers, for the study of some characteristics. The kind of finding
rules for combination amid groupoids like the productions which have two
inputs as entries and after than, the extension of this to n inputs. So there’s the
systematic question. Is the groupoid starter for making the extension up to n?
The answer is yeah and nope. Both is available in the matter of yeah, the hyper
groupoid is the detour and in the matter of nope, the special characteristic
which is made by the specific number which is two and the customized version
of the set in the ground of exemplification and clarifying, could be some avenues.
The ways are started by two and the extension from here up to n and generality
in the viewpoint of the growth in the numbers.
Groupoid And Its Definition #24
The process of making sense about the definition of the groupoid in the study
on its definition. To capture the difference, there’s some detours to make
sense about the borders of this definition with the well-known definition and
deeply-rooted notions. Groupoid is the structure in that, there’s some examples
and some equations alongside some results with adding some attributes. The
number of objects in the twofold partitions of being even and being odd, could
make the customized groupoid. The enumeration of different binary operations,
could make the classifications of binary operations. The number is n square 2.
This number is about counting of inputs so an arbitrary binary operation is
given n square 2 objects as inputs as if the number of outputs could be different.
The kind of extension on the number of objects in the form of even or odd types,
when the objects has no relation, ’tis worthy not to try. The kind of embedded
set when the limit of the binary operation is about it. So the behavior of this
function on the specific version and general version, on this limit of work, is the
detour. The relation amid objects, could make some classes of the groupoids.
The relation could directly be amid objects or the relation could be about the
common origin which produces all objects. The relation amid objects when
they’ve accepted the rule of argument in the binary operation as the inputs
and the outputs with the kinds of patterns, could make some results. The
cyclic groupoid, generated groupoid, and abelian groupoid, are the classes with
the mentioned descriptions. When the relation is amid objects in the term of
their existence, the object could have patterns regarding the binary operation
in the way that with one object, all the sets are produced so the one object
with its copy are the only input for binary operation and the repetition of this
work when the output is the input, makes the new object so the process will be
continued until the first input is reproduced as if in the rule of output. The
set is said to be cyclic set when all objects are the same in the producing all
other objects with the repeated uses of binary operation. The cyclic groupoid
is abelian groupoid because there’s only one object as origin and resource.
The kind of producing all objects with more than one object, leads to the notion
of generated set when there’s two cases, separately producing the objects by
some objects in the optimal embedded set with using the repetition of binary
operation or the kind of using the objects in the form of previous case plus using
the binary operation on the combinations of them. So the kind of acting the
binary operation on the object and its copy plus the acting on binary operation
on the previous output as the new input to act on the different objects. So
the kind of acting systematically on the couple of same objects and after that,

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acting on the results. The optimal set has some objects so the kind of using the
same objects as the binary operation’s inputs and the results of all these objects
could go to the upper stage to be the arguments of the binary operation in the
second stage and all results in the first stage and second stage will produce
all set’s objects so the kind of closed set is made by binary operation in the
customized version for generated groupoid.
Communications amid objects are only possible by binary operation so there’s
objects and its relation with objects else. So there’s the kinds of producing the
customized groupoids and their connection. The kind of connection is butterfly’s
result in that, the kind of finding equivalency in the direction and vice versa are
on demand in the type of production. The ways of making sensible connections
to capture this difference, could be used. The notions of closed set, could be
used for closing something in the framework of other structure. The equivalency
of some notions in the term of being closed set which set is about having the
common attributes so the binary operation makes sense when the set has the
attribute of producing by the binary operation so being well-defined definition
could be well-defined set. The effort and endeavor for finding and introducing,
the attributes for the set, could make the notion of groupoid, matroid, graph
and etcetera. The other vision, the closed set is done for the communication
amid two objects so the kind of closed set could be available in the kind of more
than two objects in the term of associating amid triple of objects which is the
new structure with the exact extension of the groupoid.
Finding the finite set in that the notion of closed set, is done, is leading to the
tour which is named permutation. The permutations of objects so the kind of
making set in the second way in that, a given set is ready so the unary operation,
permutation, gives the set as inputs and it produces another set which includes
the all permutations of the set’s objects and this function with the common
binary operation amid function, make the groupoid. Another unary operation
is the power set, in the the set is input and the all subsets of the set alongside
the relation makes the poset. The kind of embedded permutation is good idea
to focus on it for extracting interesting ideas. The permutation of objects could
show the customized exhibition of the function. The kind of rearrangement
amid objects with the basis of having cycle so when the cycle is happened,
there’s time to make another cycle with other objects when the length of cycle
isn’t the matter of minds. The kind of cycle could be related to the graph
theory so there’s second exhibition in the terms of graph. Both geometrical
figures make some attributes. For example, the algebraic figure could introduce
the peak of number when the comparison amid numbers in the previous and
upcoming number, is showing greater number amid the previous number and
upcoming number or in the geometrical figure, cycle behaves differently.
Groupoid And Its Definition #25
The types of notion have passed on the minds when the rotations on the detours,
makes them hard. Groupoid is the notion which has the definitive definition
about its attribute. The kind of viewpoint on this concept, is available so in
the matter of set, ’tis the set when the objects has no order and the objects
aren’t the same as if the term membership must be obvious so the kind of
binary operation is defined on this set. This binary operation gives necessarily
transparency to the definition of the set. So when two given set’s objects are
inputs, the set’s object is outcome so by using this condition, if the object
doesn’t belong to set as set’s object, then either of the objects on the input,

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doesn’t belong to the set. So the status of membership is obvious so the set is
well-defined. This viewpoint, is set-orientated. Another vision for this concept is
about the algebraic structure in the way that, the set and the binary operation
are used. So because of using, the set has to be well-defined which means the
obvious state for the membership of objects, is hold. The binary operation is
used so the definition of function should be satisfied. So if two objects are the
same as inputs, the object which is corresponded to them, is the same as outputs.
The structure implies actions amid objects so the kind of binary operation is
on demand. The kind of triple objects could be used by this binary operation.
So the kind of attributes, is associative which could be good extension for the
groupoid in the tour to be the group.
Groupoid is the term when ’tis used some conditions are coming up. The binary
operation, the set of objects and the notion of closed set so ’tis the word to
have some attributes. Adding groupoid to graph, when two given set’s objects
in the binary operation makes set’s object, the edge amid objects, is existed. So
the objects and the edges form the groupoid so there’s the groupoid in the from
of embedded graph. The graph could be the extension of the notion which is
closed set. So in the special graph, there’s too many objects which don’t belong
to groupoid’s set so if two objects in the binary operation, make the set’s object,
then two given objects belongs to the groupoid’s set. To have precise words,
there’s some flaws because two given objects in the one action, makes the set’s
object as if they could be in another couple, don’t make the set’s object. To find
groupoid’s set, there’s the solution in which when the given object in all process
of being coupling makes the set’s object, ’tis called for set’s object. The process
of finding the groupoid when the binary operation has the obvious structure as
if the objects of the groupoid’s set, are unknown. To take the detour, there’s
some notion to use the concept of groupoid and after that, naming this concept
which is originated from groupoid like when there’s no compulsory to make the
set’s object in all process of coupling under the action of groupoid. Another
notion, when the object introduce the set’s object with half of its coupling. So
there’s the question in that, how to understand the set’s object. There’s the
complicated situation in this exchange amid graphs and groupoid.
Take the new atmosphere, finding the groupoid in the structure of a definition
for matroid. When notion of closed set, is about the membership to the I.
Losing and adding make the new element for I so I is the set in this modeling
to be how? The formation of objects when the order isn’t the matter of minds.
To capture this difference, binary operation is using the notion of relation so
there’s the couple of objects when the objects are the members of the set. The
process of coupling amid set and binary operation as if they’re irresponsible so
the ball is sent to the couple of objects as if the couple of objects are sent to
the the couple of arguments corresponded to the binary operation as if binary
operation sends the coupling to the flower which is the gift for the set to end
the coupling like the coupling is settled down in the planet of groupoid. Finite
set of numbers, opens the way to introduce the kind of cycle amid words as if
this cycle isn’t impact of binary operation as if ’tis impact of arrangement of
objects. Two words of cycle and permutation are the kind of move from one
place to place where is the starting object so the matter of the structure of
objects regarding the binary operation, makes the common word cycle as if
the arrangement of objects in the corresponding case in that, objects are given
the labels from the numbers, introduces the word permutation. Permutations

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of numbers could give the notion of closed set. Permutation is the kind of
unary operation in that, the rule is written by the objects which are numbers.
The kind of cycle amid numbers, makes the couple amid function and their
combinations. Cycle is the couple amid the generating object and its power
when it makes the back.
Groupoid could be the couple of two words closed set. The kind of set when
the operation is acted on them, there’s no way to out. Great! the kind of
function closes the set. In the different vision, when there’s the groupoid, if two
objects are said to be set’s objects, then the combination of them, has to be
set’s object. So when there’s the groupoid, this event is up. This is the reverse
type of considering the definition. ’tis worthy to investigate the definition in
both sides like the direct ways and vice versa and like the vision of butterfly.
So there’s another detour to go forward and go back amid notions when the
result is only on demand. ’tis great with groupoid!
Semigroup And Its Beyond #1
Moving on the notions to be group, the kind of extension amid words to delete
the suffix and the prefix. Semigroup is the atmosphere in that, the groupoid
adds one restriction on the binary operation like the concept of closed set, is
rolling into deep and it goes to be closer and closer when the closed set is
going up. The kind of coupling amid two given set"s objects, introduces set’s
object. Now, going one step up, the kind of triple amid three given set’s objects,
introduces two coupling with the same answers, coupling of objects with stating
at the left hand, and after that, the result’s object makes the coupling with the
only object in the right hand and vice versa. So there’s two objects in the action
of triple in the left hand and in the right hand, if the object in both hands, is
the same, the atmosphere is said to be semigroup. The word groupoid implies
that, every coupling has the set’s object as the result. Integers and minus as
the couple/planet/atmosphere which are groupoid as if they aren’t semigroup.
Integers and plus are both semigroup and groupoid. ’tis obvious that semigroup
is the extension of groupoid. Semigroup opens the way for having multiple
connections because the consecutive objects can change their coupling and their
parenthesis without any changes in the result’s object. The notions of picking
the detours, or the kind of opening the lines when the connections open up. The
kind of changing the action of binary operation on the three objects, implies
for # objects because the function is binary and only acts on the couple so this
narrow way opens up to have the arbitrary # of objects in the process of binary
operation. So the kind of connections amid objects are possible, too.
Associative property is the kind of permission to have two coupling with the
tool of binary operation which is used twice, in both left hand and right hand.
This property is impossible if the atmosphere isn’t groupoid. The kind of using
coupling implies the notion of closed set which is done in the lights of the binary
operation which is the kind of one coupling on the set’s object. In left hand,
the binary operation guarantees that the object is set’s object. In the right
hand, the process of having coupling twice, implies that the output’s object is
set’s object in # of using binary operation. The kind of induction is possible in
extended couple of grouped. So the permission for having the kind of increasing
# of binary operation then kind of induction-style-for-use binary operation is
up. The extended binary operation in the atmosphere of semigroup. Semigroup
is the extended/organic version of groupoid. Classification for referring to
intended atmosphere when there’s necessary and sufficient needs are obvious.

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The class of semigroup facilitates the priority and preference which are made by
parenthesis, so ’tis deleted or ineffective in this atmosphere. In the simple vision,
all parentheses are neutral, unnecessary, useless and ineffective. The kind of
pause is deleted so moving could be fast. The kind of choice is optional as if
the coupling could be done with one condition which is about the object and
its forward/backward object. The kind of arrival is changed to be in the kind
of position so time is deleted and move could be fast as its consequences. The
kind of left hand and right hand introduce one object in the word of equivalency
which is made two adjectives left and right regarding the position of objects in
its backward and its forward. The symbol makes two different approaches as if
with same results.
There’s two detours about the associative property and the notion of semigroups
as its generality. To capture first example, the couple integers and minus, has
no associative property so the couple isn’t semigroup as if ’tis groupoid. To
move second example, the couple integers and division, has the associative
property as if the couple isn’t semigroup because of the reason which says about
the notion doesn’t hold, the notion of being closed set and as the result, the
notion of being groupoid; the couple of integers and plus is semigroup so ’tis
groupoid. Having the associative property in the couple groupoid, makes the
new/extended which is named semigroup. So for obtaining counterexample, the
lack of having associative [in the direct way or its consequences] property is
enough for groupoid in the matter of not being semigroup. So this tool has two
uses, first is about obtaining example, couple, embedded couple and the mixed
notions; second is about obtaining counterexample, not-couple, not-embedded
couple, and not-mixed notions in the matte of reverse using like reverse reading
from right to left and direct reading from left to right. Associative property is
like styles of the game chess in the matter of # players when the game has two
players or the game has too many like ’tis the tournament and in every stage,
two players play and the winner makes the new couple for playing the game in
this situation, it doesn’t matter the ways of coupling so the tournament of the
game chess with at least more than two players, is the semigroup and the game
chess with two players, is groupoid as if its identity about being semigroup is
unknown.
The term semigroup, is the level of the term achievement and accomplishment
when the order of connections are deleted so there’s the open way to get the
intended result when the branches and leaves from all trees which are menace,
threat, disturbing and distraction, are deleted so moving forward is done in the
forest when the move on has already done. The notion with the goal and the
style of goal in the open ways to get it like the game with rules and the winner
is on demand. When the merit, eligibility, qualifies, and positions are deleted
when they had unknown identity in the notion groupoid so there was the open
way to make the extension for groupoid in the new notion which is named the
semigroup, too.
Semigroup And Its Beyond #2
B : O × O → O is the all words about the groupoid When the binary operation
with the name B is existed, the atmosphere is said to be groupoid. Even more if
there’s ∀x, y, z ∈ S : x(yz) = (xy)z, atmosphere is said to be semigroup with the
new name for set which is S. The process of extension amid the atmosphere which
is the couple including a set and a binary operation alongside the relation amid
them. The kind of growth amid the words, groupoid, semigroup, quasigroup,

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and group and the style of changing name for the set, amid letters, O, S, Q and
G. This chapter is about the semigroup and the set S.
The kind of playing with symbol and its principles so there’s need to have kind
of objects which have specific attributes. The cyclic object or nilpotent object
is now on.
So if triple x, y, z ∈ S has the style of cyclic object with same single root, then
there’s the customized powers n1 , n2 , n3 and the root s ∈ S such that

sn1 = x, sn2 = y, sn3 = z.

So
(xy)z = (sn1 sn2 )sn3 =
(sn1 +n2 )sn3 = s(n1 +n2 )+n3 = sn1 +(n2 +n3 ) = sn1 s(n2 +n3 ) = sn1 (sn2 sn3 ) = x(yz).
So the cyclic set is semigroup with any given binary operation in the way that,
the existence of binary operation is the matter of mind. This example is about
the special set which has the power to make the semigroup with any given
binary operation.
-So there’s the complement question in that, is there the binary operation with
the power in which all given sets with it construct the semigroup’
-With analogous to it, there’s the follow-up questions, is there some sets which
have no mentioned power’
Or the analogous notion with changing the word set with binary operation:
-Is there some binary operations which have no mentioned power in the terms
of classifications or examples’
The abelian set are too close to the notion of semigroup as if they’re too close
and that’s it in the appearance. All cyclic set are abelian set as if the reverse
doesn’t hold so this detour is also over. So there’s no connections amid abelian
set and semigroup as if there’s some connections amid cyclic set and semigroup
in the way that, any of given cyclic set is semigroup and the reverse doesn’t hold.
In other words, the notion of cyclic set is embedded into the notion of abelian
set as if the notion of cyclic set is embedded into the notion of semigroup. In
the term of inclusion, abelian set and semigroup have the inclusion of cyclic set.
In the term of set and subset, the cyclic notion is the subset of both abelian
notion and semigroup notion.
The neutral set is the set of objects which in that, the objects are ineffective
in the process of coupling. To get it precisely, if n is the neutral object, then
∀s ∈ S, ns = sn = s so n is relatively abelian with any object. Another result
immediately implies from this attribute which is about the number of these
objects. The set of neutral objects N are singleton. In other words, there’s
only one neutral object n because if there’s two neutral objects n1 , n2 ∈ N
and n1 6= n2 , then, n1 = n1 n2 = n2 → n1 = n2 which is contradiction so the
supposition is false and all indices delete and there’s only one object belongs the
N which is named n. So the set of neutral numbers N, which is also singleton,
is semigroup with any given binary operation.
The set of nilpotent objects includes some objects which in that, there’s the
power in that, the objects became the neutral object if the neutral object is
existed. So the possibilities of this definition relies on the existence of neutral
object which if so, there’s one neutral object. The kind of analogous is available
amid nilpotent object and cycled object, they’ve the specific power as if the

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difference is when the impact of power is different. In the first case, the power
makes the object be neutral as if in the second case, the power makes the
object be itself. To get it precise, latextP is the set of nilpotent objects so
there’s the neutral object n which in that, ∀p ∈ P, there’s the natural number
a such that pa = n. There’s an idea in that, the choosing the power could
construct the new object and in the natural extension, the new set. Because
the power in the cyclic object is the principle in that, the impact is the matter
of mind so the number in that, choosing it, makes the object itself. In the
nilpotent object, the power is the matter of mind which makes the object to be
neutral number. So the concept of power which is about the number of binary
operation on the one object, is introduced the name power for an arbitrary
object. There’s some detours, introducing the impacts of power, the number of
power, change the style of power and the mixed process about them. The word
abelian object a is the object in that, ∀s ∈ S : as = sa so there’s the detour
with the concept which is relatively abelian in the way of making the set, the
set of abelian objects A are proposed. If a ∈ A, then there’s s ∈ S : as = sa.
So there’s two detours, the abelian object and relatively abelian object with
its natural extension about set when they’re embedded set in the semigroup.
The adjective embedded could be deleted when all objects are abelian as if the
term of embedded, couldn’t be deleted or extended when the embedded set is
relatively abelian set. Because for having the notion relatively abelian, there’s
the need for another set. So this notion is the matter of mind when two sets
are embedded in the set. Finding and seeing the notion of embedded semigroup
could be another detour. Nilpotent object is the object which the power makes
objects and at the end, the neutral number. So if n is the corresponded to the
power, then the power n − 1 is the object which in the binary operation with
itself as coupling, makes the neutral object or the combination of object related
to the power n with any object, makes the second mentioned object.
The kind of equation could be about the square of the object. Consider the
object which power of two, makes object itself. To get it precisely, e ∈ S : e2 = e.
So the binary operation of the object with itself, makes itself and in the matter of
production, it doesn’t make the new object. Go to the extension, The embedded
set E is the set in that, all objects makes the themselves when the power of two is
done. So there’s the detour in that the concept of abelian object and this notion,
make sense in the matter of inclusion. e1 , e2 ∈ E : (e1 e2 )2 = e1 e2 implies that
the combination of two members of E, makes the member [not necessarily new]
of E. If so, E is also the abelian set. In other words, if E is closed under the
given arbitrary binary operation, then this E set is also abelian set. To give the
reason, E is closed so in the indirect proof, there’s worthy to make sense by the
native core of this set as equation, ∀e1 , e2 ∈ E : (e1 e2 )2 = (e1 e2 )(e1 e2 ) = e1 e2
so the concept of relative neutral is coming up and this equation is the rule for
having the iteration of two.
Semigroup And Its Beyond #3
Groupoid is the algebraic structure in that, equations xa = b, ay = b have the
unique answer which is x, y where a, b are groupoid’s object. Groupoid’s object
is the convenient way for the precise use of the term object for the groupoid’s set.
It’s a reminder to bring that groupoid has groupoid’s set and groupoid’s function
when sometimes, ’tis given that groupoid is renamed CLOSED FUNCTION. So
ab is the groupoid’s object, when the groupoid’s something is about its attributes
which are ready in that structure where the corresponding and assigning stuff is

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coming up as the generality so object which is the acceptable in the atmosphere

of groupoid is the matter of mind. There’s the common way in that when the
attribute from notion out of context, is the matter of mind, then the process of
stating exact attributes with references for details or telling the corresponding
references when the needs are felt. The common use of groupoid’s function is
about taking two groupoid’s objects and giving one groupoid’s object as if in
the left hand, ’tis possible to have two cases for the detours. So a, b is the
groupoid’s object in the way that, a belongs to left hand and a belongs to right
hand so there’ the new situation in that, two objects don’t belong to the left
hand and the case of choosing two elements on the right, is impossible so there’s
only one option in that, one object is gotten from left and one object is gotten
from right. There’s two options for getting one object out of two objects. So
the complement partner of taking and giving objects are when the one object
from left hand in the first/second place is coupled with one object from the
right hand. There’s two cases for making the connections as if in this case,
output is desired on the left hand in the terms of first/second place. To capture
precise symbols, equations xa = b, ay = b have the unique answer which is x, y
where a, b are give and they’re renamed groupoid’s object. So this is new rule
for the groupoid’s function.
Back to the semigroup, the equation p and its impact on the semigroup.
Consider, x, y is two semigroup’s objects in the given way of obtaining objects.
So by putting them in the equation, (xy)2 = (xy)(xy) = xy implies that xy is
neutral when xy is the combination of x, y under the semigroup’s function. So
the output is the neutral object with the formula xy for its inputs. In other
words, the equation p2 = p holds, then p is natural object and for getting the
precise notion if p could rewrite by two semigroup’s objects and p satisfies in
the intended equation, then p is neutral object in the word of semigroup and
groupoid.
To use semigroup’s attribute, moving the parenthesis and its result is the matter
of minds. Let x, y be set’s two given objects. By implementing the equation p on
them, there’s (xy)2 = (xy)(xy) = xy. Until now, there’s no use from the jargon
of semigroup as if there’s the use of set and object which implies x = 6 y". To
capture semigroup’s notion, latex (xy)2 = (xy)(xy) = x(yx)y = xy. If x,y are
relatively abelian at least with each other, then xy = yx so by substituting this
attribute in the equation, using the semigroup’s exclusive attribute and using
the concept of power, (xy)2 = (xy)(xy) = x(yx)y = x(xy)y = (xx)(yy) = x2 y 2 .
-In the semigroup, if semigroup’s two given objects x, y are relatively abelian at
least with each other, then the equation p2 = p is turned out (xy)2 = x2 y 2 .
-In the semigroup, if semigroup’s two given objects x, y are relatively abelian at
least with each other and the equation p2 = p holds, then the equation p2 = p is
turned out (xy)2 = x2 y 2 = xy. This sentence has obvious result because if the
equation p2 = p holds, then by keeping in mind groupoid’s attribute in the term
of closed function, semigroup’s two given objects x, y make the semigroup’s
given object xy so by holding the equation p2 = p for any semigroup’s given
object p, (xy)2 = xy without using semigroup’s attribute as if using groupoid’s
attribute about the CLOSED FUNCTION. CLOSED FUNCTION is the new
name for groupoid as if GROUPOID isn’t renamed by CLOSED FUNCTION.
To find the notion, in that, changing the parenthesis is the matter of minds or
going back and constructing the structure which relies on it or having the its
foundation which facilitates to rename semigroup or getting some consequences

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about it. Suppose there’s the abelian groupoid, so what’s taking the order
in the parenthesis when the preferences are made by parenthesis’ The kind
of deletion of orders in groupoid’s function when the sequences of actions are
going to do by groupoid’s function. The kinds of ordinal numbers on the inputs,
are going to delete. The close notion to this, is the abelian groupoid in that,
groupoid’s two given objects could exchange their places in the way that, first
place and second place aren’t the matter of minds. To get it precisely, let
x, y be the abelian groupoid’s two given objects so xy = yx The kind of order
amid elements are deleted so the output is the same in different order amid
elements as if in the semigroup, the order could be available so there’s the type
of semigroup which is renamed ABELIAN SEMIGROUP. When there’s some
objects, the input implies two of them, so the kind of ways, is possible. Some
objects in the formations go to the input so the options of choosing them, aren’t
matter of minds in the semigroup so the kind of symbol for arrangement of
them, makes sense. In other words, when the number of objects goes up to three
so two objects gets another object, there’s two cases, the different formations of
objects, get different outputs so in this case, the atmosphere is groupoid and
isn’t semigroup. In the second case, different formations of objects, get one
output so in this case, there’s semigroup so there’s also groupoid. The kind of
formation is the reminder for the PERMUTATION in the matter of jargons.
’ A SEMIGROUP of groupoid if Any permutation of the groupoid’s object,
makes the same object under the groupoid’s function.
-A semigroup is the groupoid in that, ∀x, y, z belongs to groupoid, (xy)z = x(yz).
when the xy is groupoid’s object under the groupoid’s function on the two
groupoid’s objects x, y where , is the separator for the groupoid’s object when
they’re renamed to function’s inputs with the order in that, x is the first object
in the function’s couple as input and y is the second object in the function’s
couple as input.
Semigroup And Its Beyond #4
Semigroup is the kind of atmosphere in that, there’s four possibilities in the
matter of connections with another notions as if two out of four, are cases so
the couple
-is groupoid and isn’t semigroup. This case occurs when the characteristic
which is different with the characteristic of groupoid, is up. The speciality of
semigroup is the ability of changing parenthesis without impacts on the final
result. So finding notions and examples which satisfy in the sentence. The
couple of integers and the binary operation minus is one example. In other words,
integers are closed under minus as if preferences are up in the couple so it isn’t
semigroup. To get the example, there’s 2, 5, 6 so (2−5)−6 = −9 6= 3 = 2−(5−6)
which illustrates counterexample for the case which the couple is groupoid as if
the couple isn’t semigroup.
-is semigroup. Nonnegative integers and the binary operation plus, could give
the example for the existence the case in the that, the statement has the pause
to get proof or be the open problem/conjecture/guess in the way that, only
finding the proof is the matter of minds. Nonnegative integers are closed under
plus. So this statement, shows that there’s the groupoid in the case which
is semigroup. Semigroup is closed under its binary operation so semigroup
is groupoid. Groupoid has no rule about the parenthesis and preference so
groupoid isn’t semigroup forever. The proof could make the example, truth
forever. So ∀x, y, z belongs to nonnegative integers, there’s x > 0, y > 0, z > 0

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so x + y > 0 which proves nonnegative integers are closed under plus so the
atmosphere, nonnegative integers and plus, is groupoid in the independently
proof for it because semigroup is groupoid when the semigroup is the extension
of groupoid in the direct way where the first word in the first sentence is about
the supposition about being groupoid.
The study on some attributes which belong to semigroup and they don’t belong
to groupoid. The couple of nonnegative integers and minus is the example as
the the existence of this case, is proved. In the other word, there’s the example
which demonstrates nonnegative integers aren’t closed under minus and they
don’t have associative property. In general, when the statement is up, the
counterexample is needed to state, it doesn’t hold as if when the statement is
up, the proof is needed to state, it holds and the examples could close the way
which is about denying it and the examples could be considered as the proof
for existence of this statement in the way that, ’tis the matter of minds for
statement to have the kind of pause for getting the proof for statement which
is more than the proof for its existence. This case is favorite in the kind of
obtaining some attributes which behave differently when the extended notion
gives its existence up. The kind of extension which have some specific attributes
in which, there are some detours in the way that, the notion of being closed and
the notion of associative property are coming up. So there’s four possibilities
which are also four cases.
-Both are up. The process could be in the matter of giving some examples
and some results, some extended definitions and the mixed formation of them.
The atmosphere nonnegative integers and plus in the words which are the
closed nonnegative integers under plus. Proof in the generality, is EXISTED
PROOF and proof by example, is EXISTING PROOF where -ing form is the
subjective adjective and -ed form is the objective adjective. Come up with
proof, the couple of nonnegative integers and plus, is EXISTING PROOF. The
couple nonnegative integers and production, is EXISTING PROOF. To take
the detour, plus is the kind of symbol for positive and production/times is
the rotation of it. The notion of semigroup is the kind of EXISTED PROOF.
The necessary condition for having associative property, isn’t about having
the closed property. EXISTING PROOF is the couple of nonnegative integers
and minus so there’s neither associative property nor closed property because
2-5=-3 and -3 doesn’t belong to nonnegative integers so the closed property
doesn’t hold. 2 − (5 − 6) = 3 6= −9 = (2 − 5) − 6 is the EXISTING PROOF
for lack of associative property. EXITED PROOF uses for all cases in that
the situation at least in some avenues, is clear. When the greater number is
the upcoming number, the closed property doesn’t hold so this could be the
EXISTED PROOF in the matter of result regarding its level where the matter
of complexity of proof and other parameters are coming up. When the greater
number is obtained from the upcoming parenthesis, the associative property
doesn’t hold. Otherwise, both of closed property and associative property hold
in the case of nonnegative integers and minus. Are these all possibilities when
the both of them hold’ The kind of result could be like necessary condition,
sufficient condition and equivalent condition.
-Associative property holds as if closed property doesn’t hold. As the extension to
this statement, are there some collections which in that, all their members have
the associative property and don’t have closed property’ some collections, some
conditions, some equivalencies, some classifications and some characteristics

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could be good words to be replaced in the question. Nonnegative integers and

minus, are coming up so some members are on demand, for satisfying in that
statement. The gist of statement is about being member and having same
result. The associative property is about how to have same results when the
order/parenthesis doesn’t matter of minds. The closed property is about how
to have the kind of result which the membership of result, is clear. So if there’s
the set in that, all couple of objects has no closed property as if all triple of
objects has associative property. This situation is impossible when the number
of nonnegative integers passes the one because the order amid numbers, could
make set relatively closed and not relatively closed.
-The focus on finding the couple which isn’t closed twice. So two numbers are
greater than the third number which is upcoming and two numbers are in the
back of it. {2 < 5 < 6} is the ordered set in that, the comma , is changed to be
the greater relation < . So 2 − (5 − 6) = 3 > 0 and (2 − 5) − 6 = −9 < 0 so
the discussion goes to the triple members for having same styles so the topic
is about the triple of nonnegative integers which the question is about having
and/or lack of the associative and/or closed property. In that example, neither
associative property holds not closed property holds. So the tool of selecting two
couples which are closed twice was the good idea to have EXISTING PROOF
for having the closed property on the left hand and lack of closed property on
the right hand. The situation has no associative property because the result is
different so there’s the new result in that if either of right hand or left hand,
has the different type in the term of closed property, the associative property
doesn’t hold so there’s the EXISTING PROOF. To capture this details, two
cases in which, the left (right) hand, doesn’t have closed property and and
the right (left) hand have the closed property, makes the situation in that,
associative property doesn’t hold. To get EXISTED PROOF, closed property
is being nonnegative so if two numbers has different style in the term of being
nonnegative, means one number is negative and another number is positive,
then two numbers are obviously different. So there’s the situation in that both
sides are closed or neither of them, is closed. The first case leads to notion of
groupoid. Another case which is about the negative numbers in the reverse
choose of numbers.
The approach is having decreasing property amid number once so there’s notion
of PEAK NUMBER and PINNACLE NUMBER or VALLEY NUMBER and
VALE NUMBER. 6 − (2 − 5) = 9 > 0& − 1 = (6 − 2) − 5 = −1 < 0 so the
left hand has closed property as if the right hand doesn’t have closed property.
6 − (5 − 2) = 3 > 0& − 1 = (6 − 5) − 2 = −1 < 0.
There’s something in the kind of missing the amount of how big is the matter
of minds when the minus makes the number smaller and smaller so the big
amount of numbers are on demand to makes some cases held.
Semigroup And Its Beyond #5
Finding special sets in that, making the detours, is available. Let N denotes
the nonnegative integers. So there’s the endless set which is started with zero.
Another characteristic for this set, is about its potential abilities for getting
orders. In other words, set could have orders because the increasing property
is the property which the set holds as if the decreasing property is held in
this set before arriving to number zero. This set with the relation greater,
is totally ordered set which means any of couple which is chosen from this
set, could be comparable so there’s infrastructure for having the impacts of

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ordered set which its extension is set. Two exhibitions are available for this
set, {0, 1, 2, · · · , n}&{0 < 1 < 2 < · · · < n}. The second set could introduce
the notion of having the number to be up or down. So there’s the detour to
introduce the specific subset for this set in the form of its second exhibition
because every of this subset, could be open to have the unordered numbers so it
destroys the order in the set. So the kind of subset is the matter of the intended
set, which it preserves the structure of intended set. This discussion goes to
introduce the new subset in the term of notation. Denote [n] = {1, 2, · · · , n}.
This subset doesn’t have the number zero as if the property of being endless,
doesn’t exist. The kind of totally ordered set is heir. So there’s the open way
to define number and its natural extension which is set. There’s a need to have
legal formation about order so there’s open way to have another notion and
its notation. The notion PERMUTATION of [n] is π = (π1 π2 · · · πn ) in that,
πi ∈ [n], ∀i ∈ [n]&π0 = πn+1 = ∞. So the comma , is deleted and the order is
replaced by having the number together like numbers are member and digits for
the greater number which is named permutation. The notion of permutation
has the exhibition in that, all numbers are shown like the digits of the number
so as ’tis well-known, digits have the special position which makes different
worthy for every positions. There’s the serious analogous in notion and its
basis amid permutation and numbers as if the difference is about having two
parenthesis at first and at end.
So there’s the ordered set. There’s some new names for the second number so
πi
-DESCENT NUMBER if πi−1 < πi and
-PEAK NUMBER if πi−1 < πi < πi+1
PEAK NUMBER is DESCENT NUMBER and the reverse result rely on the
relation with upcoming number.
-introduces PINNACLE NUMBER as its position if ’tis PEAK NUMBER.
The two extensions of this notion as follows.
PEAK SET is P k(π) = {πi : π = π1 π2 · · · πn &πi−1 < πi < πi+1 }.
PINNACLE SET is P in(π) = {i : π = π1 π2 · · · πn &πi−1 < πi < πi+1 }.
-ASCENT NUMBER if πi−1 > πi and
-VALLEY NUMBER if πi−1 > πi < πi+1
VALLEY NUMBER is ASCENT NUMBER and the reverse result rely on the
relation with upcoming number.
-introduces VALE NUMBER as its position if ’tis VALLEY NUMBER.
The two extensions of this notion as follows.
-VALLEY SET is V y(π) = {πi : π = π1 π2 · · · πn &πi−1 > πi < πi+1 }. The
notion uses the first letter and the end letter.
-VALE SET is V ale(π) = {i : π = π1 π2 · · · πn &πi−1 > πi < πi+1 }.
Back to the tour, there are new notions. The notion of set, goes to be in
the kind of enumerating problem. PEAK SET is the ordered set in the form
of unordered set so there’s the professional style for nonnegative integers so
this notion is coming up because the infrastructure of this set, implies taking
numbers without repetition as if they’ve orders. These statements are Okay
for four new sets, PEAK SET, PINNACLE SET, VALLEY SET and VALE
SET. If some operation amid numbers out of order is found, they could be
groupoid. To capture the difference, Order takes two numbers as its input as
if the output isn’t number so this is the difference amid order and operation
because operation takes two numbers as its input as if the output is the number.

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The kind of output is up, the first case gives only the comparison so it could
be the operation when the relation is greater. So every relation is the kind
of operation in that the output is only chosen form one number which comes
from inputs. So PEAK SET, PINNACLE SET, VALLEY SET and VALE SET
with the operation greater, makes four groupoids. Because when the output
from two numbers as input, is chosen so output is either first number or second
number which implies the set is closed under this operation greater. So greater
is made the totally order set when these four set with the relation greater,
make it as if greater is made groupoid when these four set with the binary
operation greater, make it. To sum both up, (O, <) with three principles, is
totally ordered set and <: O × O → O makes O to be closed and the couple
is groupoid. The structure of relation greater in its principle with the number
three, implies transitive principle which has the same concept with associate
property is the notion of groupoid. So these four sets with their couple, make
the semigroup. If there are three numbers, then the comparison doesn’t care
about the order and parentheses because ’tis totally ordered set is about its
couple.
There are four detours. They give us, four semigroups. They may make the
strong relation amid problems in both structures. The sketch (scheme) of those
set in the triple class like the three objects in semigroup, could be like π = π1 1π2
when every position has the candidate. π0 = πn+1 = ∞ so π1 &π2 are over in the
notion of PEAK NUMBER because previous number or upcoming number is
greater then them. So one number couldn’t be PEAK NUMBER and couple of
number couldn’t be PEAK NUMBER so there’s only case which is about triple
of numbers as the existence of all cases at least. So one could have potential
abilities to be PEAK NUMBER. The matter of selection of one, is because of
taking the generality. One is minimum number so there’s no number before it.
This implies that this triple has no PEAK NUMBER so P k(π = π1 1π2 ) = ∅.
So there’s the obvious example for semigroup and as its consequence, groupoid.
The PEAK SET of π = π1 1π2 is SEMIGROUP and ’tis obvious SEMIGROUP.
’tis empty set.

2.4 Semigroup And Its Beyond

Outlook on its beyond, Stretched

outlines of notions, Finding
analogous notions, Addressed
approaches in common

emigroup And Its Beyond #6

Group action! The construction of set to obtain new semigroup as if focus
is on the binary operation as the second part of this couple. The kind of
procedure in that, two semigroups have the relation. Group action is the
kind of homomorphism from a group to its permutation group. Take to the
semigroup, Semigroup action is the kind of homomorphism from a semigroup
to its permutation semigroup. So every semigroup’s member is corresponded
to the semigroup’s permutation. There’s the choice to choose one out of two.
The kind of using two possessive conjunction, the first is two letter word, of,

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and the second has one letter and one symbol, ’s, like two words, it’s and ’tis.
There’s some sets excerpt from permutation semigroup like peak set, pinnacle
set, valley set and vale set. There’re some sub semigroups in that, they’ve
supposed to be another semigroups so there’s detour. The follow-up question
is going up. The sub operation from the fixed semigroup. So at least, there’s
three notions to be fixed and others are considered to be changeable. Fix the
semigroup so there’s notion to change in the way of sub and generate in the
term of sub. Sub semigroup, sub set and sub operation. Or their extensions
about how it could be large.
The associative property holds in the permutation semigroup. So the kind of
enumerative function which has the style of unary operation with the image
N. Word, number, is changed to be in the kind of function so every object has
corresponded to a numbers. Enumerative notion is the kind of being countable
and the kind of being finite or infinite. To capture the difference, the interval is
uncountable and infinite. So its numbers are continuous and aren’t discrete as
if this set is ordered as if there’s too many numbers amid two given numbers
then upcoming number and previous number only make sense in the way that,
the term closest number doesn’t make sense. The kind of professional set in
the kind of excerpt from the notion of set then set has two excerpt which is the
discrete ordered set and continuous ordered set where the set is the collection of
objects with obvious membership in the term of rules and other characteristics
and there’s nothing else. The set interval is closed by two numbers from left
and right as if the word, closed, is used for the closed communication which is
the extension of closed set which its members are closed as the consequences of
closed communications by using the specific function which is binary operation
on the intended set. The CLOSED SET is the name for groupoid as if adding
ASSOCIATIVE PROPERTY, makes the SEMIGROUP NOTION. As taking
the detour, the PERMUTATION GROUP is the kind of set on the specific
styles of NONNEGATIVE INTEGERS which with induction on it, could make
the NONNEGATIVE INTEGERS. The induction of this specific set is the tool
to bring some notion on NONNEGATIVE INTEGERS like satisfying this set on
the mentioned property. To take the tip, the ind of using word could be exact
when there’s need to the attribute sub-something, like applying on set, using
subset, when ’tis independent, using set, when ’tis up, using super set. Super
could use as prefix instead of the words, general and extension. So NONNEG-
ATIVE INTEGERS is the super set for the notion of set [n] = {1, 2, · · · , n} as
if this set is the super set when the rules π0 = πn+1 = ∞ are coming up the
reason for making sense about the notion of PERMUTATION SEMIGROUP.
The kind of semigroup is coming up so as expectation, the complexity is
something about. The kind of partitions for the super set N with the name
NONNEGATIVE INTEGERS, even # and odd # when the uses of # translate
to the words "number" and "number of". The couple of even # with plus is
semigroup and the couple of odd # with plus is semigroup as if the minus
isn’t made sense by semigroup so for these sets, semigroup doesn’t make sense
when the membership of minus is obvious. There’s the analogous discussion
about production and division. So for these sets, semigroup makes sense with
production and don’t make sense with division, too.
Take detour of permutation, permutation is the couple of set and its binary
operation. Permutation has the specific literature so it could be seen as the
permutation π = π1 π2 · · · πm of [n] where the π0 = πn+1 = ∞. The kind of

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position and the kind of number could be seen as fixed numbers. So the kind
of super permutation could be like the permutation in that, some positions
are fixed. So super set of these super permutations could give the open way
for having the semigroup. The kind of binary operation or having the notion
of closed set in the sense of number’s communications and after that super
communication in the notion of semigroup in the way that when the set is
closed in the term of set’s definition, the set is closed in the term of set’s
communication and the set is closed in the term of set’s result. When the
result of communication, has the same result for any couple from triple of set’s
members, the semigroup is up. The formation of members in the way that, the
set is ordered. The kind of enumerating the vacant position in which, the # is
matter of mind. The enumerating is notion itself. So the kind of notion could
come up in the complexity in which the semigroup opens the way without using
it. The type of enumeration for the kind of semigroup in which, the members
are functions. The set of permutation in that, the pinnacle set is fixed. So the
set is ready. The kind of notion which is closed set, is the matter of minds. This
set is closed in the matter of having the same pinnacle set so all permutations
which have this characteristic, are obvious object without any repetitions. So
the set is closed in the matter of definition.
Semigroup And Its Beyond #7
Communication amid two objects could be like having the common digits so in
this case, four-digits numbers are assigned so the common digits could make
sense in the kind of term which is closed set. The set of all numbers which have
four digits, is closed so ’tis groupoid. The kind of transitivity amid objects,
makes sense about the word semigroup which is assigned to this set. The kind
of notion could be assigned to this algebraic structure, as the word graph.
Vertices are four-digits numbers and the edge is about the possibility which
is occurred in the kind of having the common digits. The numbers of digits
which are in common, are open. To take the detour, two vertices are joint
by edge if and only if two numbers have the common digits. The property of
having common digits, is associative. So the set of all four digits numbers, is
semigroup when the binary operation is about having one common digits amid
two numbers which are belonged to this set. Two objects are given. Two given
objects satisfy one out of two cases so if they’ve one common digit, then one
object which has the one common digit, is chosen as output in the random
way. Second case is about having no common object kin this case, the 1111
is assigned to them as output. The notion of having one common digit, has
the transitivity property. So there’s no preferences and there’s no needs to
have parenthesis because the preferences and the parentheses don’t work. The
notion is semigroup. 1111 is assigned to have no edges amid two given vertices.
So the graph is as well-defined as the semigroup is. The kind of permutation of
[4] makes the set which is applied into the matroid because the 1111 is empty
set and if the relation being subset is renamed to be the relation of having
one common digit. There’s way to go forward when ’tis as open as the going
backward is.
The notion of semigroup applies on the kind of associative notion when the
notion of being associative is about three objects. When first object and second
object have the relation, and second object has the relation with third object,
then first object has the relation with third object. So the kind of chain, is done
when relation acts like chain. Semigroup is the closed set in the couple and

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closed result in the triple. Group is on the second level to get definition for its
existence. Semigroup is the notion which in that, there’s something about being
associative. For example, the set from matrixes with their common binary
operation, makes ether a closed set or not. Because there’s the rule for having
the communication amid matrixes so the squares are survivors, which means
the matrixes with the same amount for # rows and # columns may recreate the
closed set as if certainty is about the time when all possible matrixes from the
given number from nonnegative integers, are collected in the set. This collection
is renamed to be groupoid. Two types of matrixes could pose the detours. The
relation amid numbers could be so complicated when there’s position in which,
ever number has the certain place. Or in other detour, set’s objects are assigned
by some numbers which aren’t necessarily distinguished and different in the
term of modeling. One notion is gathering them in matrix. So there’s two ways.
Firstly, the collection of matrixes, is on demand where the determinant of all
matrixes aren’t zero so the set is characteristics by the matrixes which don’t
have zero as their determinant. The origin of numbers could obtain from the
set so sets as if the sets have to the same amount of objects and after that every
set gives to their objects, some numbers so the collection of sets are modeled by
the collection of matrixes. The kind of restricted notion for using the objects
in the terms of numbers. The set of matrixes which don’t have zero as their
determinate, is GENERAL SET Gl(n, S) and this set is closed set and closed
result so Gl(n, O) is the semigroup when the n is the common # set’s member
and O is the set of some sets which don’t necessarily have the set with the
relation amid them like subsets of the certain as something which occurs in the
notion of matroid. The sets only have # nonzero as their determinant. This
characteristic applies as the closed set, and closed result.
The second notion, is about set of sets in that, sets have the #1 as their common
attribute about determinant, to make the closed set and closed result. So if
# rows and # columns are the same, the collection of matrixes, is SPECIAL
SET Sl(n, O) where n is the # of objects in every set which is fixed and in
common. To sum it up, the set of objects is ready. Every of object is assigned
by the common # digits forming the number as its characteristics. So the set
of numbers with the same # of digits as their exhibitions, is popped in the
matrix. So every object is assigned to the matrix of [n] like the objects are
the permutation of [n]. The common attribute is having the same # of digits.
So adding another common attribute, makes the new set, new groupoid, and
new semigroup where the determinant of all matrixes, is one. So there’s two
detour. The set of objects with same # of digits which is semigroup. In the
other words, the set of matrixes of [n]. In other words, the set of permutation
of [n]. Those are semigroups. To take upper level, the set of matrixes of [n],
which have determinant one, is semigroup.
The common notion about semigroup, is the kind of combination amid function
when the set of some functions has the associative property. So there’s the
reverse way in the the set has the closed result and it has relatively closed
result. To take the words, ’tis semigroup as if it isn’t groupoid in the term of
the game with words as if the ghost-semigroup or quasi-semigroup are proper
because the semigroup is groupoid and the vice versa has too many counter
examples to deny the truth about the mentioned statement. The icon of being
semigroup is the set of some functions. So ’tis the detour in that, the icon of
notion is chosen and after that, there’s the way to go down from up. The closed

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result is the nature of function. So if the set is closed set, ’tis semigroup.
Semigroup And Its Beyond #8
Great question is about how the structure semigroup could introduce some
examples and the big question is about how this notion could be related to
other notions or ’tis possible to extract some new results itself or with other
collaborations. Permutation of [n] is passed as if there’s the analogous notion
which is related to it. Binary representation of [n] when n = 4, is like 0000. For
defining the set which isn’t obvious, consider the members which have one at
first digit or zero at first digit. The obvious set, is the set which has all binary
representation of [4]. The set is well-defined. Two stages are looked forward
to be defined in the way that both groupoid and semigroup make sense. The
type of having binary operation in the way that, closed set and closed result
makes sense. The closed set in every case, is obvious so ’tis groupoid. The
kind of closed result in every case, in on demand. The kind of description is
on demand because the previous concept, has no traces of binary operation.
With the previous attention, the property of having zero at first, works so this
is the semigroup. The set of binary representations on [4] with the property of
having zero at first, is semigroup. This notion could be extended to next digit
or other seen number. Take the great detour, the kind of binary operation in
that, the first digit is fixed and other digits are sent in the binary operation of
binary members with the rule in which, the exchange of zero with one are done
and vice versa. So this notion is the great detour for having all with the name
semigroup.
To take big tour, two sets are chosen in the way that, binary representation
of [4], is given so ’tis the kind of permutation of [4] in the classifications of
having zero at first digit or having one at first digit. These two sets are closed
because every members in the common binary operation on the binary numbers,
gets number either in the first set or in the second set. So these two sets
are co-closed. The result of any fixed triple of binary numbers as if in the
different orders for them, are the same. So these two sets are co-groupoid
and co-semigroup. Back from big tour, The notion of having same result in
different order could consider as super-something like literarily uses of this
notion with presence of binary operation. The words and alphabet are co-closed
set when every given words have the letters in the alphabet so these two sets
are co-semigroup and as its consequence, they’re co-groupoid. So the kind of
two sets are replaced with the kind of set and binary operation. So the couple is
changed. The couple is used to be from two different styles as if in this case, the
couple uses the two same styles. Take the great detour, the term different and
counting/enumerating have the different meaning so when the styles of different
because of having styles, ’tis counted two styles from different structure as if
the term, two different styles are, definitely and obviously, wrong. The kind of
acting like digits, are made in the counting up to 2. Like Month November or
binary representation of [4], different objects are counted separately. So it coms
up with the notions to get to theses two sets with one name like (n : m) which
the n is # of binary number with the starter digit zero and m is # of binary
number with the starter digit one.
Deleting the order is on purpose and the purpose of semigroup as the new
notion. New notion about deleting the order in the result. The set has no order
so the kind of arising the concept of set in the new structure as the extension
of set. The set has no order so the binary operation, as the common tool,

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has to delete order when triple of objects are candidate to be in the couple of
objects so any two selected objects form triple, has the same result. The kind of
modern deleting the order, is about using the terms as the same. So if there’s
one object in the set, then copies of it, is counted once and there’s no need to
have them when its attributes are forever the same with the original object.
The modern literature of deleting is expanded to the relation of objects with
another objects when the work with single object with the term of set, is done.
The set is closed so any communications amid objects, has to be in the set. So
there’s the second action to make the set with no order amid any two given
objects. The result of choosing two objects for two action amid the three given
objects, is the same. The possibilities of choosing two objects from three given
objects for two actions involving two objects, are 2 cases about deletion of order,
either first and second objects in the parenthesis or second and third objects in
the parenthesis. Semigroup could be like metaphor or modeling. The kind of
notion is literally semigroup in the different style so there’s the open way to
find the structure which in that, the notion of semigroup is sparkled. The kind
of coloring and vertices are one of them when different types of coloring imply
the specific vertices have the colors in the term of minimality. The coloring on
the vertices, is the kind of process in that, neighbors of the intended object,
have different colors so there’s the great and big question about the time which
this number is minimum. The kind of having semigroup with any traces in
the result of the host so there’s only the reminder for having secure situation.
Vertex coloring is the name for a set of objects which are the representative of
any class of color in the way that, the best outcomes are made.
Semigroup And Its Beyond #9
Semifinal to have semigroup when the communication amid objects becomes
more and more systematic. The professional style of group is up to fourth
chapter. The process of semigroup, keeps the way in that, objects are made in
the general sketch. Three objects from the fixed set when the certainty about
having closed set, implies that every couple introduce one object in the set. So
there are some objects, which order is useful and which order works? Nothing.
nothing works so there’s need to use parenthesis. Parenthesis is the symbol to
make the couple as if in this case, there are three objects so it makes sense that
parenthesis is used once. The notion of up and super is the kind of notion to go.
Super-set is the kind of set in that, the set has the abilities to adapt to every
situation. The kind of group like super-group could be named by notion in that,
the group could be seen in situation with its consequences in the expected way
and unexpected way. Semigroup is the kind of closed set and closed result so the
kind of extremism is up. Closed result is super version of closed set because for
making same results, there’s need to have closed set. The sort of objects could
be modeled by numbers so two notations for nonnegative integers are available.
Denote [n] and Nn is {0, 1, 2, · · · , n} so there’s the notion of countable and
counting or enumeration in the form of the new set. As mentioned, the kind of
induction for the result which is related to nonnegative integers and they’re
trying to prove for this type of set, is applied by this notion and its notations.
The kind of having order in the kind of essence of numbers when the relation
is existed for this type of set. The order amid objects, makes sense about the
result which is felt to be different.
The three objects are given and the super-order is done on them. Super-order is
the notion which is about the way in that, the objects are in the places so when

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the object is fixed, the term previous object and upcoming object are noticed by
fixed object in the matter of super-order. So three objects with super-order, are
given. The result of this triple is the object so every couple of objects, makes
one object so there’s two cases for the middle object which in that, in the left
hand, the middle object with the previous object and in the right hand, ’tis
with upcoming object. Both right hand and left hand, makes new object which
with latter object make the new object. Both objects in the right hand and
left hand are the same. So notion is semigroup. Semigroup is the kind of class
for a collection of objects. The kind of embedded set could be imagined when
the set doesn’t have the associative property. The embedded set could be the
set which have the associative property. So this set is semigroup. The term of
having closed set, isn’t needed because for having closed result, the first criteria
is having the closed set so there’s the object in set which facilitates the next
attendance in the upcoming action. The type of this concept is even numbers as
the embedded set in the nonnegative integers so this set is semigroup because
the property of being associative, comes to the set as heir so if this set is closed,
the set is semigroup. The set of even numbers, is closed set so ’tis semigroup.
This notion is coming up with the new notions. If there’s too hard to identify
about having the property of associative, then there’s the open way to find the
set which has the associative property and the intended set is the embedded
set for it. So the intended set is semigroup. The property of having associative
is the kind of property as heir so all subsets of the set which has the associative
property, have the associative property. The associative property has too many
heirs which are their subsets. So for being semigroup in this case, only have
closed set is enough. To take another detour, the great question is coming
up: Is there the set in any kind of giving notion, which have the associative
property as if it isn’t closed set? Yeah! All subsets of the set with associative
set, are heirs in the term of having associative property. The big question is
about how many independent words are available? I believe only four: The
ASSOCIATIVE SET, CLOSED SET, GROUPOID SET, SEMIGROUP SET.
The differences amid semigroup and associative group, are the first notion has
to be groupoid set which implies to be closed set. All subsets of semigroup, are
associative set in the term of heir. The abelian set and associative set are heirs
in the term of their essence. So if they’re embedded into the set which has the
mentioned property, if so, then so.
Back to the tour, the notion of closed set, is the inherited property. So there’s
two ways, the first way is finding the set which this set has been renamed
by EMBEDDED SET. the second way, checking the rule which implies to be
renamed to ASSOCIATIVE SET. To sum it up, a given set is either embedded
set into associative set or associative set in the way ’tis the heir or independent.
This statement is truth for the abelian set. To get great detour, the relation
amid abelian set and associative set could be the notion of open way to studied.
To get big detour, some equations for making this property, could be the open
way to take some results. The kind of property like erasing of same objects
in the same position in the kind of equation, could be the big result to make
big and great notions. Two objects x, y are fixed so if for any objects x, two
equations ax=b and ya=b if has the unique answer so the deletion of the same
object in the right hand and left hand is possible. If it implies having associative
set in the terms of finding attributes for set?
Semigroup And Its Beyond #10

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Process of having the notion in the super-style of semigroup could lead to the
type of atmosphere in that, there’s too many classes of this structure. The
notion of having the cyclic set in that, the order is unknown as if the increasing
# objects instead of worthy in the matter of order, is done in the kind of
adding object to the previous object. The work is kind of dominos so the kind
of continuum is up. The generating set is the proper renaming even more if
the generator is one object. So the kind of having the same objects in the
umbrella of one object, going forward and moving forward so the set in that,
the finitely countable objects are up. The kind of nonnegative integers could be
the template for us so the cyclic set is on the table. The notion of cyclic set
immediately implies that, the class is semigroup so the generating set which
its generator is one object, is renamed semigroup. The abelian set is up as
if the detour in other way is up. So ’tis possible and feasible to change all
new names to two name which the second word is set so, it isn’t the big deal
to make sense about this work so it makes sense to use for us to use two big
words. Semigroup is SEMIGROUP SET and if so, there’s else like GROUPOID
SET so two continuous notion have the new name in the that, they want to be
in the chapter four, GROUP SET. There’s four hosts and four notions which
are GROUPOID SET, SEMIGROUP SET, HALF-GROUP SET and GROUP
SET. These are the main tours which take some detours to make some avenues
to the main tour which is one-way avenue.
The ABELIAN SET is on the table so if ’tis possible to good thing is to push it
on the floor in the right hand or the left hand, it doesn’t matter. ABELIAN
SET has the statement about moving two objects according to each other so
there’s the retuning on the words when the turn is done. In the other words,
for any objects x, y belong to ABELIAN SET, xy = yx. So the change of
position is possible when the change of parenthesis is the matter of minds
when the other name for it, is CLOSED SET. ABELIAN SET doesn’t imply
to be GROUPOID SET. So there’s no relationship amid ABELIAN SET and
GROUPOID SET. ABELIAN SET is GROUPOID SET. GROUPOID SET is
ABELIAN SET. There’s two many counterexamples to decline both sentences
from left hands and right hands. INTEGERS SET with MINUS OPERATION,
is the counterexample for right hand. This notion isn’t another notion. Because
this set is CLOSED SET as if the moving the positions, is changed the result
which is the matter of minds, for ABELIAN SET. To capture the root, There’s
some objects 2, 5 belong to INTEGERS SET s.t. 2 − 5 = −3 6= 5 − 2 = 3
So moving the number 2(5) from first (second) position to the second (first)
position changes the result (result) in the way that, changing the position
number 2 implies changing the position number 5 in the reverse direction, and
vice versa. So this counterexample declines the statement. In the creating
words, this is the example which create the statement so there’s some examples
which are ABELIAN SET and they aren’t GROUPOID SET. To take fresh
detour, Every counterexample could make the example and vice versa isn’t
truth because the relationship in one-way avenue. The counterexample works
in both sides, in the left hand, it declines the statement and in the right hand,
it creates the statement which is EXISTING STATEMENT. The jargons of
EXISTED and EXISTING are passed in previous pages.
To take next term, the next statement is waiting for new statement and
DECLINING statement in the form of counterexample. NONNEGATIVE
INTEGERS with MINUS isn’t GROUPOID SET as if ’tis ABELIAN SET. Be-

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cause the EXISTING OBJECTS 2, 5 belong to NONNEGATIVE INTEGERS,

isn’t GROUPOID SET because of the result isn’t object where 2 − 5 = −3 So
there’s the example in that, both structures are neither GROUPOID SET nor
ABELIAN SET. To find intended counterexample, there’s some clarifications
because the right hand seems too hard when the closer relationship makes
sense. The kinds of key notions are on demand. The process in the two objects
could be replaceable by each other as if the result is the same and the result
doesn’t belong to the set. This notion seeks the proper set. NONNEGATIVE
INTEGERS with PLUS have the good notion because the result doesn’t belong
to the set as if the problem is about the different results so if there’s way to
make the same result, with attention about not being the set’s membership, the
statement has the direction in the matter of being well-known and not neutral.
So this way is big detour and tour like big two words are up and they’re looking
forward to see private jet in the matter of high fives.
This discussion pushes us to the big question: Is the situation for CYCLIC
SET, the same when the only substitution is like the exchange amid ABELIAN
SET and CYCLIC SET? The reverse situation opens the way which is said to
be open ways. So there’s the template for the event in that, the structure isn’t
groupoid. So with the scrutiny, the result doesn’t belong to the GROUPOID
SET as if the result could be the same in some procedures. The kind of key
attributes for the style which in that, this key attributes are challenged to be
with membership of result to the set. So the kind of shuffle set in which, the
members could be replaceable in the positions which are occurred in them. Or
in the case, the attribute of CYCLIC SET is having the power of the element.
So the shuffled objects of this set in the kind of EMBEDDED SET, is the
example in that the potential ability is made. So both reverse key could be
possible. AN EMBEDDED SET from NONNEGATIVE INTEGERS with
PLUS, is the counterexample which declines the statement in that, ABELIAN
SET is GROUPOID SET. This is also the example to create the statement
which in that, there’s GROUPOID SET which isn’t ABELIAN SET. Because
for two objects 2, 5 belongs to ABELIAN SET, 5 + 2 = 7 = 2 + 5 which doesn’t
belong to ABELIAN SET as if it belongs to GROUPOID SET. Take the good
detour, the set could be fixed, so there’s the gentle discussion. If the set is closed
in the matter result so finding the way in which two result either is the same or
belongs to set. The key notion is about not being closed set in the ABELIAN
SET. To sum it up, NONNEGATIVE INTEGERS with MINUS, is the example
in that, the structure isn’t GROUPOID SET and ’tis ABELIAN SET. So
the statement is declined by the counterexample as if the new statement is
made which is: There’s ABELIAN SET which isn’t GROUPOID SET. Because
Two objects 2, 5 belong to the GROUPOID SET and ABELIAN SET as if
the result 2 − 5 = −3 doesn’t belong to GROUPOID SET and it belongs to
ABELIAN SET because the number 2, 5 could be replaceable as if the result
doesn’t existed.
Semigroup And Its Beyond #11
The kind of notion amid notions, semigroup is amid the tour which is titled
group set and amid the detours of groupoid set, semigroup set, half-group set
and group set. The notion of having the structure which is in the lightness.
Semigroup set is getting to be on the magnitude of words. To take it precise, the
term CLOSED SET is the set in that, the couple gets the result in the set so ’tis
CLOSED RESULT. The term SAME RESULT is derivative from the concept

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SEMIGROUP SET. The term COUPLE RESULT is the set in that, any couple
of objects exchanges their places as if the result is the same. So there’s the
discussion about CLOSED RESULT, SAME RESULT, COUPLE RESULT
and their relations. CLOSED SET implies that objects with each other, make
the new object like the tree which has some branches as if there’s no need to
make connection with all objects so in this case, GROUPOID SET is coming
up. In the notion of GROUPOID SET, objects have to make connections with
each other so every given couple make new object in the set. So the notion of
CLOSED SET, is the extension of GROUPOID SET. The analogous notion
is about the SEMIGROUP and its extension which is CLOSED RESULT. To
take this case, the quantifier EVERY is substituted by the quantifier SOME.
So the kind of ghost version of groupoid set and semigroup set are up.
The version of example is into this case when the objects move linearly toward
their places. To capture the difference, there’s some objects which have one
preference and could move in one direction and # of place is the exact # which
is # of objects, the # involving preferences, could have the kind of iteration
and repetitions so there’s no remorse. The conflict of interest could make this
situation, challengeable. There are four objects which have 4321 so the first
object goes to the fourth place, the second object goes to the third place, third
object goes to the second place and finally, the fourth object goes to the first
place so this list is PREFERRED LIST because the perfect matching is done.
If there’s the repetitions, the challenge is started. If the # chose the place
which is occupied and after that place, there’s no place, the list is failed. To
take the example, the list 4332 is FAILED LIST because the third object has
the third place as its preference so it goes to the third place as if third place is
occupied by second place so there’s one chance to move forward as if the new
place is the fourth place which is occupied by first object. To take this detour,
there’s one object and there’s one place as if the # of objects and the # of
places are the same so it could be like compromise or dividing into two parts
so both # are objects which are assigned by numbers without any restrictions
to use different numbers. So there are two objects which are considered to be
inputs of BINARY OPERATION, the output is either PREFERRED LIST or
FAILED LIST. This could be CLOSED SET as if like the CHARACTERISTIC
FUNCTION, the way of having membership is identified. So this detour is
open to bring the intended notions in the mentioned topic.
The kind of list isn’t SEMIGROUP SET. Because the way in that, objects are
coming to the place, are the matter of minds in the way the PREFERRED
LIST becomes FAILED LIST. So ’tis the turning point. In setting of set,
something-idea is coming up at least point, at most point or at the point
like CLOSED-idea. Sometimes, motivating example is survivor so there’s the
predictor to fix the threshold in the terms of technical portion, statistical
efficiency, computational efficiency and analogy in the most greatest with the
symbol». Fix the title as if moving forward amid notions. The motivational
example is the preference-idea which tries to make efficiency in the concept of
chapter’s title. In setting of title, SEMIGROUP SET could make the notion in
the kind of CLOSED RESULT. CLOSED RESULT is the kind of notion to
drive forward. The kind of formations of numbers in the form of set, family,
permutations and rearrangement for the sequence of discrete numbers from the
starting number one, makes the sensible approaches to be closer and closer in
the kind of words which makes sense what’s seen.

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The kind of numbers as the substitutions of objects, are assigned to the cyclic
set of possibilities. For the given n, all cyclic arrangements for these n objects
in the style of numbers, make PERMUTATIONS GROUP. The kind of notation
is used for this notion. The notation is the excerpt from ordered pair as if the
comma which is the separator, doesn’t exist. By the precise word, (1, 2, 3, 4)
is the ordered multiple as if (1234) is the permutation set. So there’s slight
differences in the notations. Permutation set is the kind of unary operation
on the INDUCTIVE SET [n] so this exhibition is meaningful in the way that,
1, 2, 3, 4 are the inputs and the function applies on them as 1 → 2 → 3 → 4 → 1.
So there’s the cyclic procedure which in that, CYCLIC OBJECT is the name for
that. CYCLIC OBJECT is different from CYCLIC SET because the CYCLIC
SET has one element as its generators so the power of this element, makes all
objects. As if CYCLIC OBJECT is the set in that, given objects are ready to
get the relations amid them so the objects could be completely different and
have no relation from its structure so they could be renamed like the isolated
leader. The kind of sense about cyclic is the motivational notion to take the
observation for finding the intended fact as if the mentioned fact has destroyed
the expectations. CYCILC OBJECT is unary operation so PERMUTATION
SET is the set which includes the objects from the style of unary operation
which is renamed to CYCLIC OBJECT by us.
Semigroup And Its Beyond #12
Semigroup and its tour in the way that, it makes sense. Semigroup is the kind
of couple so it makes sense to review some notions of couple. To take the detour,
there are SIX notations like (x, y), (x; y), (xy), xy, x1 · · · xn , {x, y}which could
be seen as the ORDERED PAIR, CONDITIONAL PAIR, PERMUTATION
SET, RANDOM NUMBERS, ORDERED NUMBERS, and SET’S NUMBERS.
-The first notions is applied when two numbers have the ordered positions so
any of positions makes some different attributes which are its exclusive impacts
have come from its existence in the matter of the clause which is definition and
its necessities.
-The second notation is about the time which is based on the first object as if ’tis
limited to be under conditions of the second objects so to get the notion, there
are some applications of this notion in FIX PINNACLE SET and FIX VALLEY
SET where they’ve used P in(P, n) when the permutations of [n] which have
the fix pinnacle set P, are on demand. With analogous to it, V ale(P, n) when
when the permutations of [n] which have the fix valley set P, are on demand.
-The third notation has used to introduce the special function which is renamed
to be PERMUTATION SET. The kind of follow-up procedure in combinations
of functions in the way that, the last number is input and the next number is
output so two labels are going to be on the number which goes to the right as
if in the circle style. ’tis worthy to note that the repetition of numbers, isn’t
permitted. For example, (4283759) is the permutation of [7] so for making
sense what’s going on, four is input and two is output so four goes to two goes
eight goes to three goes to seven goes to five goes to nine goes to four so there’s
the circle from four to four. The inclusion isn’t necessary and the repetition
isn’t permitted.
-The fourth notation has used to introduce the PARKING FUNCTION in
that, these numbers have made the list which is renamed to be PREFERRED
LIST. The repetition isn’t banned and the inclusion isn’t necessary. The PRE-
FERRED LIST has two options to be renamed as FAILED LIST or PARKING

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FUNCTION. The kinds of rules have existed amid numbers in the way that,
the kinds of using # is examined. Matching the number with its position or
upcoming positions so the # of numbers and # of positions aren’t the same.
There’s the freedom to have any numbers and any repetitions of numbers
with the upper bound for selecting the numbers as if in the permutation set,
there’s rule to use any numbers and there’s the rule to have the same number
of position and numbers which this second rule is satisfied by the notion of
PREFERRED LIST. To get it precise, the maximum number amid numbers
implies to have at least the number of positions greater than it or equal to it
and vice versa, the # of position implies to have the maximum number amid
numbers at most equal to number of positions. For example, the PREFERRED
LIST is 7325347 of [7] and the maximum number is seven so by according to
correspondence amid positions and numbers, at least seven positions have to
be or they’re seven positions so at most the maximum number is permitted
to be seven. The conflict of interest is the matter of this notion so the fifth
number has the conflict of interest with three so fifth number goes to four. As
analogous to it, sixth number goes to six as if the seventh number has no place
so the PREFERRED LIST is renamed to FAILED LIST. As point to get, if the
condition of having list from [7], hasn’t existed so there’s the way to have more
than seven, if so, the seventh number goes to the eight so the PREFERRED
LIST is renamed to PARKING FUNCTION.
-The fifth notation is the discrete notions which have potential order. ’tis the
special subset of nonnegative integers. The kind of ordered set which has
embedded. The kind of necessity for the definition of permutation because the
permutation is defined with basis on it.
-The sixth notation is about the set. The set is the collection of objects without
any repetitions or the necessity for having the order. The kind of having
obvious membership is the point of this definition. The iterations of objects
have counted once.
These types of notions could take the notion of SEMIGROUP SET and
CLOSED RESULT. The first notion is the kind of extension for this concept.
The second notion has connected in the exact way because in the set the
common attribute is the kind of having fix set so the result could be closed
in these types of members. The kind of having the notion of set, is obvious
because ’tis well-defined. There’s no connections amid the permutations in this
set so the kinds of collections of the specific permutations are done. The kind
of having some attributes amid objects are open way in this detour.
The notion of having function on the sets of functions so there’s need to have
special functions because the combinations of functions couldn’t be possible
as forever. Permutations are the kinds of functions with exclusive ways for its
exhibitions. They’re SEMIGROUPS and the enumerations are feasible. # of
all permutations of [n] has been enumerated to be the productions of numbers
in the fifth notation so there’s the notion of productions amid one to n so the
concept of factorial is up when the numbers in the fifth notation has been
accepted the productions amid themselves as 1 × 2 × · · · × n which is renamed
FACTORIAL NUMBER of n. To sum it up, the # of all permutations of [n]
has been numerated to be FACTORIAL NUMBER of n. The kind of new
number is up so there’s the notion of new number. For having the convenient,
# of permutations is FACTORIAL NUMBER.
Semigroup And Its Beyond #13

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Semigroup could be considered as the buzzword instead of jargon. So the kind

of having the lines of objects are the matter of minds. The kind of group
in the middle of junctions like the word group has the stop in shelter. Four
junctions up to the word group. Groupoid has made the concept of closed
relation so the second junction is of semigroup. The kinds of professional
communications have been made so the kind of closed result has become the
same result. Communications amid two objects have led to another object. So
the kind of arrangement could be the topic for the junction in the journey. The
kind of couple is the matter of minds when the first person has the material
and the second person has combined them. The kind of coming up in the
road where there’s four junction to be up in the matter of word group. Four
junctions are groupoid, semigroup, half-group and group. The stop has been
occurred in semigroup so there’s the kind of exchange to have the energy to
be up when the road goes upside. The kind of night for having the stop to
make sense what’s going on the second junction and looking forward to see the
upcoming morning for restarting the journey into upside. The semigroup is the
name of this junction where at night, ’tis only open. The lines of objects are
ready to use so there’s the critical question. How to pick the couple up? The
objects have the label from the styles of numbers so if there’s the care about
numbers, then there’s no problem to be seen. The kind of preference is undone
when the combination is done in the matter of numbers. So the second junction
is semigroup when it was groupoid. The positions of numbers are the matter of
minds so the combination is done in the matter of positions like positions are
the key word to get this notion.
Positions have been the only rule to make the combinations so there’s no needs
to separate two objects in every combinations when the using the position is
the only rule. Changing the position is illegal so there’s the point according to
it. The kind of number is related to the positions so there’s the label for every
positions. Choose the couple of objects when their positions are consecutive
so there’s same result when the function is done. The function has used all
objects which are given to be acted. The shape of changing amid positions
when two consecutive objects are up. There are too many couple like GROUP
SET, GRAPH STRUCTURE, MATROID STRUCTURE and PINNACLE
SET. Other visions could be reversely in that, given binary operation is ready.
So the discussion could be on the centerfold BINARY OPERATION. There
are too many binary operation when the operations have had the rules about
having two inputs and one output so domain in the left hand as two sets which
haven’t been expected to be the same, and image in the right hand as the set
which hasn’t been expected to be the same with other sets so they’ve been
considered to be three different sets. To take this tour, the set is fixed in three
positions which it could be there. So there’s one given set. And three positions
have been filled by one set. So there’s new term and new name to restrict
the notion of binary operation. There’s one given set and there’s the binary
operation ON it. The binary operation has been given the new name. The
binary operation has been renamed to GROUPOID if the binary operation on
the given set, is closed which means that every two given objects have given
the object as their image in the intended set.
The binary operation has renamed to be SEMIGROUP if the binary operation
has had the ASSOCIATIVE PROPERTY where the binary operation is on
the given set. So input and output of binary operation have made some new

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2. Detail-oriented Groups And Ideas

results. Associative property could be the increasing property so adding more

objects to the set, may hold this property. Associative property could be the
decreasing property so losing the objects from the set, may hold this property.
There’s the kind of study on the behavior of this property under the operation
which could add random object and could take random object in the static
way or dynamic way as systematically precess or the haphazardly process.
There’s some possibilities when the new object has made so concerns about
its combination with others which could violate the groupoid structure of the
binary operation.
Adding one object to the SEMIGROUP could violate its structure when
the words groupoid and semigroup are about the binary operation. Binary
operation on the given set, could construct the set of these functions with the
new function on this set so the kind of binary operation on the set of binary
operations on a given set. The kind of defining on the set, in the form of
binary operation so there’s enumerating of all possibilities in the combinatorial
problem. To get some detours, the notions on binary operations like having
the attributes onto and one-to-one, could get some open cases to move forward.
The kind of having the centerfold and after that there’s some ways to create
some branches like the tree of results, could make some leaves to be assumed as
final results as if the roots of these trees could make the new tress. Roots could
be like binary operation or it could be like set so after fixing the roots, there’s
too ways to move forward. If binary operations are the roots, then the words
ON the set and having the attribute of being ASSOCIATIVE are up. If the
sets are the roots, then the words CLOSED SET and CLOSED RESULT are
up. If the couple of sets and binary operations are the roots, then the words
groupoid and semigroup are up. Sometimes the embedding concepts are up so
there’s too messy ways to be open.
Semigroup And Its Beyond #14
Collections of objects has chosen the way which in that, Beyond of the col-
lections has introduced once. Collection of objects hasn’t counted twice so
collection of objects hasn’t seen twice. The kind of preferences to make its
structure. The way of having identity when its members, have obvious kind of
membership. So the way is flat for moving the sentence on and to get some
junctions which have renamed it as its extension goes up. There are couple
viewpoints so the couple of set and the binary operation are up. In the left
hand, the set could be seen on up as if in the right hand, the binary operation
could be seen on up. The kind of term has made growth in couple of parallel
notions. In the left hand, the set is closed and lack of order from the style of
set goes to the upside so the order of objects when the objects are fixed, has
been counted once so if the positions have been fixed, then the binary operation
gives same results when inputs are fixed in the matter of objects and in the
matter of positions.
The kind of function could be classified from # of its inputs and # of its
outputs. The BINARY OPERATION is the class of functions which has gotten
the couple of inputs and the singleton has been reconsidered as its output.
The kinds of functions could be classified to be n-ary operations when the
discussions have been up about the # of inputs which has been counted n. The
left hand and right hand of the function have been reconsidered to have the
different sets so the word from the style of jargon as if the buzzwords in the
style of positions, is ON. When # of set which has been used in the function,

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 2.4. Semigroup And Its Beyond

is one so the word ON has been used to inform us. Binary operation on the
set, is the function with two copies of the set as its input and one copy of the
set as its output. So the kind of possession in this topic is about the set and
the binary operation on it. Sometimes for having convenient, the adjectives,
related, mentioned and intended have been used to say about unknown object,
current object, and desired object, respectively. The relation amid the set’s
objects regarding to set and its binary operation! The kind of well-defined
function when the binary operation is centerfold. Binary operation is up. So
the kind of going forward up with the function which has been chosen.
The function is on as if the binary operation is on demand so others are off.
The binary operation is on as if the binary operation on one fixed set is on
demand so others are off. There are one set and one binary operation on it.
So set’s objects are on as if the closed property is on demand so other sets are
off. The enumerating this type binary operation is the good tour. So intended
binary operation is the binary operation on the one fixed set which has had
two properties which the first property has made the attribute which in that,
could say the set is closed under this operation and the second property is
about having the associative property. So that’s all about the INTENDED
OPERATION. Growth with more restrictions, the kind of progress has made
in way of speech more as if the speechless has assumed as the new name.
Connections amid objects, are going to be up where the focus is on the set as
if with the tool, intended operation which has been used where the intended
notion has been made. Mentioned operation has been well-defined on the
intended set so there’s perfect relation amid intended objects.
REPRESENTATIVE is the kind of intended operation when the two mentioned
objects are inputs, then there’s two ways to be when the process could be like
order and the process could be like calculations. The maximum number amid
two numbers as input, this notion is semigroup so the intended operation is
on the set of some numbers and the intended operation has the associative
property. So there’s the mentioned operation on any given set, which is intended
operation. The kind of ORDER-STYLE functions have facilitated the way
when the objects of the given set, aren’t the matter of mind where the numbers
are the matter of mind. The notion of TOTALLY ORDERED has made the
intended operation because every couple are able to be comparative so the
mentioned operation has become more close to be intended operation when the
first stage has been passed when the credits for well-defined on binary operation
on the set, are done. The mixed version of having TOTALLY ORDER has been
made by the mixed ways when the final operation to get final result, has been
acted at end. To take the example, the totally ordered set is the kind of set
in that, all objects are able to be comparative. So the output could introduce
the greater object. Totally ordered set is the SEMIGROUP SET. All objects
could be comparative and the notion of order in the term of maximum, could
give the notion of semigroup set. The rise of the intended operation on the
set which is supposed to be fixed as if ’tis the parallel study so ’tis the kind
of enumerating # of intended operations which are related to the fixed set.
The notion of promotion when the symbol of having more intended operations
have led us to the notions of hyper so this case, has been renamed to hyper
groupoid, hyper semigroup, hyper half group and hyper group as the notation
of (O, b1 , b2 , · · · , bn ). On the right hand, the intended operation is fixed so # of
sets have been raised as if the intended operation is fixed and its # is one. So

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2. Detail-oriented Groups And Ideas

the notations could be useful to enumerate the kind of sets which are related to
the fixed intended operation as the notation (O1 , O2 , · · · , On , b). To sum it up,
enumerating of the semigroup sets either they’ve had the intended operation in
common or they’ve had the intended set in common. So there’s the tour there.
Semigroup And Its Beyond #15
Nice modeling for semigroup! Consider people in the room. Room is the set
and people are the set’s objects. The centerfold is binary operation on the set
or in the jargon, ’tis intended operation. The maximum age of two people, has
been reconsidered as the intended operation. So these atmospheres have been
renamed to semigroup set. The kinds of intended operations are on demand.
The maximum age amid couple is Okay. The formations of objects could
make the group as buzzwords. So there’s the tour when the jargons have been
changed to be buzzwords. The kind of graph is up. So there are vertices and
edges. The kind of vertex-coloring is up when the coloring has been decided
to be about vertices. The neighbors of the fixed vertices, have been colored
differently. So the formula could be achieved for some classes of graphs. The
PATH GRAPH has been picked up to be in the kind of enumerating which
is about the color. So the enumerating of colors is now up in the term of
accessibility and availability.
The PATH GRAPH is up. The # of colors which has been used is TWO. The
CYCLE GRPAH is up. The CYCLE GRPAH is up. The # of colors which
has been used is TWO/THREE in the matter of vertices’ # when goes to the
classifications of # to their partitions to be twofold. So two types of #, are
related to each other when the # of colors is up, then there’s the need to be
up, the # of vertices in the matter of being in whose partition. There’s two
types of #, EVEN NUMBER and ODD NUMBER. The CYCLE GRPAH is
up. So there’s the sense to go on the classifications of cycles which have been
made by the # of vertices when the matter of # is up. # of vertices, has
divided to two classes so there’s EVEN CYLCE and ODD CYCLE. The # of
colors is THREE when there’s ODD CYCLE and the # of colors is TWO when
there’s EVEN CYCLE. The WHEEL GRAPH is up. So the # of colors which
has been used is THREE. Coloring is the word in that, the objects have been
gotten some labels. The kind of different labels when two vertices are neighbors.
The EDGE-COLORING is up. So when the edges are neighbors, they’ve been
gotten different colors. PATH GRAPH is up so the # of colors which has
been used to TWO. EVEN CYLCE has TWO as its #. ODD CYCLE has
THREE as its #. WHEEL GRAPH is up and its # is THREE. BIPARTITE
COMPLETE is up so # in both cases, is TWO. COMPLETE GRAPH is up
and its number in both cases, is # of vertices minus one. The kind of notion
excerpt from COMPLETE GRAPH, is CLIQUE so there’s the detour to find
this notion. The enumerating the # of graphs when the # of vertices, has been
fixed. So there’s the kind of notion in that, the notion of group is up.
Semigroup set is the word about binary operation on the set, which has the
associative property. So in this case, there’s the style of getting new notions.
The first case could be like having the semigroup set and after that, seeking
some attributes to add them. Like the attribute of ABELIAN which with
that, every two given objects could exchange their positions. The attribute
of concrete style in that, the cyclic is up so the objects have been related to
each other by one object which its powers, have made the set’s objects. In
other hand, there’s the notion of recreating the semigroup when recreating

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the styles are up. There’s the set of numbers so if these numbers have been
considered the subset of nonnegative integers, then there’s immediately notion
which it says about the partitions of this set. The even numbers are the infinite
set when the numbers are goes to the right when the minimum number is one
and the maximum number and supremum number hasn’t existed in the term
of increasing number when the order is greater then so the kind of ordered
objects when the set isn’t ordered set where the move into right or left is the
jargon when the rightward has demonstrated increasing worth of # and the
leftward has demonstrated decreasing worth of #. So two has had the position
in that ’tis in the place in rightward of one when the one has been placed in
the leftward of two. The odd numbers are made the semigroup with the binary
operation which is plus, production, greater than, lower than, and so on.
The generated numbers by two, is up when the generated style could be plus
or production so these numbers are cyclic semigroup. The kind of labelling
is feasible when assigned numbers have used to make the new object and so
on. The kinds of objects in that, the notions of permutations are up. Any
permutations of semigroup’s set haven’t made anything new so the kind of
labelling could be smarter when the object has specific excellence. The kind of
worth, could be determiner to get some attributes else. The kind of ineffective
object or the kind of absorbing object when the term of ineffective is the word to
be absorbed by any of objects. And the absorbing object is the object absorbs
any of objects. The kind of attributes to find the big objects in the matter of
having excellence. The ineffective object, absorbing object and relative object.
The kind of having relative attribute in that, the subset of the set could be
featured so the relatively abelian, relatively ineffective, and relatively absorbing
are up. So open way to go. In the other hand, there’s renaming objects so
there’s the set of absorbing objects, the set of ineffective objects, the set of
abelian objects when any members of these set has the title of set independently.
To go up more, the notion of relative is up when the subset has introduced
the set which hasn’t introduced the objects which could get the set’s title
independently. The set of relatively ineffective, relatively absorbing, relatively
abelian which are up so in this case, for any of objects belongs to the relatively
set, there are some objects out of set which the couple have ratified the title
of set so two objects are relatively abelian, relatively ineffective and relatively
absorbing so there’s two sets which are complement for each others as if it could
be dynamic set when the objects have no connections with each other so the #
of objects in both sets could be changeable so there’s the enumerating problem
so find the # of these sets. so there are open ways to find the set or # of sets too.

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 CHAPTER 3

Number Graphs And Numbers

3.1 Abstract
Picking one number and after
that the kind of algebraic
operators from the style of
numbers. The kind of visions is
based one numbers. Numbers are
deciders about how goes the story
of number graphs. The
consequences of having numbers
could get the proper tools to be
elected and to be in toolbox.

umber graphs are introduced and the kind of introduction for this type is
given. Assigning the numbers to the graphs could be done in various ways. One
of them is elected and the efforts are done to make sense about the ways of
concluding to good results. Study is done on this types which are based on
numbers. The theory of number graphs could be one suggestion to be on to-do
list to get some interesting results about number graphs and numbers.

3.2 Acknowledgements

The words of mind and the minds

of words, are too eligible to be in
the stage of acknowledgements

he author is going to say his gratitude and his appreciation about the brains
and their hands which are showing the importance of words in the framework
of every wisdom, knowledge, arts and emotions which are streaming in the lines
from the words, notions, ideas and approaches to have the material which is
only the way to flourish the minds, the growing the notions, advancing ways
and making the stable ways to be amid the events and storms of minds for
surviving from them and making the outstanding experiences about the tools
and ideas to be on the star lines of words and shining like stars, forever.

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3. Number Graphs And Numbers

3.3 Common Language As Viewpoint

Assigning numbers to
mathematical objects when the
kind of translation to numbers are
useful.

umber of edge, Number of vertex, number of consecutive vertices, and

number of couple of vertices. Numbers! A graph is about two different types
of objects but number graph is a graph which is number-ized. It means all
notions have translated to numbers. Therefore, there’s the natural question
about relations amid these two styles.
Question. What-if

• Minimum number amid the couple of number of vertex is at least the

number of edge amid them. So there’s the new definition about number
graph.

• Maximum1 number amid the couple of number of vertex is at most the

number of edge amid them. So there’s the new definition about number
graph.

• There’s no rules amid these two types of objects.

• There’s analogous rules amid these two types of objects.

Number of edge and number of vertex are discussed to make number of graph.
A graph is the picture which have been constructed by points and lines. The
point is called to be vertex and the line is called to be edge. For example,
picture depicts two types of graph and number graph. A PATH could be

Figure 3.1: Graphs And Number Graphs NG1

defined amid couple of vertices as starting vertex and ending vertex in both
graphs and number graphs but number-ization of path are different when the
sequence of consecutive vertices from starting vertex to ending vertex have
been considered, there’s one idea to define the NUMBER of path which is the
minimum2 edge in this sequence. For example. picture 3.1 depicts some notions,
consider v2 and v4 in the way to get scrutiny on all parameters which are
1 It is left but in upcoming chapters, it’s coming up with details.
2 the word minimum could be changed to be maximum, less than, greater than, strictly
less or greater than, having some constance or variable in the form of equation or summation
of all numbers of involved vertices or edges or both instead of considering one object, and etc.
as it’s expected to come up in upcoming chapters.

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 3.3. Common Language As Viewpoint

related to path amid them. There are two paths v2 v3 v4 and v2 v1 v4 . Therefore,
the amount of path amid two specific vertices are obtained so as the extension,
there’s one general result. In this graph, amid every two given vertices, there
are forever two paths amid them. The amount of all paths in this graph, is six
paths. There’s natural question to obtain the general formula for all graphs
and number graphs which are in this case have the same results because from
the specific attributes of number graphs haven’t been used so this discussion is
general for both graphs but when the number is up. The discussion could take
the customized style to be up for number graphs.
Different kinds of paths could be defined as it mentioned comprehensively via
their clues to pursue in upcoming places. Obtained results concerning number
graphs is about the current definition of number of path amid v2 and v4 which
is 0.0001. To get general formula, number of all paths in this specific graph is
0.0001. To get general formula not only for this number graph but also for some
classes of number graphs need more scrutiny and making special environment
to get some classes of number graphs up to all number graphs. Path is the
amount number of vertices amid the couple of vertex so there’s the departure
from having two vertices amid two vertex in the notion of being neighbor and
having edges to having multiple vertices amid two vertex in the notion of path.
The path amid two vertices when the amount of vertices is two, is called to
be edge which is incident to these vertices and the vertices are the endpoints
of this edge. Fix one vertex, the set of all vertices with the path from order
two, is called neighbor of that vertex but it’s worthy to note that the order
of path is the amount of involved vertices which are equal or greater than
number two. The amount of neighbor of vertex is the amount of its vertices and
the number of neighbor of vertex is the summation of numbers of its vertices.
Therefore, there’s curious wondering about the extension of this notion to all
vertices which imply the number of vertex set is the summation of number of
all vertex of graphs. There’s analogy to edges in the way that the number of
edge-neighbors, number of edge-neighbors and number of edge set. Picking up
one number of object or summation of the number of objects are useful notions
to define new notion in the form of numbers.
The number of couple of vertices is defined on the notions of number of paths
in the balance approach which implies the maximum number of all paths amid
these couple of vertices where the number of path is the minimum number
of edge amid all involved edges. picture 3.1 depicts all paths have the same
number 0.0001 but the number amid any given couple of vertices is also 0.0001.
There are some questions about getting results when all paths have same
numbers or any given couple of vertices have the same number in customized
number graphs or general number graphs. There are new notions to compare
two numbers. The number of couple of vertices could be considered as the
footnote of this page, too. The kind of decomposition or change cause to have
multiple number graphs from the basis of number graph. If the subset of vertex
set and edge set are chosen, then the graph is called to be subgraph but there
are more conditions in number graphs where the number of all vertices and all
edges are the same with number of all vertices and all edges in basic number
graphs and the number graphs are called to be number subgraphs. In the
case that, the all numbers of the vertices are the same in both graphs and the
vertices are the same position and amount in number graphs, the number graph
are called to be number spanning graphs. There are some notions to create

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 3. Number Graphs And Numbers

graphs when the notions go to the edges or the notion of quality is replaced by
inequality about general, classes, specific graphs, vertex, edge and comparison
with other numbers.
Complete graph is the graph which in that, every given vertex has the path
from order two with all other vertex but in the number graph if the number of
edge has taken the sharp bounds which mean the minimum amid number of
its endpoints, then the number graph is called to be number complete graph.
The path with three vertices is called number star graph but there’s no named
graphs for other amount of involved vertices in the path. Number path is the
graph but number path is number star when the amount of vertices is three.
Number cycle is the cycle graph which have two same numbers for its edges
as the minimum number. Getting sharp bounds means number of edge is the
minimum number of its endpoints, if all edges get this number, the number
graph is called strong which is a number graph with number of vertices and
there are no independent number for edges but the number of edges are related
to number of its couple of vertices.

Exercises
1. Find motivations and practical applications when the new definition
of number graph is done by the replacement of maximum instead of
minimum.
2. Write down narrative story about number graph when the maximum
is elected instead of minimum.
3. Find multiple narrative story about number path when it’s happened
in new conditions to get new style.
4. Write down all possibilities to get results in the ways the advantages
and disadvantages are given clearly.
5. Get number graph from different kinds of graphs by different ways
of defining the number graph. Then obtain narrative story about
them.
6. Get number graph from different kinds of graphs by different ways
of defining the number graph. Then obtain narrative story about
them.
7. Consider a complete graph and define the different types of number
graphs on it.

3.4 Number Of Fundamental Parameters

??????

o bring the sense, the formal definition of number graph implies the departure
from the couple of vertices in graph to the couple of function, precisely unary
operation on these two sets from graph to the unit interval [0, 1]. The Greek
letters for this second stage of graphs have been chosen to introduce couple of
independent unary operations which is restricted by the condition amid these

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 3.4. Number Of Fundamental Parameters

two unary operations in the way that, the image unary operation of edges is at
most the minimum of the image unary operation amid its couple of vertices.
There are two useful jargons incident and endpoint which is related to the
need for putting as the foundation. For example, when talking about the edge,
it’s useful to say edge and its endpoints but when talking about vertex, it’s
useful to say edge is incident to this vertex and that vertex. The notation of
V and E are chosen as the first letter of vertex set and edge set in the form
of English letter but the notation of N1 and N2 are chosen as the first letter
of unary operation with domain vertex set and edge set in the form of Greek
letter when the image of both unary operation is the same and is unit interval
[0, 1]. It’s interesting idea to use English letters for variable and sets but using
Greek letters for functions.
Definition 3.4.1 (NUMBER GRAPH). Let G = (V, E) be a graph. The
second style of graph which is obtained on it, is called NUMBER GRAPH,
denoted by N G = (N1 , N2 ) and it’s restricted by the inequality ∀e = xy ∈
E, N2 (e) ≤ N1 (x)∧N1 (y) where x and y are the endpoints of e and e is incident
to both x and y where N1 , N2 are two different unary operation N1 : V → [0, 1]
and N2 : E → [0, 1].
The order of a graph is amount of its vertices but the kind of numberization
of this notion in the number graph has the open way to sum number of all
vertices but it inspires us to catch bigger notion about any subset of vertex
set which leads us to the notion of NUMBER ORDER and NUMBER
VERTICES.
Definition 3.4.2 (NUMBER ORDER). Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a number
graph. The second style of order which is obtained on it, is called NUMBER
ORDER, denoted by O(N G) and it’s restricted by the equality O(N G) =
x∈V N1 (x).
P

Consider the set of vertices, the kind of enumeration is about counting the
vertices but the kind of summation of number of vertices has used the structure
number graph.
Definition 3.4.3 (NUMBER VERTICES). Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a number
graph. The second style of set of vertices, S, which is obtained on it, is called
NUMBER PVERTICES, denoted by O(N V) and it’s restricted by the equality
O(N V) = x∈S N1 (x).
Definition 3.4.4 (NUMBER SIZE). Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a number graph.
The second style of size which is obtained on it, is called NUMBER SIZE,
denoted by S(N G) and it’s restricted by the equality S(N G) = e∈E N2 (e).
P

Definition 3.4.5 (NUMBER EDGES). Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a number

graph. The second style of set of edges which is obtained on it, is called
NUMBER P EDGES, denoted by S(N E) and it’s restricted by the equality
S(N E) = e∈E N2 (e).
Example 3.4.6. Picture 3.1 depicts the frame to make sense about some
definitions which have passed. NUMBER ORDER is one and NUM-
BER SIZE is 0.0004. Amount of all sets of vertices with two mem-
bers is six and NUMBER VERTICES is 0.03, 0.04, 0.05, 0.05, 0.06, 0, 07 for
the sets {v1 , v2 }, {v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v3 }, {v2 , v4 }, {v3 , v4 }, orderly. NUM-

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 3. Number Graphs And Numbers

BER EDGES is 0.0002, 0.0002, 0.0002, 0.0002, 0.0002, 0.0002 for the sets
{v1 , v2 }, {v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v3 }, {v2 , v4 }, {v3 , v4 }, orderly. These leads us to
the upcoming result but it’s obvious.
There’s no result when we’re talking about the cardinality so if |S1 | ≤ |S2 |,
then there’s no results about the number order, number vertices, number size
and number edge but in the weakest condition when we’re talking about being
subset which implies |S1 | ≤ |S2 |, there’s obvious result. It’s the fact that
|S1 | ≤ |S2 | doesn’t imply S1 ⊆ S2 but S1 ⊆ S2 implies |S1 | ≤ |S2 |. Therefore,
there’s algebraic viewpoint to this abstract notion about the sets in the way
that, objects of sets have been assigned to numbers and numbers introduce new
definition and new results about sets. The notions of number order, number
vertices, number size and number edge are abstract and there’s no need to have
number graph to have them but there’s need to have them to have number
graphs. For any couple of set and its subset, the inequality of inclusion holds.
In other words, the number order, number vertices, number size and number
edge of greater sets is greater then its peer in its subset. Therefore,
R1 Proposition 3.4.7. If S1 ⊆ S2 , then

OS1 (N G) ≤ OS2 (N G), OS1 (N V) ≤ OS2 (N V),

SS1 (N G) ≤ SS2 (N G), SS1 (N E) ≤ SS2 (N E).

Corollary 3.4.8. Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a number graph on the graph G =

(V, E). Therefore,
(i) O(N G) ≥ O(N V);
(ii) S(N G) ≥ S(N E);
(iii) O(N G) ≥ S(N G);
(iv) O(N V) ≥ S(N E);
(v) O(G) ≥ O(N G);
(vi) S(G) ≥ S(N G).

Proof. (i) and (ii) are obvious by proposition 8.6.1 but there are some points
about (iii). For any xy ∈ E, N2 (xy) ≤ N1 (x) ∧ N1 (y) ≤ N1 (x), N1 (y). It
implies summation on all edges, on the left hand and right hand of inequality,
gets the intended result.
(iv) is obvious by (iii).
(v) and (vi) are obvious when the number vertices and number of edges are
the same and equals to one. 

Exercises
1. For any collection of numbers, exemplify some number graphs.
2. For any collections of edges, how many different styles of number
graphs could be defined and what are they?

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 3.5. Types Of Number Subgraphs

3. For any given graph, how many different styles of number graphs
could be defined and what are they?
4. For any number, how many different styles of number graph could
be obtained and what are they?
5. Change the definition by replacing lower than by greater than and
do Exercises 1-4 again.
6. Change the definition by replacing minimum than by maximum than
and do Exercises 1-4 again.
7. Get some results involving number order and number vertices.
8. For any given number, define the number graph from the number
which are prime in comparison to given number and calculate the
fundamental parameters of number graphs.
9. Get some classes of number graphs which have the formula for
fundamental parameters.

3.5 Types Of Number Subgraphs

??????

he kind of obtaining number graphs from a given number graph when the
number graph is obtained from a graph. It’s useful to use parameters unary
operations N1 and N2 in the forms of quality and inequality in comparison
to a given graph to introduce the NUMBER SPAN and NUMBER
SUBGRAPH but the letters as notations are Greek letters which are used
to define on the graph but in the process of obtaining new number graph, the
Greek letter is used for this kind of functions.
Definition 3.5.1 (NUMBER SPAN). Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a number graph.
The second style of graph which is obtained on it, is called NUMBER SPAN,
denoted by N S = (N3 , N4 ) and it’s restricted by the inequality and equality
N3 = N1 , N4 ⊆ N2 .
Possibilities amid two couple of functions or more precise amid two couple
of unary operations are when both go to equality which there’s no new number
graphs.Therefore, there three cases in that, one case is passed when the second
position goes to inequality where we’re talking about the number subgraphs
implies as jargons, being subsets and being equal. The general form is when
both go to inequality which has the word being subset of the basis number
graph.
Definition 3.5.2 (NUMBER SUBGRAPH). Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a
number graph. The second style of graph which is obtained on it, is called
NUMBER SUBGRAPH, denoted by N B = (N3 , ν) and it’s restricted by
the inequality and equality N1 ⊆ N3 , N4 ⊆ N2 .
This discussion is when the basis graph is fixed but it makes sense that
every graphs comes up with the notion about having different basis of graph,
having subset of vertex set, having subset of edge set or any possible connections

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 3. Number Graphs And Numbers

about them. To capture one example, a number graph could be defined by

the subset of vertex set in comparison to another graph or in different visions,
two number graphs with the differences about having vertex set and subset of
vertex set have been titled as NUMBER IMPLY which is too close to the
notion of NUMBER SUBGRAPH which is based on same vertex set. A
number graph has four parameters which two out of four are implied by its
basis which is graph and they’re vertex set and edge set but the next couple
are about the functions, two unary operations, which assign to any vertex and
edge, different numbers independently and the numbers are chosen from the
interval [0, 1]. The kind of making sense from numbers when the words have no
ways to go. How the degree of words could be possible in the terms of numbers
which are infinite but comparable.
Definition 3.5.3 (NUMBER IMPLY). Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a number
graph. The second style of graph which is obtained on it, is called NUMBER
IMPLY, denoted by N I = (N3 , ν) and it’s restricted by the inequality and
equality V (N I) ⊆ V (N G), N1 = N3 , ν = N2 .

Exercises

1. For any collection of numbers, exemplify some number subgraphs.

2. For any collections of edges, how many different styles of number
subgraphs could be defined and what are they?
3. For any given graph, how many different styles of number subgraphs
could be defined and what are they?
4. For any number, how many different styles of number subgraph could
be obtained and what are they?
5. Change the definitions of different styles of number subgraphs do
Exercises 1-4 again.
6. Change the definition of number graph by replacing minimum than
by maximum than and do Exercises 1-4 again.

3.6 Number Of The Vertices

??????
n

Definition 3.6.1 (PATH And Its NUMBER). Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a

number graph. The the minimum number of edges in consecutive vertices
v1 v2 · · · vn from v1 to vn with the length n which is called PATH, is called
NUMBER of path, denoted by N (P) where n ≥ 2.
Example 3.6.2. Picture 3.1 depicts the frame to make sense about some
definitions which have passed. For the length two, all paths are v1 v2 v3 , v2 v3 v4 ,
v3 v4 v1 , v4 v1 v2 and there are only four paths from the length two. From v1 to
v3 , all paths are v1 v2 v3 and v3 v4 v1 and there are only two paths from any given
vertex to any given vertex. NUMBER of PATH is forever 0.0001. Therefore

140
 3.6. Number Of The Vertices

N (P) = 0.0001 for any given path. The consecutive vertices v4 v3 v2 v1 is the
path from v4 to v1 with the length three and the NUMBER of PATH is 0.0001.
Definition 3.6.3 (Two Vertices And NUMBER). Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be
a number graph. The maximum number of paths from v1 to vn is called
NUMBER of v1 and v2 , is denoted by N (v1 , vn ) where n ≥ 2.
Example 3.6.4. Picture 3.1 depicts the frame to make sense about some
definitions which have passed. For the number of 0.0001, any couple of vertices
have this number. For the vertex v1 , any other given vertex have the same
number 0.0001 of couple of vertices. For any two vertices, number of them
is the same and is 0.0001. The number of v1 and v3 is 0.0001. Therefore
N (v1 , v3 ) = 0.0001.
The number of two vertices could find some connections when two vertices are
the endpoints of an edge. In this case, two numbers are comparable. Deleting
one edge or deleting one vertex is the matter of mind when there are two
vertices whose number is changed and it directs us to the notion of NUMBER
CUTVERTEX and NUMBER CUTEDGE. In the elementary case, when
one edge is deleted the number of its endpoints is changed which leads us
to the notion of NUMBER BRIDGE. Changes in the number graph via
deletion of vertex, edge and special edge could gives us new result to facilitate
understanding this kind of graph. To avoid confusion with the literature of
graph theory and in the matter convenient texts, there are efforts to use the
word number before any notion which is defined so usually the name of new
notion is twofolds which the first part is number. Therefore, there’s second
number graph is obtained from a number graph by deletion one edge or one
vertex whose parameters are denoted by notation with the power of 0 like
0 0 0 0 0
V , E , N G , N (P ), N (x, y) and etc.
Definition 3.6.5 (NUMBER BRIDGE). Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a number
0
graph. The edge xy is called NUMBER BRIDGE if N (x, y) > N (x, y).
Example 3.6.6. Picture 3.1 depicts the frame to make sense about some
definitions which have passed. For the number of 0.0001, any edge is
NUMBER BRIDGE. Any edge is NUMBER BRIDGE. For any edge xy,
0
N (x, y) = N (x, y). None of edge is bridge but all of them are NUMBER
BRIDGE.
The notions of cutvertex, edgecut and bridge are used for the situation in
that, the deletion of vertex or edge increases the component of the graph but
they’ve different meanings in NUMBER GRAPH.
Definition 3.6.7 (NUMBER CUTVERTEX). Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a
number graph. The vertex x is called NUMBER CUTVERTEX if there
0
are two vertices x1 and y1 such that N (x1 , y1 ) > N (x1 , y1 ).
Example 3.6.8. Picture 3.1 depicts the frame to make sense about some
definitions which have passed. For the number of 0.0001, any vertex is NUMBER
CUTVERTEX. Any vertex is NUMBER CUTVERTEX. For any given two
0
vertices xy, N (x, y) = N (x, y). None of edge is CUTVERTEX but all of them
are NUMBER CUTVERTEX.
The notion of NUMBER BRIDGE and NUMBER CUTEDGE are too

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3. Number Graphs And Numbers

close to each other. If one edge is NUMBER BRIDGE, then it implies to be

NUMBER CUTEDGE but If one edge is NUMBER CUTEDGE, then it doesn’t
imply to be NUMBER BRIDGE.
Definition 3.6.9 (NUMBER CUTEDGE). Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a number
graph. The edge xy is called NUMBER CUTEDGE if there are two vertices
0
x1 and y1 such that N (x1 , y1 ) > N (x1 , y1 ).
Example 3.6.10. Picture 3.1 depicts the frame to make sense about some
definitions which have passed. For the number of 0.0001, any edge is NUMBER
CUTEDGE. Any edge is NUMBER CUTEDGE. For any given edge xy,
0
N (x, y) = N (x, y). None of edge is CUTEDGE but all of them are NUMBER
CUTEDGE.
This discussion motivates us to bring this result.
Corollary 3.6.11. Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a number graph which all edges have
the same number. Then all vertices are NUMBER CUTVERTEX, NUMBER
CUTEDGE and NUMBER BRIDGE.
A cycle is path such that the first and last vertex is the same. In other
words, a sequence of at least three consecutive vertices which are distinct with
the exception of first vertex and last vertex which are forever the same. For
having cycle at least three distinct vertices are needed but for having path at
least two distinct vertices are needed. This discussion is about graph theory
but in the number graphs, the edges have values so the words, weakest and
strongest, make sense. For example, weakest edge in number graph, is the edge
with the minimum amount amid all edges of number graphs but the strongest
edge in number graph, is the edge with the maximum amount amid all edges
of number graphs. These discussions are exclusive to number graphs in the
way that, red boarders of this two field have been passed. The concept of
cycle and cycle graph are the same in graphs but the concept of cycle and
number cycle are different in graphs. The concept of path and number path
are the same in graphs and number graphs. The proof has an approach of
falsity of reverse in both sides because in the conditional statements, there’s an
equivalent statement so there’s use of negation of reverse statement. It means
0 0
P ⇒ Q is equivalent with Q ⇒ P but the statement P is equivalent with the
0 0 0 0
statement Q which implies proving Q ⇒ P and P ⇒ Q because accessibility
and convenient ways are our concern.
Theorem 3.6.12. Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a number graph. If an edge xy is
NUMBER BRIDGE then it’s NUMBER CUTEDGE.

Proof. Consider an edge xy isn’t NUMBER CUTEDGE so there are no couple

0
of vertices v, w such that N (v, w) ≥ N (v, w). It means for any couple of
0 0
vertices v, w, N (v, w) < N (v, w). Therefore, N (x, y) < N (x, y) implies xy
isn’t NUMBER BRIDGE. 

There are some points about the way in that, the consecutive vertices are
considered in the matter of having number of edges. The weakest edge and
strongest edge in a cycle of number graphs could go up to say something about
any cycle of number graphs. In a cycle there are only two paths amid any
two given points. Picture 3.1 depicts one cycle for any couple of vertices and

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 3.6. Number Of The Vertices

it’s cycle graph from the order four and it’s NUMBER CYCLE which is
restricted by having two weakest edges. Therefore,
Definition 3.6.13 (NUMBER CYCLE). Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a number
graph. A cycle of graph which is obtained on it, is called NUMBER CYCLE,
denoted by N C = (N1 , N2 ) and
V it’s restricted by there are x, y ∈ E such that
x 6= y but N2 (x) = N2 (y) = e∈E N2 (e).
Example 3.6.14. Picture 3.1 depicts the frame to make sense about some
definitions which have passed. All edges are the weakest edges in this number
graph. This number graph is number cycle from the order four and length
four for any given vertex of graph. For vertex v1 , there’s one number cycle
and for any given vertex, there’s one number cycle. The weakest amount is
0.0001. So for the amount 0.0001, there’s one number cycle which in that, this
amount is weakest edge for at least two edges. For every amount, there are two
edges which are the weakest edges on a cycle. So for every amount, there’s one
number cycle.
Theorem 3.6.15. Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a number graph on a cycle graph. If
every edge has same amount, then N G = (N1 , N2 ) is a number cycle which is
denoted by N C = (N1 , N2 ).
The word STRICT is used to delete the equality in the formulae which
it’s about. So strict NUMBER CUTEDGE means the equality amid numbers
no longer holds. Hence there’s proper inequality. The notion of NUMBER
CYCLE is the special case of cycle graph but it could be obtained in the number
graph as its NUMBER SUBGRAPH. The notion of cycle is in graph, is used
to get result for NUMBER GRAPH. The Proving of validity and credit about
following result could be done in the types of cycle result which comes up with
conditional statements. To prove (ii) ⇒ (i), (i) ⇒ (iii) and (iii) ⇒ (ii), there’s
use of negation of intended result and obtaining contradiction with supposition
0 0
but it doesn’t mean P ⇒ Q is equivalent with Q ⇒ P . Therefore,
R2 Theorem 3.6.16. Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a number graph. Then the following
statements are equivalent:
(i) An edge xy is strict NUMBER CUTEDGE.
0
(ii) N2 (xy) > N (x, y)
(iii) An edge xy has no endpoints in any given cycle of number graph such
that it’s considered weakest edge on it.

Proof. (ii) ⇒ (i) An edge xy isn’t strict NUMBER CUTEDGE. Hence

0 0
N (x, y) ≥ N2 (xy) and N (x, y) = N (x, y) but it’s contradiction with
0
supposition N2 (xy) > N (x, y).
(i) ⇒ (iii) An edge xy is strict NUMBER CUTEDGE but it has its endpoints in
a cycle v1 v2 · · · xy · · · vn−1 vn v1 of graphs such that it’s considered weakest edge
on it. By using the path y · · · vn−1 vn v1 v2 · · · , x from y to x which its number
is strictly greater than the edge, it means N (x, y) ≥ N (P ) > N2 (yx) = N2 (xy)
but it implies N (x, y) > N2 (xy). Therefore, it’s contradiction with supposition
xy is strict NUMBER CUTEDGE.
0
(iii) ⇒ (ii) Consider N2 (xy) ≤ N (x, y). Hence there’s the path x, v1 , v2 · · · , y
from x to y which its number is greater than the edge, it means N (P ) ≥ N2 (xy),

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3. Number Graphs And Numbers

and it doesn’t have the edge xy so this path with the edge xy have formed
a cycle which the edge xy has its endpoints in this cycle of number graph
such that it’s considered weakest edge on it. Therefore, It’s contradiction with
supposition. 

Corollary 3.6.17. Let N C = (N1 , N2 ) be a number cycle. Then its weakest

edges aren’t strict NUMBER CUTEDGE.

Proof. By using Theorem 8.4.18, it’s obvious. 

Results could be proved by direct approaches or using indirect approaches

like using the approaches of getting contradiction as P ⇒ Q, therefore using
0 0
Q and getting P which means contradictions with supposition. Or using the
negation of reverse results in the way that both sides are under negation to be
0 0
proved like P ⇒ Q but proving Q ⇒ P implies proving P ⇒ Q.
Example 3.6.18. Picture 3.1 depicts the edge v1 v2 is on a cycle v1 v4 v3 v2 v1 such
that it’s considered weakest edge on it. So by Theorem 8.4.18, this edge isn’t
strict NUMBER CUTEDGE. Any edges has the analogous to the case, so any
of edges isn’t strict NUMBER CUTEDGE. Any of weakest edge on any cycle
isn’t strict NUMBER CUTEDGE but any cycle only have weakest edges so all
edges aren’t strict NUMBER CUTEDGE.
Corollary 3.6.19. Let N C = (N1 , N2 ) be a number cycle. None of edges is
strict NUMBER CUTEDGE if and only if any of edges has the same amount.
Definition 3.6.20 (NUMBER BLOCK). Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a number
graph. The second style of graph which is obtained on it via deleting one vertex,
is called NUMBER BLOCK, denoted by N L = (N3 , ν) and it’s restricted
by having no number cutvertex.
Example 3.6.21. Picture 3.2 depicts that the vertex v4 is number cutvertex
but there’s no number cutedge. The only vertex v4 is number cutvertex but
any of other vertices isn’t number cutvertex. Any of edge isn’t cutedge. This
number graph isn’t number block. Therefore, this is N G but this isn’t any of
N L.

Figure 3.2: Graphs And Number Graphs NG2

Example 3.6.22. Picture 3.3 depicts that any of edge isn’t number cutedge and
any of vertex isn’t number cutvertex but this number graph is a number block
N L. Therefore, this is N G and N L.
There are some senses about the connections amid cutvertex and cutedge.
Because if one edge is cutedge, then deletion of it changes the number amid

144
 3.6. Number Of The Vertices

Figure 3.3: Graphs And Number Graphs NG3

couple of vertices but deletion any of its endpoints remove this edge so if there’s
one cutedge, then there are two cutvertices.
Example 3.6.23. Picture 3.4 depicts that the edge v1 v2 is number cutedge and
the vertices v1 and v2 are number cutvertex. There are two number cutvertices
v1 and v2 and one number cutedge v1 v2 . The number cutedge is only v1 v2 but
this number graph isn’t a number block N L. Therefore, this is N G but it isn’t
N L.

Figure 3.4: Graphs And Number Graphs NG4

Theorem 3.6.24. Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a number graph. If there’s one cutedge,

then there are two cutvertices.
Corollary 3.6.25. Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a number graph. If there’s one cutedge,
then this number graph isn’t a number block N L. Therefore, this is N G but it
isn’t N L.
Corollary 3.6.26. Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a number graph. If between every two
vertices, there are two strongest paths with at least order of three, then this
number graph is a number block N L. Therefore, this is N G and it is N L.
The reverse of next result doesn’t hold.
Corollary 3.6.27. Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a number graph. If number graph is a
number block N L, then every two vertices lie on a common cycle.
The notions of cycle and number cycle get us new notions about using parallel
notions of graph theory. The notions of cycle, acyclic, forest and tree could be
assigned to number graphs but the parallel notions could go in the reverse ways.
One of this move about reverse ways of number notions in comparison to its
graph peers is forest and trees. Forest is an acyclic graph and the connected
forest is called tree but one of applications of NUMBER SPAN, N G, is used
to define NUMBER FOREST in number graphs. Therefore,
Definition 3.6.28 (NUMBER FOREST). Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a number
graph. The second style of forest which is obtained on it, is called NUMBER

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 3. Number Graphs And Numbers

FOREST, denoted by N F = (N1 , N2 ) and it’s restricted by having the number

span N G 1 = (N1 , ν) is forest with this attribute that, for any edge xy ∈ EG \EG1 ,
there’s one path in N G 1 which implies NN G 1 (x, y) > N2 (xy).
Example 3.6.29. Pictures 3.2 and 3.3 depict number graphs aren’t number
forest but picture 3.4 depicts a number graphs is number forest.
In the Picture 3.2, the edge v1 v4 has the property of NN G 1 (x, y) < N2 (xy)
so this number graph isn’t number forest. In the Picture 3.2, there are only two
edges v1 v4 and v4 v3 which have the property of NN G 1 (x, y) < N2 (xy) which is
in contradiction with the definition of number forest about having the property
of NN G 1 (x, y) < N2 (xy).
In the Picture 3.3, the edge v1 v2 has the property of NN G 1 (x, y) < N2 (xy)
so this number graph isn’t number forest. In the Picture 3.3, there are only two
edges v1 v2 and v3 v4 which have the property of NN G 1 (x, y) < N2 (xy) which is
in contradiction with the definition of number forest about having the property
of NN G 1 (x, y) < N2 (xy).
In the Picture 3.5, a number span with vertex set, {v1 , v2 , v3 }, has the
property of NN G 1 (v2 , v3 ) > N2 (v2 v3 ) for the edge v2 v3 so this number graph is
a number forest.

Figure 3.5: Graphs And Number Graphs NG5

Definition 3.6.30 (NUMBER TREE). Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a number

forest. The second style of tree which is obtained on it, is called NUMBER
TREE, denoted by N T = (N1 , N2 ) and it’s restricted by having N G = (N1 , N2 )
as one component and being a number forest.
Finding NUMBER FOREST, N F = (N1 , N2 ), in number graph by using
the notion of cycles and the term smallest for number edge and the weakest for
path. Next result tells us how to get number span of number forest by deletion
all edges which have two attributes. Finding one special edge, finding all these
special edges and deleting all of them so the remaining of number graph is
number span which is related to number forest. Therefore the problem is about
the edge with two attributes: one is about being without any effects on the
number of its endpoints so the number of its endpoints is strictly greater than
the number of edge; two is about being on a cycle.
R3 Theorem 3.6.31. Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a number graph. N G is a number
forest, N F = (N1 , N2 ) if and only if in any cycle of N G, there is an edge xy
0
such that N2 (xy) < N (x, y).

Proof. (⇒) If C is a cycle and xy ∈ C, xy 6∈ N G 1 where N G 1 is number span

which is related to number forest N G = (N1 , N2 ), then by definition of a number
0
forest N2 (xy) < N (x, y) ≤ N (x, y).

146
 3.6. Number Of The Vertices

(⇐) If xy belongs to a cycle, then we delete it. This process does on any of xy
which is on a cycle.


Using negation of previous result is useful to get new result. Previous result
tell us about the condition which is equivalence with number forest. So if
number graph isn’t number forest, there’s conditional statement but it isn’t
equivalence condition when we use the approach in that, the negation of result
proves the statement by contradiction.
R4 Corollary 3.6.32. Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a number graph. If there’s either no
strongest path or one strongest path amid any of two given vertices, then N G is
number forest.

Proof. Suppose, it isn’t. Then by Theorem 3.6.31, there’s a cycle C such that
0
for all edges xy belongs to it, N2 (xy) ≥ N (x, y). Thus xy is strongest path of
order two from x to y. Therefore, by selecting the edge xy as a weakest edge
of C, the remaining of cycle C is a strongest path from x to y which implies
contradiction. 

The couple of number forest and its number span behaves differently. some
cases, the number of edge doesn’t make sense but sometimes, having all vertices
of number forest makes sense about what believe by us. It’s natural way to ask
question about the converse of conditional statement which whenever it holds
and it doesn’t hold and so on.
Example 3.6.33. There are some points. First, the converse of conditional
statement from Corollary 3.6.32 doesn’t hold. Thus there’s no sense a number
forest only have one strongest path amid any of couple of vertices but there’s an
example which makes sense about number graph which is a number forest and
have multiple strongest path. Picture 3.6 depicts a number forest where vertex
edge set {v1 v3 , v2 v3 , v1 v4 } which it identified the number span of it. Then the
edge v2 v3 doesn’t belong to number span but there’s strongest path v2 v1 v3 in
number path, it means N (v1 v2 ) < N (v1 , v2 ) which it proves the span number
with edges {v1 v3 , v2 v3 , v1 v4 } is the number span N S N F which is used to
define number forest N F.
Thus there are some points to consider the edge v1 v2 and N (v1 , v2 ). Because
N G is number forest but there are couple of vertices v2 and v4 such that there
are two strongest paths v4 v1 v3 v2 and v4 v1 v2 . In other words, there are two
paths v4 v1 v3 v2 and v4 v1 v2 with the same number N (v1 , v4 ) = 0.003.
The term strongest path is used to identify the path whether has the
number N (x, y) or not? if does, the path is called the strongest path amid the
couple of vertices if not, there’s no term, it’s a path amid that couple of vertices.
To clarify the word strongest path, there’s station to review the literature of
this book with jargons and buzzwords.
Example 3.6.34. Picture 3.6 depicts some cases for strongest paths. Consider
the couple of vertices, v1 and v2 , the strongest path is only v1 v2 with
N (v1 , v2 ) = 0.007 Let v1 and v3 be up. Strongest path is only v1 v2 with
N (v1 , v2 ) = 0.007. Picture 3.5 depicts some cases for strongest paths. Let v2
and v3 be up. Then strongest path is only v2 v1 v3 with N (v1 , v2 ) = 0.007 but
let v1 and v3 be up. Thus strongest path is only v1 v3 with N (v1 , v2 ) = 0.007.

147
3. Number Graphs And Numbers

Figure 3.6: Graphs And Number Graphs NG6

Picture 3.4 depicts some cases for strongest paths. Let v1 and v3 be up.
Then strongest paths are v1 v2 v3 and v1 v4 v3 with N (v1 , v2 ) = 0.001 but let v1
and v2 be up thus strongest path is only v1 v2 with N (v1 , v2 ) = 0.007.
Pictures 3.2 and 3.3 aren’t N F but the independent study on the strongest
path could be possible. Let v1 and v3 be up. Then strongest path is only v1 v4 v3
with N (v1 , v2 ) = 0.007 but let v1 and v2 be up thus strongest path is only v1 v2
with N (v1 , v2 ) = 0.007.
The notion of having the number amid two vertices is going up to introduce
new result. The kind of relation amid the number forest which makes the
0
equality in number cutedge N2 (xy) ≥ N (x, y) to be in two parts the right
hand is belonging to the number span N S N F but left hand doesn’t when the
all possibilities of being inequality have done. There’s nice connection amid
number cutedge and number forest which all edges of its number span N S N F
are number cutedge. Approach of proof is about using the negation of result
and getting contradiction with supposition in the way that, N S N F with the
attribute of being forest and as its consequence, having no cycles have the key
role to get result in the second case.
Corollary 3.6.35. Let N F = (N1 , N2 ) be a number forest. Then all edges of
its number span N S N F are just number cutedge.

Proof. Suppose the result doesn’t hold. Then either there’s one number cutedge
isn’t in N S N F or there’s one edge is in N S N F and it isn’t number cutedge.
There are two cases for a given edge xy. It is number cutedge and it isn’t
in N S N F so N2 (xy) < NN S N F (x, y) ≤ NN F (x, y) which implies xy isn’t a
number cutedge which is contradiction. It is in N S N F but it isn’t a number
cutedge. Thus there’s a path P from x to y such that N (P ) > N2 (xy). N S N F
with the attribute of being forest and as its consequence, having no cycles imply
any of its edges xi yi don’t belong to N S N F . Thus the edges xi yi imply a path
Pi in N S N F such that N (Pi ) > N2 (xi yi ) ≥ N (xi yi ) ≥ N (xy). Therefore, for
edges xi yi , there’s a path in N S N F and as its consequences, there’s a cycle
in N S N F which implies contradiction because N S N F is forest and forest is
acyclic graph which means has no cycles. 

There are nice discussions about N S N F and N S N T . Because there’s no

sense that N F has to be forest but its N S N F has to be forest. With analogous
to it, N T makes sense about not being tree but N S N T has to be tree.

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 3.6. Number Of The Vertices

Example 3.6.36. A relation amid number tree and number cycle could get three
cases as example and one case as Theorem. For example with three vertices
and three edges in the shape of triangle and in the term of complete graph from
the order three, and in the notion of cycle graph from the order three could get
two examples in that, there’s number tree but there isn’t number cycle and in
other example there’s number cycle but there isn’t number tree.
When two edges out of three edges get the same numbers if the number is
maximum number, then there’s no two minimum edges thus the number graph
isn’t number cycle but it’s number tree. If the number is minimum number,
then there’s two minimum edges thus the number graph is number cycle but
there’s no number span which only covers number cutedge because there’s one
cutedge which implies having only two vertices but the amount of vertices are
three so there isn’t number span for this number graph which implies it isn’t
number tree.
To get more senses, Picture 3.7, is about the first case so it isn’t number
tree because there’s no number span, so there’s no kind of number graph which
covers all vertices and its edges are cutedge. But it’s a number cycle because
it’s a cycle graph and it has two edges v1 v3 and v2 v3 which have the minimum
amount which is 0.001. The edge v2 v1 is only cutedge and there’s no number
cutedge more but it isn’t enough to cover all vertices. Using another ways, by
Theorem 3.6.31, the equation doesn’t hold.
Picture 3.8, is about the second case, there’s one edge v2 v3 which has
minimum amount so this cycle from order three isn’t number cycle but
it has two number cutedge v1 v2 and v1 v3 thus all vertices are covered by
their endpoints. This number span N S N T has only two number cutedge
v1 v2 and v1 v3 . The only edge v2 v3 is out of N S N T but the equation
0.0007 = N (P = v2 v1 v3 ) > 0.0001N2 (v2 v3 ) holds. Therefore it’s number
tree.

Figure 3.7: Graphs And Number Graphs NG7

Figure 3.8: Graphs And Number Graphs NG8

If there’s need to make number graph which isn’t number tree, then there’s
an approach to make cycle on its number span. Then N S N T isn’t tree but
If there’s need to make number graph which isn’t number cycle, then there’s

149
3. Number Graphs And Numbers

Figure 3.9: Graphs And Number Graphs NG9

an approach to make only one minimum amount for edge on number graph.
Therefore,
Picture 3.9 depicts a number graph which is neither a number tree nor
number cycle. There’s one edge v2 v3 with minimum amount 0.0001 thus it
isn’t number cycle. In the other hands, the triangle v1 v4 v5 has no cutedge and
if they is added to N S N T , they make cycle in N S N T . Therefore, there’s no
number span N S N T . The edges v1 v2 and v1 v3 are only cutedge which could
be number span N S N T , for triangle v1 v2 v3 but it has a part from the number
graph. Two vertices v4 and v5 could be covered by any of number span but the
equation doesn’t hold because there’s no cutedge with endpoints of v4 and v5 ,
if they are added to number span and there’s no path in number span which is
strictly greater than their amounts and the equality is forever holds, if they are
put in out of a number span.
When the word number span is coming up, there are two number graphs
which have the relation of being number subgraph with each other. A number
graph and its number span are two number graphs when we’re talking about
number subgraph. Number span is characterized by the set of edges because it
has the vertex set which is the same with the number graph which it’s supposed
to be as its number subgraph. In the special case, these types of number span
N S N T and N S N F which are number span of number tree and number span of
number forest, have the case in that they couldn’t get E as their characteristics
which this attribute is great and it’s surprising. Because in some cases, E could
be a number span
but E couldn’t be a number span

N SN T

of number tree and couldn’t be a number span of

N SN F

of number forest. E is the precise abstract from the form of number span

N S = (N3 , N4 )

which it’s restricted by the inequality and equality

N1 = N3 , N4 ⊆ N2 .

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 3.6. Number Of The Vertices

Then there are some points to use and it makes sense to use the subset of E
instead of the mess of notations and words: it’s contraction. Therefore,
Corollary 3.6.37. E isn’t a span number N S N T and N S N F when there’s a
cycle with three same number of edges as its number subgraph.
Proof. There’s a cycle so it isn’t forest which it implies it isn’t number forest.
Therefore, it implies it isn’t number tree. 
Corollary 3.6.38. Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a number graph. N G is a number
tree, N T = (N1 , N2 ) if and only if in any cycle of N G, there is an edge xy
0
such that N2 (xy) < N (x, y).
Corollary 3.6.39. Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a number graph with one component.
If there’s either no strongest path or one strongest path amid any of two given
vertices, then N G is number tree, N T = (N1 , N2 ).
Corollary 3.6.40. Let N T = (N1 , N2 ) be a number tree. Then all edges of its
number span N S N T are just number cutedge.
In next statement, there are two conditional statements which create the
equivalency amid number tree and number cycle.
Theorem 3.6.41. Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a cycle. Then N G = (N1 , N2 ) is
number cycle if and only if N G = (N1 , N2 ) isn’t a number tree.
Proof. (⇒) Suppose it’s a number cycle. It implies there are two distinct edges
x1 y1 and x2 yV 2 such that they’ve minimum amounts amid edges, N2 (x1 y1 ) =
N2 (x2 y2 ) = {N2 (uv) | uv ∈ E}. If N S N T = (N1 , N3 ) is number span of
N G = (N1 , N2 ), then since N G = (N1 , N2 ) is cycle, there’s only one edge xy
which is belongs to N G but it doesn’t belong to N S N T . It implies having
the path P amid x and y in N S N T which its number is greater then number
of edge xy, N2 (xy) < NN S N T (x, y) but it isn’t. Therefore, it implies it isn’t
number tree. In a cycle amid any of given couple of vertices, there are only
two paths if they’re endpoints of one edge, there’s one path from order two and
another path has different order.
(⇐) N G = (N1 , N2 ) is a cycle. It isn’t a number tree then for any xy of
N G, for any of number span N S = (N1 , N4 ), they’re are tree and N2 (xy) ≥
NN S N T (x, y) where N4 (xy) =V 0 but N2 (xy) 6= 0. Thus N4 (x1 y1 ) = N2 (x1 y1 )
for all x1 y1 6= xy. It implies {N2 (uv) | uv ∈ E} isn’t unique. Therefore, it’s
number cycle. For all edges of cycle there’s only one path and this path has the
edge which implies it has the number lower than the number of edge thus the
minimum number of edge isn’t unique. 
There are natural questions about notions when two notions are up. When
are these two notions are equal? Under which conditions? When does one
notion hold where another doesn’t hold and conversely. When do two notions
hold? When don’t two notions hold? When does one notion cover another
notion? For example, it’s a number tree and it isn’t tree. The term strongest
and weakest are the adjective to talk about how the number of notion amid all
is big. Thus weakest edge means the number of edge is the minimum number
amid all number of edges in a number graph. The strongest edge means the
number of edge is the maximum number amid all numbers of edges in a number
graph. In a number cycle, there are at least two weakest edges.

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 3. Number Graphs And Numbers

Corollary 3.6.42. Let N C = (N1 , N2 ) be a number cycle. Then all edges are
cutedge if they aren’t weakest edges.
A number cycle is a cycle but the cycle isn’t forever a number cycle. Thus
the supposition of being cycle graph gets the strongest situation instead of
number cycle. When we’re talking about number forest or number tree, we’re
talking about two number graphs. The number forest N F and its number span
N S N F . The number tree N T and its number span N S N T .
Theorem 3.6.43. Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a number graph. A vertex w is number
cutvertex if and only if there are two vertices x, y =
6 w such that w is on every
strongest path from x to y.

Proof. (⇒) Let vertex w be a number cutvertex. It implies there are two
0
vertices x and y such that N (x, y) ≥ N (x, y). The last inequality implies there
are two vertices x, y 6= w such that w is on every strongest path from x to y.
(⇐) Let w be a vertex. There are two vertices x, y 6= w such that w is on
every strongest path from x to y. Thus it implies there are two vertices x and
0
y such that N (x, y) ≥ N (x, y). Therefore, vertex w is number cutvertex. 

A cutedge and a cutvertex have the same result in a number graph with
this difference that in the first case, one edge is doer but in the second case,
one vertex is doer.
R5 Theorem 3.6.44. Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a number graph. An edge w is number
cutedge if and only if there are two vertices x, y such that w is on every strongest
path from x to y.

Proof. (⇒) Let vertex w be a number cutedge. It implies there are two vertices
0
x and y such that N (x, y) ≥ N (x, y). The last inequality implies there are two
vertices x, y such that w is on every strongest path from x to y.
(⇐) Let w be an edge. There are two vertices x, y such that w is on every
strongest path from x to y. Thus it implies there are two vertices x and y such
0
that N (x, y) ≥ N (x, y). Therefore, edge w is number cutedge. 

A relation for cutvertex when it has the connection with cutedge. The
word strongest and strong are the comparison amid number of notions. So
the strongest path is the path from one vertex x to another vertex y which its
number is greater than number of all paths which are from one vertex x to
another vertex y. Strong edge of the path P is the edge which its number is
greater than the number of all edges which are on the path P . The weakest
edge of a cycle C is an edge which its number is greater than the number of all
edges which are on the cycle C.
R6 Theorem 3.6.45. Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a number graph. If a vertex w is
common vertex of at least two cutedge, then the vertex w is cutvertex.

Proof. Let xw and wy be two cutedge. Thus by Theorem 3.6.44, there exist
two vertices x1 and y1 such that xw is on every strongest path from x1 to y1 .
There are two cases for w.

• If w 6= x1 , y1 , then w is a cutvertex.

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 3.6. Number Of The Vertices

• Otherwise, w is either x1 then wy is on every strongest path from w to

y1 or y1 thus xw is on every strongest path from x1 to w. If w isn’t a
cutvertex, then amid two vertices x and y, there is at least one strongest
path from x to y which in its consecutive vertices don’t contain vertex w
and this path with the edges xw and wy make s cycle.
Then the cycle xwyvn vn−1 · · · v2 v1 x is obtained.
There are two cases.

– The path xwy isn’t a strongest path. It implies three cases.

∗ One is xw is the weakest edges of the cycle xwyvn vn−1 · · · v2 v1 x
which is contradiction with supposition which states xw is
cutedge.
∗ One is yw is the weakest edges of the cycle xwyvn vn−1 · · · v2 v1 x
which is contradiction with supposition which states yw is
cutedge.
∗ Both xw and yw are the weakest edges of the cycle
xwyvn vn−1 · · · v2 v1 x which is contradiction with supposition
which states xw and yw are cutedge.
– The path xwy is a strongest path. It implies N (x, y) = N2 (xw) ∧
N2 (wy). Since P is a strongest path from x to y, N (x, y) =
N2 (xw) ∧ N2 (wy) = N (P ). Thus the number of edges of P are
greater than mathcalN2 (xw) and N2 (wy) then they’re at least as
strong as N2 (xw) and N2 (wy). In other word, If the edge e belongs
to P , then N2 (e) ≥ N2 (xw), N2 (wy). It implies xw or wy or both
are the weakest edges of the cycle xwyvn vn−1 · · · v2 v1 x. Therefore,
it’s contradiction with with supposition which states xw and yw are
number cutedge.

There’s a natural question about the reverse of the conditional statement

in Theorem 3.6.45 which is about how the reverse doesn’t hold. The following
example gives us a number graph which has the attribute in that, the reverse
of the conditional statement in Theorem 3.6.45 doesn’t hold.
Example 3.6.46. Picture 3.10 depicts a number graph which shows that the
reverse of the conditional statement in Theorem 3.6.45, doesn’t hold. The
the edges v1 v3 and v2 v4 are only number cutedge but the vertex v3 is number
cutvertex. Thus v3 is a number cutvertex but it isn’t the common vertex of at
least two number cutedge which is in this case, the common vertex of only two
number cutedge v1 v3 and v2 v4 .
v3 is a number cutvertex because there are two vertices x and y such that
0
N (x, y) ≥ N (x, y). v3 is a number cutvertex for couple of vertices v1 , v4 , v1 , v2 ,
v3 , v4 , and v3 , v2 because
0
0.005 = N (v1 , v4 ) ≥ N (v1 , v4 ) = 0.001
0
0.005 = N (v1 , v2 ) ≥ N (v1 , v2 ) = 0.001
0
0.005 = N (v3 , v4 ) ≥ N (v3 , v4 ) = 0.001
0
0.005 = N (v3 , v2 ) ≥ N (v3 , v2 ) = 0.001

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 3. Number Graphs And Numbers

v1 v3 and v2 v4 are number cutedge because there are two vertices x and y
0
such that N (x, y) ≥ N (x, y). v1 v3 and v2 v4 are a number cutedge for couple
of vertices v1 v3 and v2 v4 , because
0
0.007 = N (v1 , v3 ) ≥ N (v1 , v3 ) = 0.001
0
0.007 = N (v2 , v4 ) ≥ N (v2 , v4 ) = 0.001
v1 v3 and v2 v4 are both number cutedge and number bridge because it reduce
the number of its endpoints as number of couple vertices.
v1 v3 is number bridge because there are two vertices x and y such that
0
0.007 = N (v1 , v3 ) ≥ N (v1 , v3 ) = 0.001.
v2 v4 is number bridge because there are two vertices x and y such that
0
0.007 = N (v2 , v4 ) ≥ N (v2 , v4 ) = 0.001

Figure 3.10: Graphs And Number Graphs NG10

Theorem 3.6.47. Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a number graph. If xy is a number

bridge, then N (x, y) = N2 (xy).

Proof. By using definition, it’s obvious that N (x, y) > N2 (xy). Thus there’s
one path P : xv1 v2 · · · vn y such that N (P ) = N (x, y) and N (P ) > N2 (xy).
If vi vj is an edge of P : xv1 v2 · · · vn y, then N2 (vi vj ) > N2 (xy). It implies
xy is the weakest edge when it adds to path P : xv1 v2 · · · vn y, it forms
a cycle C : xv1 v2 · · · vn yx. Therefore xy is the weakest edge of cycle
0
C : xv1 v2 · · · vn yx which implies N (x, y) = N (x, y) but xy is number bridge
0
then N (x, y) = N (x, y) it’s contradiction with with supposition which states
xy is number bridge. 

R7 Corollary 3.6.48. Let N G 1 = (N3 , N4 ) be a number subgraph of N G =

(N1 , N2 ). Then for all vertices x and y, NN G 1 (x, y) ≤ NN G (x, y).
Definition 3.6.49 (NUMBER COMPLETE). Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a
number graph. The second style of complete graph which is obtained on
it, is called NUMBER COMPLETE, denoted by N M and it’s restricted
by the equality N2 (xy) = N1 (x) ∧ N1 (x) for all x and y.
R8 Corollary 3.6.50. Let N M = (N1 , N2 ) be a number complete. Thus

• For all vertices x, y, N (x, y) = N2 (xy).

• It has no number cutvertices.

Example 3.6.51. Picture 3.10 depicts a number graph which shows that the
reverse of the conditional statement in Corollary 3.6.50, doesn’t hold.

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 3.6. Number Of The Vertices

v3 is a number cutvertex because there are two vertices x and y such that
0
N (x, y) ≥ N (x, y). v3 is a number cutvertex for couple of vertices v1 , v4 , v1 , v2 ,
v3 , v4 , and v3 , v2 because
0
0.005 = N (v1 , v4 ) ≥ N (v1 , v4 ) = 0.001
0
0.005 = N (v1 , v2 ) ≥ N (v1 , v2 ) = 0.001
0
0.005 = N (v3 , v4 ) ≥ N (v3 , v4 ) = 0.001
0
0.005 = N (v3 , v2 ) ≥ N (v3 , v2 ) = 0.001
But number graph isn’t number complete because
0.0001 = N2 (v1 v2 ) 6= N1 (v1 ) ∧ N1 (v2 ) = 0.01 ∧ 0.02 = 0.01
0.0007 = N2 (v1 v3 ) 6= N1 (v1 ) ∧ N1 (v3 ) = 0.01 ∧ 0.03 = 0.01
0.0001 = N2 (v1 v4 ) 6= N1 (v1 ) ∧ N1 (v4 ) = 0.01 ∧ 0.04 = 0.01
0.0005 = N2 (v2 v3 ) 6= N1 (v2 ) ∧ N1 (v3 ) = 0.02 ∧ 0.03 = 0.02
0.0007 = N2 (v2 v4 ) 6= N1 (v2 ) ∧ N1 (v4 ) = 0.02 ∧ 0.04 = 0.02
0.0005 = N2 (v3 v4 ) 6= N1 (v3 ) ∧ N1 (v4 ) = 0.03 ∧ 0.04 = 0.03
v1 v3 and v2 v4 are number cutedge because there are two vertices x and y
0
such that N (x, y) ≥ N (x, y). v1 v3 and v2 v4 are a number cutedge for couple
of vertices v1 v3 and v2 v4 , because
0
0.007 = N (v1 , v3 ) ≥ N (v1 , v3 ) = 0.001
0
0.007 = N (v2 , v4 ) ≥ N (v2 , v4 ) = 0.001
v1 v3 and v2 v4 are both number cutedge and number bridge because it reduce
the number of its endpoints as number of couple vertices.
v1 v3 is number bridge because there are two vertices x and y such that
0
0.007 = N (v1 , v3 ) ≥ N (v1 , v3 ) = 0.001.
v2 v4 is number bridge because there are two vertices x and y such that
0
0.007 = N (v2 , v4 ) ≥ N (v2 , v4 ) = 0.001
The negation of result or condition proves the statement by contradiction.

Theorem 3.6.52. Let N T = (N1 , N2 ) be a number tree. Then G isn’t complete

number.

Proof. Let N T = (N1 , N2 ) be a complete number N M = (N1 , N2 ). By

Corollary 3.6.50, for all vertices x, y, N (x, y) = N2 (xy) but by definition of
number tree, NN S N T (xy) > N2 (xy). Therefore, NN T (x, y) < NN S N T (x, y) is
contradiction by Corollary 3.6.48. 

The term of end vertex could be the point amid number graph and its
number subgraph. The well-known number graph and its number subgraph
which are related to each other are N S N T and N T or N S N F and N F. Internal
vertices of N S N T make graph to be two parts, end vertices and internal vertices.

Theorem 3.6.53. Let N T = (N1 , N2 ) be a number tree. Then the internal

vertices of N S N T are the number cutvertices of N T = (N1 , N2 ).

Proof. There are two cases.

• Let w be a vertex of N T such that w isn’t an end vertex of N S N T . Thus

w is common vertex of at least two cutedge in N S N T which imply w is a
cutvertex by Theorem 3.6.45.

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3. Number Graphs And Numbers

• Let w be an end vertex of N T such that w is a vertex of N S N T . Thus

there are x, y 6= w such that w is on every strongest x − y path in N S N T
if it’s number cutvertex but it’s end vertex.

A relation amid cutvertex and cutedge in the number tree could make open
way to have same notions.
Corollary 3.6.54. Let N T = (N1 , N2 ) be a number tree. Thus a cutvertex is
the common vertex of at least two number cutedge.
The equivalent condition for number tree is obtained.
Theorem 3.6.55. Let N G = (N1 , N2 ) be a number graph. For all edge xy,
NN T (x, y) = N2 (xy) implies xy is a number cutedge and conversely if and only
if N T = (N1 , N2 ) is a number tree.

Proof. (⇐) Let N T = (N1 , N2 ) be a number tree.

If xy is number cutedge, then NN T (x, y) = N2 (xy).
If xy be an edge such that NN T (x, y) = N2 (xy), then there are two cases;
if N G = (N1 , N2 ) is tree graph, then xy is number cutedge;
Otherwise, xy is in N S N T . Thus number cutedge.
(⇒) 

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 CHAPTER 4

Beyond The Graph Theory

4.1 Abstract

Priority about including the easy

concept for covering the wides
ranges of readers and spreading
the ranges of readership. Easy
connections with the priority of
making connections with the most
definitions as possible.

raph theory has the widely ranges of applications and theoretical aspects.
In this book, focus in on definitions and there’s an effort to make connections
about different types of graphs with using the new ideas which arise from the
definitions and using examples which are the tools to get the understandable
perspective about the concepts. The context is away from some texts which
aren’t in literature of mathematics. The author avoid to bring some texts to
describe the ideas and the results before bringing them. The main idea is to
write the main concepts but in examples, some explanations are found about the
connections of the definitions. In this book, the goal is to present the relations
between definition in the ways, the number of definitions in the results is the
matter minds and it’s avoided to pay attention to the degree of the results in
the terms of being hard. The book is devised to make the gentle comparison
between concepts and in this way, there’s the priority about including the easy
concept for covering the wides ranges of readers and spreading the ranges of
readership. Easy connections with the priority of making connections with the
most definitions as possible.

4.2 Acknowledgements

The words of mind and the minds

of words, are too eligible to be in
the stage of acknowledgements

157
4. Beyond The Graph Theory

he author is going to say his gratitude and his appreciation about the brains
and their hands which are showing the importance of words in the framework
of every wisdom, knowledge, arts and emotions which are streaming in the lines
from the words, notions, ideas and approaches to have the material which is
only the way to flourish the minds, the growing the notions, advancing ways
and making the stable ways to be amid the events and storms of minds for
surviving from them and making the outstanding experiences about the tools
and ideas to be on the star lines of words and shining like stars, forever.

4.3 Words Of Graph Theory

The words of mind and the minds

of words, are too eligible to be in
the stage of acknowledgements

Points and continuum of points as

lines and curves call for a theory
to call it graph theory and there
are too many points about seen
points and unseen points like one
point is seen and have a name but
points are unseen and have no
names but all of them could be
called lines, loops and curve. In
the term of pronoun, there are
two pronouns we and us when the
pronoun we is used for known
point but the pronoun us is used
for unknown points as the
elements of straight lines, curves
and loops

Beyond Of Graph Theory #1

Words of graph theory could act on any notions to get new notions.

4.4 Definition And Its Consequences

There are different kinds of defining a graph. Sometimes, the couple of two
distinct sets of objects with function amid them. The domain is called edges
set and the image of this function is called vertices set. In other ways, there
are new notions to define a graph on a set of objects instead of defining by a
function but second style has open ways to connect other branch because every
function could be a graph.

4.5 Different Styles Of Graph

Definition 4.5.1 (Graph: Function-Orientated Style). Let F be a function from
V to E where V and E are the sets of distinct objects and function is assigning
unordered couple of objects of V to any of object of E. Then the couple of V
and E is called graph and it’s denoted by G : (V, E).

158
 4.6. List Of The Vertices

Definition 4.5.2 (Graph: Set-Orientated Style). Let V be a set of objects and

any set E of unordered couple objects of V is up. Therefore, G : (V, E) is a
graph.
Definition 4.5.3 (Graph: Matrix-Orientated Style). Let G be a matrix. If all
entries are zero and one, then the couple of vertical set of objects which is
denoted by V and the couple of horizontal set of objects which is denoted by E,
is denoted by G : (V, E) and it’s called a graph.
Definition 4.5.4 (Graph: Matrix-Orientated Style). Let G be a matrix. If all
entries are zero and one, then the couple of vertical set of objects which is
denoted by V and the couple of horizontal set of objects which is denoted by
V, is denoted by G : (V, E) and it’s called a graph. Eigenvalue of graph is
the eigenvalues of this matrix and characteristic polynomial of graph is the
characteristic polynomial of this matrix where the characteristic polynomial of a
matrix is det(A − xI) and the eigenvalues of a matrix is the roots of det(A − xI).

Exercises

1. If G is graph, then eigenvalue is lower or equal with ∆.

2. If G is a connected graph and ∆ is eigenvalue, then the graph is regular.

3. If G is a connected graph and −∆ is eigenvalue, then the graph is both

regular and bipartite.

4.6 List Of The Vertices

Definition 4.6.1 (List Of One Vertex). Let v be a given vertex. Then the list
of vertices v1 v2 · · · vn which have the edge with v is called list of vertex v.
Definition 4.6.2 (List Of Two Vertices). Let v and u be given vertices. Then
the list of vertices vv1 v2 · · · vn u which are consecutive vertices from v to u is
called list of vertex v and u.

4.7 Degree Of A Vertex

Definition 4.7.1 (Degree List Of Couple). Let v and u be given vertices. Then
the list of vertices v1 v2 · · · vn which are consecutive vertices’ degrees from v to
u is called degree list of vertex v and u.
Definition 4.7.2 (Degree List Of Vertices). The list of vertices v1 v2 · · · vn which
are vertices’ degrees is called degree list of vertices.
Definition 4.7.3 (Graphic). The list of numbers v1 v2 · · · vn is called graphic if
it’s degree list of vertices.
The summation of degree of all vertices is forever even number. So it’s the
criteria to decide whether a number could make a graph or not. If a given
number is odd, then it can’t form any of graph when the usage of formula is up.
Assigning the number to the summation when is possible that this number is
even. Usage of first version of Matrix-Orientated Style as graph is selected to

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4. Beyond The Graph Theory

prove upcoming result by summation all enters twice. Once all columns and
another all rows.
Theorem 4.7.4. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. Then
X
degree(x) = 2|E| (4.1) {R1}
x∈V

Proof. For any given vertex x, summation of its row gives us degree(x) so
the summation of all rows equals x∈V degree(x) which is left hand of the
P
statement. Every edge has two endpoints so for any given edge e, summation
of its column gives us 2 thus the summation of all columns equals 2|E| which is
right hand of the statement. By summation twice, the statement is proved.
First, summation all enters from each rows and secondly, summation all
enters from each column. Summations of all enters from each column with each
others are summation of all numbers in the matrix. Therefore, there are two
systematically ways to summation of all enters of a matrix. Column by column
or row by row but the result is the same.
Strongest tool about determine number whether is or not an even number, is
module 2. 0 tells us the structure of number is even but 1 tells us the structure
of the number is odd. The even number is shown the warmly welcome to the
numbers which belongs to this class and characteristics. 
The number of odd degree is even. So this could be another characteristic
for graphs in the terms of numbers.
Theorem 4.7.5. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. Then the number of vertices is even
where these vertices have odd degree.
Proof. By equation (8.6.1) under module 2, right-hand side is zero. Thus left-
hand side has to be zero which implies the number of vertices is even where
these vertices have odd degree. 
Degree of a vertex could spread to all vertices when all vertices have the
same degree thus there’s a new graph which is created by the notion of degree
of a vertex.
Definition 4.7.6. Let G : (V, E) be a graph such that all vertices have the same
degree t. Then a graph is called t−regular.

4.8 Some Classes Of Graphs

Definition 4.8.1 (Connected). A graph is called connected if for any given two
vertices, there’s a list of two vertices.
Definition 4.8.2 (Disconnected). A graph is called disconnected if it isn’t
connected.
Definition 4.8.3 (Finite). A graph is called finite if both its vertex set and edge
set are finite.
Definition 4.8.4 (Null). A graph is called null if its vertex set is empty set.
Definition 4.8.5 (Trivial). A graph is called trivial if its vertex set has one
vertex.

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 4.8. Some Classes Of Graphs

Definition 4.8.6 (Nontrivial). A graph is called nontrivial if its vertex set has
at least two vertices.
Definition 4.8.7 (Simple). A graph is called simple if its edges are neither
parallel nor loop.
Definition 4.8.8 (Planar). A graph is called planar if its edges meet each other
in vertex. This exhibition is called planar embedding.
Definition 4.8.9 (Complete). A graph is called complete if every two given
vertices has one edge.
Definition 4.8.10 (Empty). A graph is called empty if every two given vertices
has no edge.
Definition 4.8.11 (Bipartite). A graph is denoted by G[X , Y] where X and Y
are parts of G and is called bipartite if its vertex set is partitioned two parts
and every part has no edge inside.
Definition 4.8.12 (n−Partite). A graph is called n−partite if its vertex set is
partitioned n parts and every part has no edge inside.
Definition 4.8.13 (Turan Graph). An n−partite is denoted Tk,n by and is called
Turan graph if every part has equal vertices such that b nk c = b nk c = 1.
Definition 4.8.14 (n−Path). A graph is denoted Pn by and is called n−path if
there are two vertices such that it’s a list of two vertices where n is the number
of its edges.

Exercises

1. Every n−path is bipartite.

Definition 4.8.15 (n−Cycle). A graph is denoted Cn by and is called n−cycle

if there are one vertex such that it’s a list of one vertex where n is the number
of its edges. 3-cycle, 4-cycle, 5-cycle and 6-cycle are often called triangle,
quadrilateral, pentagon, and hexagon, resepectively.

Exercises

1. Every n−cycle is bipartite if and only if n is even.

With having known attributes of vertex set and edge set, there’s new class of
graphs.
Definition 4.8.16 (n−Cube). A graph is denoted by Qn and is called n−cube
where the vertex set is the set of all n − tuple including 0s and 1s and edge set
is the set of couple of n-tuple of vertex set which have one difference in their
coordinate.
Definition 4.8.17 (Boolean Lattice). A graph is denoted by BLn and is called
boolean lattice where the vertex set is the set of all subsets of {1, 2, · · · , n} and
edge set is the set of couple of subsets of vertex set which have one difference
in their elements.

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4. Beyond The Graph Theory

Definition 4.8.18 (Complement). A graph is denoted by Ḡ and is called

complement if it introduces a graph which its vertex set is vertex set of Ḡ
but its edge set is non-edge set of Ḡ.
Definition 4.8.19 (Strongly Regular Graph). A simple graph G which is neither
empty nor complete is called strongly regular with parameters (v, k, λ, µ) if:
• v(G) = v,
• G is k−regular,
• For any two given vertices which are in the list of each other, they’ve λ
common members in list of each other.
• For any two given vertices which aren’t in the list of each other, they’ve
µ common members in list of each other.

4.9 Connections Of The Words

In the term of pronoun, there are
two pronouns we and us when the
pronoun we is used for known
point but the pronoun us is used
for unknown points as the
elements of straight lines, curves
and loops

eyond Of Graph Theory #1

4.10 Unary Operations And Graphs

Definition 4.10.1 (Identical). Using function-orientated style, two graphs G and
H are denoted by G = H and are called identical if V(G) = V(H), E(G) = E(H)
and FG = FH .
Definition 4.10.2 (Isomorphic). Two unary operations are called isomorphism
amid G and H such that using function-orientated Style, two graphs G and H
are denoted by G ∼ = H and are called isomorphic if there are unary operations
θ : V(G) → V(H), φ : E(G) → E(H) which are bijection and ψG (e) = uv if
and only if ψH (φ(e)) = θ(u)θ(v). A representative of an equivalence class of
isomorphic graphs, is called unlabelled graph. Up to isomorphism, it makes
sense to use the notations Kn , Kn,m , Pn and Cn for complete, complete bipartite,
path and cycle graphs.

Exercises

1. Boolean lattice BLn and n−cube Qn are isomorphic.

Definition 4.10.3 (Automorphism). An unary operation is called automorphism
if it’s an isomorphism from one graph to itself. The set of all automorphisms of
a graph G is denoted by Aut(G) and is called automorphism group.

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 4.11. Related Classes Of Graphs

Exercises

1. Automorphism of a complete graph Kn is the symmetric group Sn .

2. Automorphism of a simple graph G on n vertices Aut(G) is a subgroup of
symmetric group Sn .
3. Automorphism of an n−cycle graph Cn is the dihedral group Dn , i.e.,
Aut(Cn ) = Dn but automorphism of an n−path graph Pn is isomorphic
with symmetric group S2 , i.e., Aut(Pn ) ∼
= S2 .
4. For any simple graph G, Aut(G) = Aut(Ḡ).

4.11 Related Classes Of Graphs

Definition 4.11.1 (Self-complementary). A simple graph is called self-
complementary if it’s isomorphic to its complement.

Exercises

1. C5 is self-complementary.
2. P4 is self-complementary.
Definition 4.11.2 (Edge-Transitive Graph). A simple graph is called edge-
transitive if for any two edges uv and xy, there’s an automorphism α such that
α(u)α(v) = xy.
Definition 4.11.3 (Vertex-Transitive Graph). A simple graph is called vertex-
transitive if for any two vertices u and x, there’s an automorphism α such that
α(u) = x. Two vertices u and x are called similar. Similarity is an equivalence
relation on the vertex set of a graph and its equivalence classes are called orbits.

Exercises

1. A connected graph is bipartite if it’s edge-transitive and it isn’t vertex-

transitive.
Definition 4.11.4 (Folkman Graph). A graph is depicted by picture (4.1), and
is called Folkman, is the 4−regular graph obtained the left picture by replacing
each vertex v of degree eight by two vertices of degree four, both of which have
the same vertices in their lists as v.

Exercises

1. Consider Folkman graph. It’s edge-transitive and it isn’t vertex-transitive.

Definition 4.11.5 (Generalized Petersen Graph). A simple graph is denoted
by Pk,n when n, k ∈ N, n > 2k and is called generalized Petersen graph with
vertices x1 , x2 , · · · , xn , y1 , y2 , · · · , yn , and edges xi xi+1 , yi yi+k , xi yi , 1 ≤ i ≤ n,
indices are taken under module n. P2,5 is the Petersen graph.

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4. Beyond The Graph Theory

Figure 4.1: Graph And Folkman Graph G1

Definition 4.11.6 (Hypergraph). A hypergraph is denoted by HG : (V, F) where

V is a set of elements which are called vertices and F is a family of subsets of
V which are called hyperedges. A hypergraph is k−uniform if each hyperedge
is k−set where k−set is a set of k elements.
Definition 4.11.7 (Geometric Configuration). A Geometric configuration is
denoted by GC : (P, L) where P is a finite set of elements which are called
points and F is a finite family of subsets of V which are called lines such that
at most one line contains any given pair of points.
Example 4.11.8. Fano hypergraph has seven points and seven lines and
Desargues hypergraph has ten points and ten lines. They are 3-uniform
hypergraphs where each lines consists of three points. They are depicted
by the picture (4.2).

Figure 4.2: Fano Hypergraph And Desargues Hypergraph G2

Definition 4.11.9 (Incidence Graph). A graph associated with a hypergraph is

denoted by CG : (V, F) is bipartite graph where v ∈ V and F ∈ F have common
edge if v ∈ F and it’s called incidence graph.
Example 4.11.10. The incidence graph of Fano hypergraph is depicted by
picture (4.3) and is called Heawood hypergraph. Incidence graph is an unary
operation on hypergraphs.

Intersection Graph as Unary Operation And Its Variants

Definition 4.11.11 (Intersection Graph). A graph associated with a hypergraph
is denoted by SG : (V, F) where F is the vertex set and two sets in F are

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 4.11. Related Classes Of Graphs

Figure 4.3: Fano Hypergraph And Heawood Hypergraph G3

adjacent if their intersection isn’t nonempty and it’s called intersection graph.
Intersection graph is an unary operation on hypergraphs.
Definition 4.11.12 (Line Graph). A graph associated with a graph is denoted
by LG : (V, F) where F is the vertex set and two edges in F are adjacent if
their intersection isn’t nonempty and it’s called line graph. Line graph is an
unary operation on graphs. Line graph is a variant of intersection graph.

Exercises

1. Intersection graph of Desargues hypergraph is isomorphic to line graph of

K5 .

2. Line graph of K5 is isomorphic to complement of the Petersen graph.

3. Intersection graph of Fano hypergraph is isomorphic to line graph of K7 .

4. Line graph of K3,3 is self-complementary.

5. Aut(LKn ∼
6 Aut(Kn ), n = 2, 4
=

6. Aut(LKn ∼
6 Aut(Kn ), n = 3, n ≥ 5
=

Definition 4.11.13 (Interval Graph). A graph associated with a graph is denoted

by LG : (V, F) where V = R and F is a set of closed intervals of R where F
is the vertex set and two intervals in F are adjacent if their intersection isn’t
nonempty and it’s called interval graph. Interval graph is an unary operation
on graphs. Interval graph is a variant of intersection graph.

Other Classes Of Graphs

Definition 4.11.14 (Kneser Graph). A graph is denoted by KG m,n when
n, k ∈ N, n > 2m and is called Kneser Graph where vertices are the m−subsets
of an n−set S and two subsets have edges if their intersection is empty.

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4. Beyond The Graph Theory

Exercises

1. KG 1,n ∼
= Kn , n ≥ 3.
2. KG 2,n is isomorphic to the complement of LKn , n ≥ 5.

Definition 4.11.15 (Cayley Graph). A graph is denoted by YG(Γ, S) when Γ is

a group and S is a set of elements of Γ with the exception the identity element
and S includes inverse of every elements of itself and it’s called Cayley graph
of Γ with respect to S where Γ is vertex set and two vertices x, y have edge if
xy −1 ∈ S.

Exercises

1. Qn = YG(Γ, S).

2. YG(Γ, S) is vertex-transitive graph.

3. Every vertex-transitive graph isn’t YG(Γ, S).

Definition 4.11.16 (Circulant Graph). A Cayley graph is denoted by YG(Zn , S)

and it’s called circulant graph. In special case, let p be a prime number, then
YG(Zp , S) is circulant graph.
Definition 4.11.17 (Paley Graph). A graph is denoted by PG q (Zn , S) where
q is a prime power such that q ∼ = 1 and it’s called Paley graph where vertex
set is the set of elements of the field GF(q) and two vertices have edge if their
difference is a nonzero square in GF(q).

Exercises

1. GF(5), GF(9) and GF(13) are self-complementary.

Product Of Graphs as Binary Operation

Definition 4.11.18 (Union Graph). Two simple graphs G and H are denoted by
G ∪ H where the vertex set is V(G) ∪ V(H) and the edge set is E(G) ∪ E(H) and
it’s called union graph. If G and H are disjoint, they’re denoted by G + H and
it’s called disjoint union graph. It’s associative, commutative and extended to
any number of given graphs.
Definition 4.11.19 (Intersection Graph). Two simple graphs G and H are
denoted by G ∩ H where the vertex set is V(G) ∩ V(H) and the edge set
is E(G) ∩ E(H) and it’s called intersection graph. If G and H are disjoint, it’s
called disjoint intersection graph and is null graph. It’s associative, commutative
and extended to any number of given graphs.
Definition 4.11.20 (Cartesian Graph). Two simple graphs G and H are denoted
by GH where the vertex set is V(G) × V(H) and the edge set is the set of all
(x1 , y1 )(x2 , y2 ) such that either x1 x2 ∈ E(G) and y1 = y2 or y1 y2 ∩ E(H) and
x1 = x2 and it’s called cartesian graph. For each edge G in and for each edge
H, there are four edges in GH which the notation reflects this fact.

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 4.12. Directed Graphs And Its Variants

Example 4.11.21. The picture (4.4) depicts P1 P1 and (5 × 4)−grid.

Figure 4.4: Cartesian Graphs And (m × n)−grid G4

Example 4.11.22. The picture (4.5) depicts C3 P1 and C5 P1 . Cn P1 is
called n−prism. In special case, it’s called triangular prism, the cube and the
pentagonal prism.

Figure 4.5: Cartesian Graphs And n−prism G5

Exercises

1. Pn Pm is (m × n)−grid.
1. For n ≥ 3, Cn P1 is polyhedral graphs.

4.12 Directed Graphs And Its Variants

Definition 4.12.1 (Directed Graph: Set-Orientated Style). Let V be a set of
objects and any set A of ordered couple objects of V is up. Therefore, D : (V, A)
is a directed graph. All notions which are defined on graph, become twofold
with labels, in and out. The term of dominating could be used when one object
is on the first position in the ordered couple and the second object is on the
second position thus it’s called first object dominates second object. Replacing
all arrows by segments, gives us the underlying graph G of D and it’s called
G(D). Replacing all segments by two arrows, gives us the directed graph D of
G and it’s called D(G).

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4. Beyond The Graph Theory

Definition 4.12.2 (Directed Graph: Matrix-Orientated Style). Let D be a

matrix. If all enters are 0, 1 and -1, then the couple of vertical set of objects
which is denoted by V and the couple of horizontal set of objects which is
denoted by A, is denoted by D : (V, A) and it’s called a digraph.
Definition 4.12.3 (Directed Graph: Matrix-Orientated Style). Let D be a
matrix. If all enters are 0, −1 and 1, then the couple of vertical set of objects
which is denoted by V and the couple of horizontal set of objects which is
denoted by V, is denoted by D : (V, A) and it’s called a digraph. Eigenvalue
of digraph is the eigenvalues of this matrix and characteristic polynomial of
digraph is the characteristic polynomial of this matrix where the characteristic
polynomial of a matrix is det(A − xI) and the eigenvalues of a matrix is the
roots of det(A − xI).
Definition 4.12.4 (Orientation Of The Graph). In a graph G, replacing segment
→
−
by one of two arrows is denoted G and it’s called an orientation of G.
Definition 4.12.5 (Orientated Graph). An orientation of a simple graph is called
orientated graph.
Definition 4.12.6 (Tournament). An orientation of a complete graph is called
tournament.
Example 4.12.7. Picture (4.6) depicts four unlabelled tournaments on four
vertices. The orientation of unlabelled complete graph from the order four is
called unlabelled tournaments on four vertices.

Figure 4.6: Tournaments And Complete Graph G6

Example 4.12.8. Picture (4.7) depicts 2-diregular digraph and 3-diregular

digraph. These digraphs can both be constructed from Fano hypergraph.

Figure 4.7: Fano Hypergraph And Directed Graph G7

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 4.13. Infinite Graphs And Its Variants

Definition 4.12.9 (Cayley Digraph). A digraph is denoted by YD(Γ, S) when Γ

is a group and S is a set of elements of Γ with the exception the identity element
and S includes inverse of every elements of itself and it’s called Cayley graph of
Γ with respect to S where Γ is vertex set and x dominates y if xy −1 ∈ S.
Definition 4.12.10 (Circulant Digraph). A Cayley digraph is denoted by
YD(Zn , S) and it’s called circulant graph. In special case, let p be a prime
number, then YG(Zp , S) is circulant graph.
Definition 4.12.11 (Converse Of A Digraph). Let D : (V, A) be a directed
←
−
graph, the converse of digraph D is denoted by D where it’s obtained reversing
every arrow of D and it’s called converse of D.
Definition 4.12.12 (Balanced Digraph). A digraph D : (V, A) is called balanced
if for all v ∈ V, |d+ (v) − d− (v)| ≤ 1.
Definition 4.12.13 (Paley Tournament). A tournament is denoted by PT q
where q is a prime power, q ≡ 3 (mod 4) and it’s called Paley tournament where
the vertex set is the set of elements of the field GF(q), vertex i dominates vertex
j if j − i is a nonzero square in GF(q).
Definition 4.12.14 (Stockmeyer Tournament). A tournament is denoted by
ST n where n ≥ 1 and it’s called Stockmeyer tournament where the vertex set
is {1, 2, 3, · · · , 2n } and vertex i dominates vertex j if odd(j − i) ≡ 1 (mode 4)
where pow(k) denote the greatest integer p such that 2p divides k, and set
odd(k) = 2kp where k is nonzero integer.
Definition 4.12.15 (Arc-transitive Graph). An undirected graph G is called
arc-transitive if D(G) is arc-transitive. Equivalently, G is called arc-transitive if
given any two ordered couple (x, y) and (u, v) of adjacent vertices, there exits
an automorphism of G which maps (x, y) to (u, v).

4.13 Infinite Graphs And Its Variants

Definition 4.13.1 (Infinte Graph). A graph G is called infinite if its vertex set
and/or its edge set is infinite.
Definition 4.13.2 (Countable Graph). A graph G is called countable if both its
vertex set and its edge set are countable.
Example 4.13.3. Picture (4.8), depicts three countable graphs and infinite
graphs which are well-known as square lattice, triangular lattice, and hexagonal
lattice.

Definition 4.13.4 (Unit Distance Graph). A graph G is called unit distance

graph if its vertex set is a subset of R2 and two vertices (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) have
one edge if their euclidean distance is 1 which it means (x1 −x2 )2 +(y1 −y2 )2 = 1.
Definition 4.13.5 (Rational Unit Distance Graph). A graph G is called rational
unit distance graph if its vertex set is Q2 .
Definition 4.13.6 (Real Unit Distance Graph). A graph G is called real unit
distance graph if its vertex set is R2 .

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4. Beyond The Graph Theory

Figure 4.8: Infinite Graphs And Countable Graphs G8

4.14 Vertex and Edge: Delete Or Add

Definition 4.14.1 (Edge-deleted Subgraph). A graph G \ e is called edge-deleted
subgraph.
Definition 4.14.2 (Vertex-deleted Subgraph). A graph G \ v is called vertex-
deleted subgraph.
Definition 4.14.3 (Subgraph: Function-Orientated Style). A graph S is called
subgraph of G if V(S) ⊆ V(G), E(S) ⊆ E(G) and FS is the restriction of FG to
E(S).
Theorem 4.14.4. If all vertices have degree at least two in a graph, then graph
has a cycle.
Proof. If the graph isn’t simple, then it has either loop making cycle from order
one or parallel edges making a cycle from order two.
If the graph is simple, then let P is a longest path from one vertex to another
vertex. By all vertices have the degree at least two, the ending vertex of P has
the edge either with a vertex in P making a cycle or a vertex out of P which is
contradiction with choosing P as longest path in graph. 
Definition 4.14.5 (Maximal). S ∈ S is called maximal if no member of S
properly contains S where S is a family of subgraphs of a graph G.
Definition 4.14.6 (Minimal). S ∈ S is called minimal if no member of S is
properly contained in S where S is a family of subgraphs of a graph G.

Related Classes Of Graphs

Definition 4.14.7 (Acyclic). A graph G is called acyclic if it doesn’t contain a
cycle.
Definition 4.14.8 (Digraph From A Poset). A digraph is denoted by D(P)
where P = (X , <) is a poset. The vertex set is X and xy is edge if x < y.

Exercises

1. A digraph D(P) from poset P is acyclic and transitive where transitive

means xz is an edge if both xy and yz are the edges.
2. Let D(P) be a digraph from poset P. Then acyclic tournament is transitive
tournament.

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 4.14. Vertex and Edge: Delete Or Add

3. Let D(P) be a digraph from poset P. Then chains in P are transitive

subtournament.

Definition 4.14.9 (Topological Sort). A digraph is called topological sort if

there is an linear ordering of its vertices such that for every edge, its arrow
precedes its starting point in the ordering.
Definition 4.14.10 (Triangle-Free Graph). A graph is called triangle-free graph
if it contains no triangles.
Definition 4.14.11 (Monochromatic). A complete graph is called monochro-
matic if all of its edges have same color so all are red or all are blue.
Definition 4.14.12 (Bichromatic). A complete graph is called bichromatic if all
edges are either red or blue.
Definition 4.14.13 (Spanning Subgraph). A graph is denoted by G \ S and is
called spanning subgraph if it’s obtained from a graph by edge deletion only
where S is the set of deleted edges.
Definition 4.14.14 (Spanning Supergraph). A graph is denoted by G + S and
is called spanning supergraph if it’s obtained from a graph by edge addition
only where S is the set of additive edges.
Definition 4.14.15 (Joint Graph). A graph is denoted by G ∨ S and is called
join graph if it’s obtained from an union graph of G and S and adding all
possible edges amid these two graphs.

Exercises

1. Cn ∨ K1 = Wn

Definition 4.14.16 (Hamilton Path). Spanning path is called Hamilton path.

Definition 4.14.17 (Hamilton Cycle). Spanning cycle is called Hamilton cycle.
Definition 4.14.18 (k−factor). Spanning k−regular subgraph is called k−factor.
Definition 4.14.19 (Symmetric Difference Graph). A spanning subgraph is
denoted by S1 ∆S2 and is called symmetric difference graph if it’s obtained
from two spanning subgraphs of S1 = (V, E1 ) and S2 = (V, E2 ) where edge set
is E1 ∆E2 .
Definition 4.14.20 (Induced Subgraph). A graph is denoted by G − S and is
called induced subgraph if it’s obtained from a graph by vertex deletion only
where S is the set of deleted vertices.
Definition 4.14.21 (Induced Subgraph). A graph is denoted by G[Y] and is
called induced subgraph by Y if it’s obtained from graph G where vertex set is
Y and edge set is all edges of G which have both ends in Y.

Exercises

1. Every graph with average degree at least 2k, where k is a positive integer,
has an induced subgraph with minimum degree at least k + 1.

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4. Beyond The Graph Theory

Definition 4.14.22 (Weighted Graph). A graph is denoted by (G, ω) and is

called weighted graph if each edge is corresponded to a real number ω(e) which
is called its weight and G is with these weights on its edges where ω : E → R
and its denoted by RE . When the weights are rational numbers, it’s denoted by
QE .
Definition 4.14.23 (Graph By Vertex Identification). A graph is denoted by
G \ {x, y} if the adjacent vertices x and y is to replace by a single vertex.
Definition 4.14.24 (Graph By Edge Contraction). A graph is denoted by G \ e
the adjacent edges e and e0 is to replace by a single edge.
Definition 4.14.25 (Graph By Vertex Splitting). A graph is made by vertex
splitting v if v is to replace by two adjacent vertices.
Definition 4.14.26 (Graph By Edge Subdivision). A graph is made by edge
subdivision e if e is to delete and add new vertex joining to ends of e.
Definition 4.14.27 (Decomposition). A family of graphs F is called a decom-
position of a graph G if it only has edge-disjoint subgraphs of G such that
∪F ∈F E(F ) = E(G).
Definition 4.14.28 (Path Decomposition). A decomposition of a graph G is
called path decomposition if it contains entirely of paths.
Definition 4.14.29 (Cycle Decomposition). A decomposition of a graph G is
called cycle decomposition if it contains entirely of cycles.
Definition 4.14.30 (Even Graph). A graph in which each vertex has even degree
is called an even graph.

Exercises

1. Every loopless graph has a trivial path decomposition, into paths of length
one.

2. A graph which admits a cycle decomposition is necessarily even.

3. A graph admits a cycle if and only if it’s even.

Definition 4.14.31 (Cover). A family of subgraphs F is called covering or cover

of a graph G if it isn’t necessarily edge-disjoint and ∪F ∈F E(F ) = E(G).
Definition 4.14.32 (Uniform). A covering is called uniform of a graph G if it
covers each edge of G the same number of times.
Definition 4.14.33 (k-cover). A covering is called k-cover of a graph G if it
covers each edge of G k-times. 2-cover is called a double cover. If family of
subgraphs F only consists paths, it’s called path covering. If family of subgraphs
F only consists cycles, it’s called cycle covering.

Exercises

1. 1-cover is a decomposition.

172
 4.14. Vertex and Edge: Delete Or Add

Definition 4.14.34 (Even Digraph). A digraph D is called even if d− (v) = d+ (v)

for each vertex v ∈ V.
Definition 4.14.35 (Hypomorphic). Two graphs G and H are called hypo-
morphic if for all v ∈ V, their vertex-deleted subgraphs G − v and H − v
are isomorphic.
Definition 4.14.36 (Reconstruction). Any graph which is hypomorphic to G is
called a reconstruction of G.
Definition 4.14.37 (Reconstructible). A graph is called reconstructible if any
reconstruction of G is isomorphic to G.

Exercises

1. Regular graphs are reconstructible.

2. Disconnected graphs are reconstructible.
Definition 4.14.38 (Recognizable). A class C of graphs is called recognizable if
for each graph G ∈ C, every reconstruction of G belongs to C.
Definition 4.14.39 (Weakly Reconstructible). A class C of graphs is called
weakly reconstructible if for each graph G ∈ C, every reconstruction of G belongs
to C is isomorphic to G.
Definition 4.14.40 (Switching Of The Graph). A graph is called a switching of
the graph if it’s obtained by switching a vertex where switching a vertex means
to exchange its set of neighbors and non-neighbors. A collection of switchings
of a graph is called a deck of graph.
Definition 4.14.41 (Deck Of The Graph). A collection of switchings of a graph
is called a deck of graph.
Definition 4.14.42 (kth power). A graph is denoted by G k and is called kth
power of G = (V, E) where its vertex set is V and two distinct vertices are
adjacent in G k if their distance in G is at most k.
Definition 4.14.43 (Cage). A k−regular graph of girth g with at least possible
number of vertices is called a (k, g)−cage. A (3, g)−cage is referred to g−cage.
Definition 4.14.44 (Tutte-Coxeter Graph). A 8−cage is called Tutte-Coxeter
Graph.

Definition 4.14.45 (t-arc-transitive). A simple connected graph G is called t-

arc-transitive if given any two t-arcs v0 v1 · · · vt and w0 w1 · · · wt , there is an
automorphism of G which maps vi to wi , for 0 ≤ i ≤ t.

Exercises

1. K3,3 is 2-arc-transitive.
2. Petersen graph is 3-arc-transitive.
3. Heawood graph is 4-arc-transitive.

173
4. Beyond The Graph Theory

Figure 4.9: 8−cage: Tutte-Coxeter Graph G9

4. Tutte-Coxeter graph is 5-arc-transitive.

5. There are no t-arc-transitive cubic graphs when t > 5.

Definition 4.14.46 (t-arc-transitive). A simple connected graph G is called t-

arc-transitive if given any two t-arcs v0 v1 · · · vt and w0 w1 · · · wt , there is an
automorphism of G which maps vi to wi , for 0 ≤ i ≤ t.
Definition 4.14.47 (Eulerian). A connected graph is called eulerian if there’s a
closed walk which have all edges of G.

Exercises

1. A connected graph is eulerian if and only if it’s even.

Definition 4.14.48 (Dominating Subgraph). A subgraph F of a graph G is

called dominating if every edge of G has at least one end in F.

Exercises

1. L(G) is hamiltonian if and only if G has a dominating eulerian subgraph.

174
 4.15. Various Types Of Numbers

Definition 4.14.49 (De Bruijn-Good Digraph). A digraph is denoted by BG n

and it’s called De Bruijn-Good digraph if the vertex set is the set of all binary
sequences of length n, vertex a1 a2 · · · an being joined to vertex b1 b2 · · · bn if and
only if ai+1 = bi for 1 ≤ i ≤ n − 1.

Exercises

1. BG n is an eulerian digraph of order 2n and directed diameter n.

Definition 4.14.50 (Acyclic Graph). A graph is called acyclic graph if it contains

no cycles.
Definition 4.14.51 (Tree Graph). A graph is called tree graph if it’s connected
acyclic graph.
Definition 4.14.52 (Distance Tree). A graph is called distance tree if it’s
spanning x−tree T of a graph G and dT (x, v) = dG (x, v) for all v ∈ V.
Definition 4.14.53 (Fan). A graph is called fan if it’s P ∨ K1 .
Definition 4.14.54 (Cotree). A graph is denoted by T̄ and it’s called cotree if
it’s the complement of a spanning tree T .
Definition 4.14.55 (Matroid). A graph is denoted by (E, B) and it’s called
matroid if E is a finite set and B is a nonempty family of subsets of E with
exchange property, which is

If B1 , B2 ∈ B and e ∈ B1 \ B2

then there exists f ∈ B2 \ B1 such that (B1 \ {e}) ∪ {f } ∈ B

Definition 4.14.56 (Separable Graph). A graph is called nonseparable if it’s
connected and has no separating vertices; otherwise, it’s separable. Where
a separation of a connected graph is a decomposition of the graph into two
nonempty connected subgraphs which have just one vertex in common which is
called a separating vertex.
Definition 4.14.57 (Block Graph). A subgraph is called block if it’s nonsepar-
able and maximal with respect to this property.
Definition 4.14.58 (Block Tree). A bipartite graph (B, S) obtained from a
graph G is called block tree where B is the set of blocks of G and S is the set of
separating vertices of G. A block B and a separating vertex v have edge if B
contains v. Blocks corresponding to leaves are called end blocks and the vertex
which isn’t separating vertex is called internal vertex.

4.15 Various Types Of Numbers

Definition 4.15.1 (Connectivity). A number is denoted by κ is called connectiv-
ity of G if it’s the maximum number k for which G is k−connected.
Definition 4.15.2 (Local Connectivity). A number is denoted by p(x, y) is
called is local connectivity amid distinct vertices x and y which is the maximum
number of edges amid all xy−paths.

175
 4. Beyond The Graph Theory

Graphs Based On Numbers

Definition 4.15.3 (k−connected). A nontrivial graph G is called k−connected
if p(x, y) ≥ k for any two distinct vertices x and y.

Some Classes Of Graphs

Definition 4.15.4 (Planar). A graph is called planar if it can be drawn in the
plane so that its edges intersect only at their ends. Such a drawing is called a
planar embedding of the graph.
Definition 4.15.5 (Face-regular). A planar graph is called face-regular if all of
its faces have the same degree.

Sets And Numbers

Definition 4.15.6 (Stability Number). A set of vertices is called stable set if no
couple of vertices are adjacent. The cardinality of a maximum stable set in a
graph G is called the stability number of G and is denoted by α(G).
Definition 4.15.7 (Covering Number). A set of vertices is called covering set if
they’re incident to all edges of graph. The cardinality of a minimum covering
set in a graph G is called the covering number of G and is denoted by β(G).
Definition 4.15.8 (Clique Number). A set of vertices is called clique set if
they’re mutually adjacent. The cardinality of a maximum covering set in a
graph G is called the covering number of G and is denoted by ω(G).

4.16 Ideas And The Approaches

Words are related to each other

by different types of tools
m

Example 4.16.1. Consider f : {α, β, η} → {a, b, c}. Thus it’s a graph. In the
terms of simple graph, it represents one graph. One edge from one vertex to
it, is called loop. Thus there’s one graph with three loops and it’s 3-connected
graph which has three components. In Listing (4.16), the python code is used
to engage this concept. And in Listing (4.16), the TeX code is used where the
code is about the Figures.
lst:code_direct
Listing 4.1: Python Code
i =3
print ( i ∗ i )
i f i ==3:
def Ver ( i ) :
print ( "One s i m p l e g raph w i t h number o f e d g e s : " , i )

x=input ( ’ i= ’ )
n=7;
x =8;
i f n%3==1:

176
 4.16. Ideas And The Approaches

print ( " The number o f s i m p l e g r a p h s i s " , 2^n )

e l i f x%3==2:
print ( " The number o f s i m p l e g r a p h s i s " , 2^ x )

e l i f i %3==0:
print ( " The number o f s i m p l e g r a p h s i s " , 2^ i )
else :
print ( x , ( " i s odd " ) )

print ( " Number i s " , x )

List1
lst:code_direct
Listing 4.2: TeX Code
\ begin { f i g u r e }
\ s u b f i g u r e [ S im pl e Graph ] {
\ d e f i n e c o l o r { u d u d f f }{ rgb } { 0 . 3 0 1 9 6 0 7 8 4 3 1 3 7 2 5 4 7 , 0 . 3 0 1 9 6 0 7 8 4 3 1 3 7 2 5 4 7 , 1 . }
\ b e g i n { t i k z p i c t u r e } [ l i n e cap=round , l i n e j o i n=round,>= t r i a n g l e 4 5 ,
x =1.0cm , y =1.0cm , s c a l e = 0 . 2 ]
\ c l i p ( −4.3 , −3.08) r e c t a n g l e ( 7 . 3 , 6 . 3 ) ;
\ draw [ l i n e width =2. pt ] ( −1.92 ,3.12) − − ( 0 . 2 4 , 0 . 4 ) ;
\ draw [ l i n e width =2. pt ] ( 0 . 2 4 , 0 . 4 ) − − ( 4 . 1 8 , 2 . 9 4 ) ;
\ draw [ l i n e width =2. pt ] ( 4 . 1 8 , 2 . 9 4 ) − − ( − 1 . 9 2 , 3 . 1 2 ) ;
\ draw ( 0 . 7 2 , 3 . 8 6 ) node [ an cho r=n o r t h west ] { $ \ a l p h a $ } ;
\ draw ( 2 . 1 , 1 . 8 4 ) node [ anc hor=n o r t h west ] { $ \ b e t a $ } ;
\ draw ( − 1 . 4 , 2 . 1 8 ) node [ anc ho r=n o r t h west ] { $ \ e t a $ } ;
\ draw ( − 2 . 1 4 , 3 . 9 2 ) node [ a nch or=n o r t h west ] { $a$ } ;
\ draw ( 4 . 3 2 , 3 . 4 8 ) node [ an cho r=n o r t h west ] { $b$ } ;
\ draw ( 0 . 0 2 , 0 . 5 8 ) node [ an cho r=n o r t h west ] { $c$ } ;
\ begin { s c r i p t s i z e }
\ draw [ f i l l =u d u d f f ] ( − 1 . 9 2 , 3 . 1 2 ) c i r c l e ( 2 . 5 pt ) ;
\ draw [ f i l l =u d u d f f ] ( 0 . 2 4 , 0 . 4 ) c i r c l e ( 2 . 5 pt ) ;
\ draw [ f i l l =u d u d f f ] ( 4 . 1 8 , 2 . 9 4 ) c i r c l e ( 2 . 5 pt ) ;
\ end { s c r i p t s i z e }
\ end { t i k z p i c t u r e }
\ s u b f i g u r e [ Graph With Three Loops ] {
\ d e f i n e c o l o r { u d u d f f }{ rgb } { 0 . 3 0 1 9 6 0 7 8 4 3 1 3 7 2 5 4 7 , 0 . 3 0 1 9 6 0 7 8 4 3 1 3 7 2 5 4 7 , 1 . }
\ b e g i n { t i k z p i c t u r e } [ l i n e cap=round , l i n e j o i n=round,>= t r i a n g l e 4 5 ,
x =1.0cm , y =1.0cm , s c a l e = 0 . 3 ]
\ c l i p ( −4.3 , −3.08) r e c t a n g l e ( 7 . 3 , 6 . 3 ) ;
\ draw ( − 2 . 1 2 , 4 . 8 4 ) node [ a nch or=n o r t h west ] { $ \ a l p h a $ } ;
\ draw ( 5 . 1 4 , 4 . 2 ) node [ anc hor=n o r t h west ] { $ \ b e t a $ } ;
\ draw ( − 1 . 1 , 0 . 2 6 ) node [ anc ho r=n o r t h west ] { $ \ e t a $ } ;
\ draw ( − 2 . 1 4 , 3 . 9 2 ) node [ a nch or=n o r t h west ] { $a$ } ;
\ draw ( 4 . 3 2 , 3 . 4 8 ) node [ an cho r=n o r t h west ] { $b$ } ;
\ draw ( 0 . 0 2 , 0 . 5 8 ) node [ an cho r=n o r t h west ] { $c$ } ;
\ draw [ l i n e width =2. pt ] ( − 1 . 9 2 , 3 . 1 2 ) c i r c l e ( 1 . 0 2 8 3 9 6 8 1 0 5 7 4 5 9 5 5cm ) ;
\ draw [ l i n e width =2. pt ] ( 4 . 1 8 , 2 . 9 4 ) c i r c l e ( 1 . 0 6 6 2 0 8 2 3 4 8 2 0 9 4 6 3cm ) ;
\ draw [ l i n e width =2. pt ] ( 0 . 2 4 , 0 . 4 ) c i r c l e ( 0 . 9 3 7 2 2 9 9 6 1 1 0 8 7 9 7 7cm ) ;
\ begin { s c r i p t s i z e }
\ draw [ f i l l =u d u d f f ] ( − 1 . 9 2 , 3 . 1 2 ) c i r c l e ( 2 . 5 pt ) ;
\ draw [ f i l l =u d u d f f ] ( 0 . 2 4 , 0 . 4 ) c i r c l e ( 2 . 5 pt ) ;
\ draw [ f i l l =u d u d f f ] ( 4 . 1 8 , 2 . 9 4 ) c i r c l e ( 2 . 5 pt ) ;
\ end { s c r i p t s i z e }
\ end { t i k z p i c t u r e }
\ c a p t i o n {Two D i f f e r e n t Graphs }
\ end { f i g u r e }
List2

Theorem 4.16.2. Let n be a positive integer. Then there are only n numbers
of labelled simple graph where n is both the number of vertices and the number
of edges.

177
4. Beyond The Graph Theory

Figure 4.10: Simple Graphs And A Graph With Three Loops G1011

Theorem 4.16.3. Let I be an identity function. Then it represents one labelled

simple graph.
Theorem 4.16.4. Let f be a map. If the cardinality of domain is greater than
the cardinality of image, then it doesn’t represent any labelled simple graph.
Theorem 4.16.5. Let f be a map. If there’s a labelled simple graph, then the
cardinality of domain is greater than the cardinality of image.
Example 4.16.6. Let V be a set {1, 2, 3}. Thus the complete graph could be
like functions summation, minus, production, and division as Figures (4.11).
There are infinite graphs on a given set {1, 2, 3} but 23 = 8 are simple graphs.

Figure 4.11: Simple Graphs: Summation, Minus, Production, And Division G1217

178
 4.16. Ideas And The Approaches

Theorem 4.16.7. Let n be a positive integer. Consider Nn = {1, 2, · · · , n}. The

power set of Nn is all possibly simple graphs with the exception complete graph.
Example 4.16.8. Consider N3 . Then {1, 2} is the graph which the edge amid
vertices 1 and 2 holds but the vertex 3 is isolated. By using this notation,
{1, 2, 3} aren’t complete graph because there’s no edge amid the vertex 1 and
the vertex 3, although, vertex 1 and 2 as has edge as vertex 2 and vertex 3.
Theorem 4.16.9. Let n be the number of objects. The power set of Nn is all
possibly simple graphs with the exception complete graph.
0 1 0
 

Example 4.16.10. Let 1 0 0 be a matrix. It’s a graph but it isn’t simple

0 0 1
graph because at third object, there’s oneloop if the vertical rows as are
1 0 0
the set of vertices as horizontal columns. 0 1 0 is a graph with three
0 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 0
   

loops. 0 0 1 and 1 0 0 have the entries on upper the diagonal and

0 0 0 1 1 0
downward the diagonal but both represent a complete simple graph.
Theorem 4.16.11. For any given vertex, its list of vertices are the vertices with
nonzero number in the corresponded column or corresponded row.
Theorem 4.16.12. For any given vertex, the cardinality of its list of vertices
are the summation of all numbers belongs to its column.
Theorem 4.16.13. For any given vertex, summation of all numbers belongs to
its column, are equal with summation of all numbers belongs to its row.
Theorem 4.16.14. Summation of all numbers belongs to all columns, are equal
with summation of all numbers belongs to all rows. The number is double
number of edges.
Theorem 4.16.15. For any given vertex in a simple graph, the number of its
edges are equal with the number of its vertices in its list.
Theorem 4.16.16. For any given vertex in a simple graph, the number of its
edges are equal with the number of its vertices in its list.
R17 Theorem 4.16.17. Any of zero-one square matrix represents a graph.

Example 4.16.18. Consider the matrixes.

1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
           
0 0 0 , 0 1 0 , 0 0 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 1 0 , 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0

By Theorem (4.16.17), these matrixes are graphs. Thus we want to draw the
figures of these graphs as figures (4.12). Parallel edges give us the opportunity
to have infinite numbers of edges amid two vertices as the 22nd item of Figures
(4.12).

179
 4. Beyond The Graph Theory

Figure 4.12: Binary Matrixes And Graphs G1823

Theorem 4.16.19. In matrix, the ijth place is as nonzero as jith place. Then
there are at least two parallel edges.
Theorem 4.16.20. In the directed graphs, it’s possible to get the edge in its
simple graph as two edges with different directions.
Theorem 4.16.21. Any simple graphs could be a directed graphs where the edges
are double but with different directions.
R22 Theorem 4.16.22. Any of zero-one-minus-one square matrix represents a
directed graph.

Example 4.16.23.

−1 0 −1 1 0 0 0 1 −1 0 0 0 0 −1 1 0 1
           
−1
 0 0 0  , 0 −1 0 , 0 0 −1 ,  0 0 0 , 0 1 0  , 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 −1 0 −1 −1 0 0 0 −1 0

By Theorem (4.16.22), these matrixes are directed graphs. Thus we want to

draw the figures of these directed graphs as Figures (4.13). Parallel edges give
us the opportunity to have infinite numbers of edges amid two vertices as the
24th item and the 28th item of Figures (4.13).
There’s one notion to have two graphs with one graph by using matrix
version of a graph. Two matrixes could get summation, subtraction, production
and division. This notion introduces graphs which have multiple loops and
multiple parallel edges. In reverse ways, finding decomposition and packing
notions when one graph is decomposition to at least two graphs or at least

180
 4.16. Ideas And The Approaches

Figure 4.13: Matrixes And Directed Graphs G2429

multiple graphs. Thus the matrixes can get numbers without restriction as its
member where the numbers denotes the number of the edges amid two vertices.
Thus

Theorem 4.16.24. Every square matrix represents a graph and a directed graph.

Example 4.16.25. Figure (4.14), shows the equation amid three matrixes which
are denoted by

1 0 3 1 −1 4 0 −1
     
−1
0 2 0 + 0 3 0 = 0 5 0 .
−1 0 −1 −3 0 0 −4 0 −1

Theorem 4.16.26. Consider a matrix involving V and E. Then a number greater

than two denotes that the edge isn’t simple and it’s either parallel edges or loops.

Theorem 4.16.27. Consider a matrix involving V and E. Then summation of

all numbers are equal to double number of edges

Theorem 4.16.28. Consider a matrix involving V and E as simple graph. Then

summation of all numbers belong to one column are equal to two.

Example 4.16.29. Another vision of a matrix is that, it represents a graph

when the couple of vertical set of objects which is denoted by V and the couple
of horizontal set of objects which is denoted by E. Thus the number two in a

181
 4. Beyond The Graph Theory

Figure 4.14: Extended Matrixes And Graphs G3032

matrix denotes either parallel edges or loops. Consider

−1 0 −1
 
0 0 0
1 0 0

The first vertex has one outer first edge and the third vertex has one inner
outer edge. The first vertex has one outer third edge but there’s no destination
vertex to accept one inner third edge. Thus,
Theorem 4.16.30. Consider a matrix involving V and E. Then it forever
represents neither a simple graph nor directed simple graph.
R31 Theorem 4.16.31. Consider a matrix involving V and E. Then it represents
either a graph or directed graph.

Example 4.16.32.

−1 0 −1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 −1 1 0 1
           
−1 −1
 0 0 0  , 0 −1 0 , 0 0 −1 ,  0 0 0 , 0 1 0  , 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 −1 0 −1 −1 0 0 0 −1 0

By Theorem (4.16.22), these matrixes are directed graphs. Thus we want to

draw the figures of these directed graphs as Figures (4.15). Loops give us the
opportunity to have infinite numbers of edges for one vertex as the 34th item
and the 36th-38th items of Figures (4.15).
Theorem 4.16.33. The list of given vertex has the length at most n − 2.
Theorem 4.16.34. The list of given vertex has the length n − 2. Then the graph
is a star graph.
Theorem 4.16.35. The list of given vertex has the length n − 2 and the list has
consecutive vertices. Then the graph is a wheel graph.

182
 4.16. Ideas And The Approaches

Figure 4.15: Matrixes And Directed Graphs G3338

Theorem 4.16.36. For two given vertices u, v, the list of u and v has the length
at most n − 1.
Theorem 4.16.37. For two given vertices u, v, the list of u and v has the length
n − 1. Then the graph is a path graph.
Theorem 4.16.38. For two given vertices u, v, the degree list of u and v has
degree at most ∆ and the length at most n − 1.
Theorem 4.16.39. The degree list of a given vertex has degree at most ∆ and
the length at most n − 2.
Theorem 4.16.40. The list of numbers is graphic if and only if it’s degree list.
Theorem 4.16.41. δ = ∆ if and only if it’s ∆−regular graph.
Theorem 4.16.42. Any cycle graph from any given order is 2−regular graph.
Theorem 4.16.43. A complete graph from any given order is (n − 1)−regular
graph.
Example 4.16.44. In Figure (4.16), the graph isn’t a complete graph but it’s
3−regular graph. The number list 333333 is degree list. Thus it’s graphic. It
isn’t a cycle graph because it has more than one cycle. Precisely, there are two
cycles which are v1 v4 v5 v6 v1 and v1 v4 v2 v1 . It isn’t path graph because there’re
two vertices such that there is more than one path amid them. Precisely, there
are two paths v1 v4 v5 v6 and v1 v2 v3 v6 from the vertex v1 to the vertex v6 and
they’re two lists from the vertex v1 to the vertex v6 . v2 v4 v6 is list of v1 .

183
4. Beyond The Graph Theory

Figure 4.16: 3−Regular Graph On 6 Vertices G39

Theorem 4.16.45. If n is a number in number list, then it isn’t degree list in a

simple graph.
Theorem 4.16.46. If summation of all numbers in a number list is odd, then it
isn’t degree list in a simple graph.
Example 4.16.47. The number list 543258642 isn’t degree list in any given
simple graph with any given order. Consider 4567264. Parity of summation the
all numbers is even but it isn’t degree list because of attending the number 7
which is the length of number list in the number list.
Theorem 4.16.48. If the length of number list is in the number list, then it isn’t
degree list in a simple graph.

Example 4.16.49. Consider Figure (4.17). The first item is connected graph.
The second item is disconnected graph which has two components. The first
component has the vertex set {x1 , x2 } and second component has the vertex
set {x3 } and it’s called trivial graph. The items 1,2,4,5,6 are simple graphs but
the item 3 isn’t simple graph. The item 4 isn’t a planar graph and it’s also
called complete graph from order four, K5 . The item 5 is a planar graph and
it’s also called K4 . The item 6 is empty graph and it isn’t trivial graph and
it’s also called nontrivial graph. All items are nontrivial graphs but the second
component from item 1, is called trivial graph. All items are finite graphs.
Theorem 4.16.50. A graph which the second component is null graph, is called
connected graph.
Theorem 4.16.51. A graph with vertex set, N and two vertices have edges if
their parity is even, is infinite graph.
Theorem 4.16.52. Null graph and trivial graph are finite graph but empty graph
could be either finite graph or infinite graph.

Example 4.16.53. Consider Figure (4.18). The first item is bipartite because
it has two parts which one part has three vertices and second part has four
vertices. The second item is 3−partite because there are two parts including
two vertices and one part including three vertices. Third item is Turan because
every part has the three vertices and the graph is Turan from the order three.
Fourth part is 6−path including seven vertices and six edges. Fifth item is

184
 4.16. Ideas And The Approaches

Figure 4.17: Some Classes Of Graphs G4045

6−cycle including six vertices and six edges. The sixth item is 3−cycle including
three vertices and three edges.
The fourth item is 2−partite but it isn’t complete. The fifth item is 3−partite
but it isn’t complete. For n ≥ 3, n−cycle is defined. Thus first n−cycle is
3−cycle. The sixth item is 3−partite but it isn’t complete. The items one, two
and three are complete. The sixth item is 3−partite. All items are n−partite
but the items two, three, four, five and six aren’t bipartite. The only item one
is bipartite.
Theorem 4.16.54. Turan graph is n−partite.
Theorem 4.16.55. Bipartite graph is n−partite.
Theorem 4.16.56. m−path is n−partite.
Theorem 4.16.57. m−cycle is n−partite.
Theorem 4.16.58. m−cycle is bipartite where m is even.
Theorem 4.16.59. Bipartite graph is m−cycle where m is even.

185
4. Beyond The Graph Theory

Figure 4.18: Bipartite, 3−partite, Turan, 6−path, 6−cycle, 3−cycle G4651

Theorem 4.16.60. Null graph and trivial graph are finite graph but empty graph
could be either finite graph or infinite graph.
The next example plays with the notions of order and the lack of it in the
terms of n−cube and Boolean lattice.
Example 4.16.61. Consider Figure (4.19). 6−cube Q6 , Boolean lattice BL6 ,
Complement of Q6 , Complement of BL6 , Strongly regular graph with (6, 4, 2, 4),
Complement of strongly regular graph with (6, 4, 2, 4) are the items, respectively.
All items are defined on six vertices. One difference amid the labels, is a necessary
and sufficient condition to have edges amid intended vertices.
The items of three to six are the complements of mentioned graphs.

186
 4.16. Ideas And The Approaches

Figure 4.19: 6−cube Q6 , Boolean lattice BL6 , Complement of Q6 , Complement

of BL6 , Strongly regular graph with (6, 4, 2, 4), Complement of strongly regular
graph with (6, 4, 2, 4) G5257

Complement is unary operation thus the input is one graph and the output is
another graph which couldn’t hold the property of the input. The complement
of items one and two don’t hold initial property. The complement of 6−cube Q6
isn’t n−cube as items of one and three. The complement of Boolean lattice BL6
isn’t Boolean lattice BLn as items of two and five. The complement of strongly
regular graph with (6, 4, 2, 4) isn’t strongly regular graph with (6, 1, 0, 0) as
items of three and six.
Theorem 4.16.62. n−cube is a star graph if a degree one vertex is order minus
one.
Theorem 4.16.63. n−cube has at most n − 1 edges if there’s one vertex whose
degree is order minus one.
Theorem 4.16.64. There are 2n−1 +1 n−cube if there’s one vertex whose degree
is order minus one.

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4. Beyond The Graph Theory

Theorem 4.16.65. Boolean lattice is a star graph if there’s one vertex whose
degree is order minus one.
Theorem 4.16.66. Boolean lattice has at most n − 1 edges if there’s one vertex
whose degree is order minus one.
Theorem 4.16.67. There are 2n−1 +1 Boolean lattice if there’s one vertex whose
degree is order minus one.
Theorem 4.16.68. A strongly regular graph is regular.
Theorem 4.16.69. The complement of n−cube isn’t forever n−cube.
Theorem 4.16.70. The complement of Boolean lattice isn’t forever Boolean
lattice.
Theorem 4.16.71. There’s at least one strongly regular graph whose complement
is strongly regular graph.

Example 4.16.72. Consider Figure (4.20). 6−cycle C6 , 6−path P6 , 6−star S5,1 ,

line graph of 6−cycle C6 , line graph of 6−path P6 , line graph of 6−star S5,1 are
the items, respectively. All items are defined on six vertices.
The items of three to six are the line graph of mentioned graphs. Line graph
is unary operation thus the input is one graph and the output is another graph
which couldn’t hold the property of the input as items two and three. The line
graph of items two and three don’t hold initial property but the item two holds
the type of initial graph. The item three not only doesn’t preserve initial graph
but also it doesn’t preserve the style of initial graph. The line graph of the item
three, 6−star S5,1 is the item six, 5−complete K5 . line graph of 6−cycle C6 is
6−cycle C6 and line graph of 6−path P6 is 5−path P5
In this case, the line graph of path is path but in the case of cycle, not only
a line graph of cycle is cycle but also both input and output are the same up to
isomorphism. The line graph of star graph is complete.
Theorem 4.16.73. Line graph if cycle graph is cycle graph.
Theorem 4.16.74. Line graph if n−cycle Cn is n−cycle Cn−1 .
Theorem 4.16.75. Line graph of path graph is path graph.
Theorem 4.16.76. Line graph of n−path Pn is (n − 1)−path Pn−1 .
Theorem 4.16.77. Line graph of star graph is complete graph.

Theorem 4.16.78. Line graph of n−star Sn−1,1 is (n − 1)−complete Kn−1 .

Example 4.16.79. Consider Figure (4.21). 6−complete K6 , (3, 3)−partite K3,3 ,
5−wheel W5,1 , line graph of 6−complete K6 , line graph of (3, 3)−partite K3,3 ,
line graph of 5−wheel W5,1 are the items, respectively. All items are defined
on six vertices.
The items of three to six are the line graph of mentioned graphs. Line graph
is unary operation thus the input is one graph and the output is another graph
which couldn’t hold the property of the input. The line graph of items don’t
hold initial property. The items not only don’t preserve initial graph but also
they don’t preserve the style of initial graph.

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 4.16. Ideas And The Approaches

Figure 4.20: 6−cycle C6 , 6−path P6 , 6−star S5,1 , line graph of 6−cycle C6 , line
graph of 6−path P6 , line graph of 6−star S5,1 G5863

Example 4.16.80. Consider Figure (4.22). 6−complete K6 , (3, 3)−partite

K3,3 , 5−wheel W5,1 , 2−vertex deletion of 6−complete K6 , 4−edge deletion
of (3, 3)−partite K3,3 , 2−vertex deletion and 5−edge deletion of 5−wheel W5,1
are the items, respectively. All items are defined on six vertices.
The items of three to six are the line graph of mentioned graphs. n−vertex
deletion and n−edge deletion are unary operations thus the input is one graph
and the output is another graph which couldn’t hold the property of the input.
The n−vertex deletion and n−edge deletion of items don’t hold initial property.
The items not only don’t preserve initial graph but also they don’t preserve the
style of initial graph. n−vertex deletion and n−edge deletion of a graph make
the graphs which are subgraphs of initial graph. All items are countable graphs.

189
4. Beyond The Graph Theory

Figure 4.21: 6−complete K6 , (3, 3)−partite K3,3 , 5−wheel W5,1 , line graph of
6−complete K6 , line graph of (3, 3)−partite K3,3 , line graph of 5−wheel W5,1 G6469

All items have cycle with the exception item five. The item five is acyclic graph.
All items are triangle-free graph with the exception item five. The item five is
spanning subgraph of item two.

Example 4.16.81. Consider Figure (4.23). 6−complete K6 , (3, 3)−partite

K3,3 , 5−wheel W5,1 , Hamiltonian cycle of 6−complete K6 , Hamiltonian cycle
of (3, 3)−partite K3,3 , Hamiltonian cycle of 5−wheel W5,1 are the items,
respectively. All items are defined on six vertices.
The items of three to six are the Hamiltonian cycle of mentioned graphs.
Hamiltonian cycle is unary operations thus the input is one graph and the

190
 4.16. Ideas And The Approaches

output is another graph which couldn’t hold the property of the input as items.
Theorem 4.16.82. n−complete Kn has Hamiltonian cycle.
Theorem 4.16.83. n−complete Kn has Hamiltonian path.
Theorem 4.16.84. (n, m)−partite Kn,m has Hamiltonian cycle where n, m 6= 1.
Theorem 4.16.85. (n, m)−partite Kn,m has Hamiltonian path where n, m 6= 1.
Theorem 4.16.86. n−wheel Wn,1 has Hamiltonian cycle.
Theorem 4.16.87. n−wheel Wn,1 has Hamiltonian path.
Theorem 4.16.88. n−star Sn,1 doesn’t have Hamiltonian cycle.
Theorem 4.16.89. n−star Sn,1 doesn’t have Hamiltonian path.
Theorem 4.16.90. Peterson graph has Hamiltonian cycle.
Theorem 4.16.91. Peterson graph has Hamiltonian path.
Theorem 4.16.92. n−regular graph has Hamiltonian cycle.
Theorem 4.16.93. n−regular graph has Hamiltonian path.
Theorem 4.16.94. Empty graph doesn’t have Hamiltonian cycle.
Theorem 4.16.95. Empty graph doesn’t have Hamiltonian path.
Theorem 4.16.96. Trivial graph has Hamiltonian cycle.
Theorem 4.16.97. Trivial graph has Hamiltonian path.
Theorem 4.16.98. Null graph has Hamiltonian cycle.
Theorem 4.16.99. Null graph has Hamiltonian path.
Theorem 4.16.100. Disconnected graph doesn’t have Hamiltonian cycle.
Theorem 4.16.101. Disconnected graph doesn’t have Hamiltonian path.
Theorem 4.16.102. Turan graph Tn,m has Hamiltonian cycle where n, m 6= 1.
Theorem 4.16.103. Turan graph Tn,m has Hamiltonian path where n, m 6= 1.

Example 4.16.104. Consider Figure (4.24). Initial graph, 3−factor of initial

graph, First element of symmetric difference graph, Second element of symmetric
difference graph, 4−factor of initial graph are the items, respectively. All items
are defined on six vertices.
The items of two to six are the operations of mentioned graph as item one.
n−factor is unary operation thus the input is one graph and the output is
another graph which couldn’t hold the property of the input as items. The
items two and three are spanning subgraphs form the initial graph with new
title symmetric difference graph.

Theorem 4.16.105. A complete graph is (n − 1)-factor.

Theorem 4.16.106. A complete graph is 0-factor, 1-factor, · · · , (n − 1)-factor.
Theorem 4.16.107. Every graph is symmetric difference graph.

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4. Beyond The Graph Theory

Theorem 4.16.108. A star graph only has 0-factor.

Theorem 4.16.109. A wheel graph only has 0-factor, 1-factor and 2-factor.
Theorem 4.16.110. A graph only has 0-factor, is disconnected graph.
Theorem 4.16.111. A graph has 1-factor, is connected graph.
Example 4.16.112. Consider Figure (4.25). Initial graph, vertex identification
of initial graph, edge contraction of initial graph, vertex splitting of initial graph,
edge subdivision of initial graph, weighted graph of initial graph, respectively.
All items are defined on six vertices.
Labeled edges and vertices are the changes in comparison to the initial
graph. The items of two to six are the operations of mentioned graph as item
one. all operations, vertex identification, edge contraction, vertex splitting, edge
subdivision, weighted graph are unary operations thus the input is one graph
and the output is another graph which couldn’t hold the property of the input
as items with exception item six.
Example 4.16.113. Consider Figure (4.26). Tree graph, cyclic graph, cotree,
nonplanar bipartite graph K3,3 , nonplanar complete graph K5 , fan graph,
respectively. All items are defined on six vertices with exception item five.
Item one and item two are planar graphs. Item four and item five aren’t
planar. Item two is tree graph and item three is cotree of item two. Item six is
a fan graph.
Theorem 4.16.114. A bipartite graph K3,3 is nonplanar.
Theorem 4.16.115. A complete graph K5 is nonplanar.
Theorem 4.16.116. A fan graph is cyclic where the order is greater than two.
Theorem 4.16.117. A fan graph is planar.
Theorem 4.16.118. A fan graph isn’t tree where the order is greater than two.
Theorem 4.16.119. A bipartite graph K3,3 is cyclic.
Theorem 4.16.120. A complete graph K5 is cyclic.
Theorem 4.16.121. A bipartite graph K3,3 isn’t tree.
Theorem 4.16.122. A complete graph K5 isn’t tree.
Theorem 4.16.123. A complete graph Kn is cyclic where the order is greater
than two.
Theorem 4.16.124. A bipartite graph Kn,m is cyclic where the order is greater
than three.
Theorem 4.16.125. A complete graph Kn isn’t tree where the order is greater
than two.
Theorem 4.16.126. A bipartite graph Kn,m isn’t tree where the order is greater
than three.
Theorem 4.16.127. A tree graph is acyclic.
Theorem 4.16.128. A path graph Pn is acyclic.

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 4.16. Ideas And The Approaches

Theorem 4.16.129. A complete graph Kn isn’t tree where the order is greater
than two.
Theorem 4.16.130. A bipartite graph Kn,m isn’t tree where the order is greater
than three.
Theorem 4.16.131. An n−star Sn,1 is acyclic.
Theorem 4.16.132. An n−star Sn,1 is tree.
Theorem 4.16.133. An n−star Sn,1 is planar.
Theorem 4.16.134. A path graph Pn is tree.
Theorem 4.16.135. A path graph Pn is planar.
Theorem 4.16.136. A cycle graph Cn is planar.
Theorem 4.16.137. A cycle graph Cn isn’t tree.

193
4. Beyond The Graph Theory

Figure 4.22: 6−complete K6 , (3, 3)−partite K3,3 , 5−wheel W5,1 , 2−vertex

deletion of 6−complete K6 , 4−edge deletion of (3, 3)−partite K3,3 , 2−vertex
deletion and 5−edge deletion of 5−wheel W5,1 G7075

194
 4.16. Ideas And The Approaches

Figure 4.23: 6−complete K6 , (3, 3)−partite K3,3 , 5−wheel W5,1 , Hamiltonian

cycle of 6−complete K6 , Hamiltonian cycle of (3, 3)−partite K3,3 , Hamiltonian
cycle of 5−wheel W5,1 G7681

195
4. Beyond The Graph Theory

Figure 4.24: Initial graph, 2−factor of initial graph, First element of symmetric
difference graph, Second element of symmetric difference graph, 4−factor of
initial graph. G8287

196
 4.16. Ideas And The Approaches

Figure 4.25: Initial graph, vertex identification of initial graph, edge contraction
of initial graph, vertex splitting of initial graph, edge subdivision of initial graph,
weighted graph of initial graph. G8893

197
4. Beyond The Graph Theory

Figure 4.26: Tree graph, cyclic graph, cotree, nonplanar bipartite graph K3,3 ,
nonplanar complete graph K5 , fan graph. G9499

198
 CHAPTER 5

Dimension

5.1 Abstract
Dimension has too many
applications in locating the
elements but the author use the
mathematical structure of this
idea and the author try to make
clarifications about them by
different tools.

imension is the structure about the situation in that, the elements of the
situation are considered as the mathematical object in the terms of distance
amid these elements. The distances amid elements complete the locations of
some elements which are involved. Simultaneously, the situations are considered
in the way that, they hold the number and the set in the terms of optimal and
non-optimal where they’re collected as a family. By using different literatures,
figures and tables alongside introducing some examples, this outlet wants to
make clear about this notion and in this way, the author use the basic results
which avoid confusion in specific scale. Dimension has too many applications
in locating the elements but the author use the mathematical structure of this
idea and the author try to make clarifications about them by different tools.

5.2 Acknowledgements

The words of mind and the minds

of words, are too eligible to be in
the stage of acknowledgements

he author is going to say his gratitude and his appreciation about the brains
and their hands which are showing the importance of words in the framework
of every wisdom, knowledge, arts and emotions which are streaming in the lines
from the words, notions, ideas and approaches to have the material which is
only the way to flourish the minds, the growing the notions, advancing ways
and making the stable ways to be amid the events and storms of minds for

199
5. Dimension

surviving from them and making the outstanding experiences about the tools
and ideas to be on the star lines of words and shining like stars, forever.

5.3 Preliminaries
Concepts are related to the basic
tools and ideas about the
preliminaries. In this way, the
basic notion concerning graph
theory is recalled. The material
are about the dimension and its
tools, too. In this chapter, the
material are provided to give
some senses about the material
behind this notion. In this
chapter, Figures are represented
as independent examples and the
captions of examples are used to
fill the vacant position of the
example in this chapter but the
different tools are applied to make
examples and makes senses about
the topic.
m

Definition 5.3.1. (Graph).

Let V be a set of objects and any set E of unordered couple objects of V is up.
Therefore, G : (V, E) is a graph.
Definition 5.3.2. (Connected Graph).
A graph is called connected if there’s path between two given vertices.

Definition 5.3.3. (Loop Edge) An edge xy is called loop if x = y.

Definition 5.3.4. (Parallel Edges).
An edge xy is called parallel if the number of this edge is more than one.
Definition 5.3.5. (Simple Graph).
A graph is called simple if it has neither loops nor parallel edges.
Definition 5.3.6. (Connected Simple Graph).
A graph is called connected simple graph if it’s both connected and simple.
Definition 5.3.7. (Path).
Let G : (V, E) be a connected simple graph. A consecutive vertices x0 x1 · · · xn
is denoted by Pn and is called a path from v0 to vn with the length n.
Definition 5.3.8. (Shortest Path).
Let x and y be two given vertices in a connected simple graph. The shortest
path is a path with minimum length amid all paths from x to y.
Definition 5.3.9. (Distance).
A dG : V × V → N ∪ {0} is called distance on connected simple graph G if

200
 5.3. Preliminaries

Figure 5.1: g1 g2 g3 isn’t path because there’s no separator “, ” amid vertices

but g1 , g2 , g3 is a path from g1 to g3 with the length 2. g1 , g2 g3 isn’t path
because there’s one edge g2 g3 amid vertices but g1 g2 g3 is a path from g1 to g3
with the length 2. g1 , g2 , g6 isn’t path from g1 to g6 because g2 and g6 aren’t
consecutive vertices but g1 , g2 , g7 , g5 , g6 is a path from g1 to g6 with the length
4. g1 , g2 , g7 , g5 , g6 isn’t a shortest path from g1 to g6 with the distance 4 but
g1 , g6 are a shortest path from g1 to g6 with the distance 2. Also, g2 , g7 , g5 , g6
isn’t a shortest path from g2 to g6 with the distance 3 but g2 , g7 , g6 and g2 , g1 , g6
are a shortest path from g2 to g6 with the distance 2.

Figure 5.2: Complete graphs are defined for any n ≥ 1. For any n ≤ 4, complete
graphs are planar.

Figure 5.3: Cycle graphs are defined for any n ≥ 3. For any n ≥ 3, cycle graphs
are planar.

dG (x, y) is the length of a shortest path amid x and y where N is positive

integers.
Definition 5.3.10. (Complete).
Let G : (V, E) be a connected simple graph. It’s called complete if for any
couple of vertices have an edge. It’s denoted by Kn .
Definition 5.3.11. (Cycle).
Let G : (V, E) be a connected simple graph. It’s called cycle if it’s closed path

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5. Dimension

Figure 5.4: Empty graphs are defined for any n ≥ 1. For any n ≥ 1, empty
graphs are planar.

Figure 5.5: Complete bipartite graphs are defined for any n ≥ 1. K2,2 and K2,3
are planar but K3,3 isn’t planar.

Figure 5.6: Star graphs are defined for any n ≥ 1. For any n ≥ 1, star graphs
are planar.

and it’s denoted by Cn .

Definition 5.3.12. (Empty).
Let G : (V, E) be a connected simple graph. It’s called empty if it has no edges
and it’s denoted by Nn .
Definition 5.3.13. (Star).
Let Km.n : (V, E) be a complete bipartite graph. It’s called star if either m = 1
or n = 1 holds.
Definition 5.3.14. (Bipartite) Let G : (V, E) be a connected simple graph. It’s
called bipartite If V is partitioned to vertex set V1 and V2 such that x 6∼ y

202
 5.3. Preliminaries

Figure 5.7: Diameter of graph K is 13. Thus D(K) = 13. k8 is a neighbor

of k7 hence k8 ∼ k7 but k8 isn’t a neighbor of k9 hence k8 6∼ k9 . k8 and k7
don’t have the same open neighborhood then N (k8 ) 6= N (k7 ) but k8 and k9
don’t have the same open neighborhood therefore N (k8 ) 6= N (k9 ). K has no
twin vertices hence k7 and k8 , k9 and k10 , k11 and k12 , k13 and k14 , aren’t
twin vertices and there’s no twin vertices. Thus the set of all twin vertices in
K isn’t {{k7 , k8 }, {k9 , k10 }, {k11 , k12 }, {k13 , k14 }}. Since they’ve different open
neighborhood and different closed neighborhood.

satisfy either x, y ∈ V1 or x, y ∈ V2 .
Definition 5.3.15. (Complete Bipartite) Let G : (V = V1 ∪ V2 , E) be a bipartite
graph. It’s called complete bipartite if x ∈ V1 and y ∈ V1 imply x ∼ y. It’s
denoted by Km.n where m = |V1 | and n = |V2 |.
Definition 5.3.16. (Diameter).
Let G : (V, E) be a connected simple graph. The maximum distance amid the
couple of vertices in G, is called a diameter of G and it’s denoted by D(G).
Definition 5.3.17. (Neighbor).
Let G : (V, E) be a connected simple graph. A vertex x is called a neighbor of
the vertex y if xy is an edge. It’s denoted by x ∼ y. If there’s no edge between
x and y, it’s denoted by x 6∼ y.
Definition 5.3.18. (Neighborhood).
Let G : (V, E) be a connected simple graph and a vertex v ∈ V. A set
N (x) = {y | x ∼ y} is an open neighborhood of x. The set N [x] = N (x) ∪ {x}
is called a closed neighborhood of x.
Definition 5.3.19. (Twin Vertices). Let G : (V, E) be a connected simple
graph. Two vertices x and y is called twin vertices in G if they satisfy either

203
5. Dimension

Figure 5.8: k8 is a neighbor of k6 hence k8 ∼ k6 but k8 isn’t a neighbor

of k9 hence k8 6∼ k9 . k8 and k7 have the same open neighborhood then
N (k8 ) = N (k7 ) = {k6 } but k8 and k6 don’t have the same open neighborhood
therefore N (k8 ) 6= N (k6 ). K only has k7 and k8 , k9 and k10 , k11 and k12 ,
k13 and k14 , as twin vertices because of having same open neighborhood
and there’s no more twin vertices beyond them and out of them because
of having same open neighborhood. Thus the set of all twin vertices in
K is {k7 , k8 , k9 , k10 , k11 , k12 , k13 , k14 } Since they’ve same open neighborhood.
Precisely, every two choices from the set {k7 , k8 , k9 , k10 , k11 , k12 , k13 , k14 } form
twin vertices because of having same open neighborhood. K only has k21
and k22 , k24 and k25 , k26 and k27 , k27 and k21 , as twin vertices because
of having same closed neighborhood and there’s no more twin vertices
beyond them and out of them because of having same closed neighborhood.
Thus the set of all twin vertices in K is {{k21 , k22 , k24 , k25 , k26 , k27 }. Since
they’ve same closed neighborhood. Precisely, every two choices from the set
{{k21 , k22 , k24 , k25 , k26 , k27 } form twin vertices because of having same closed
neighborhood.

N (x) = N (y) or N [x] = N [y].

Definition 5.3.20. (Resolving Vertex).
Let G : (V, E) be a connected simple graph. A vertex RV is called resolving
vertex, for two given vertex x and y if dG (x, RV ) 6= dG (y, RV ).
Definition 5.3.21. (Resolving Set).
Let G : (V, E) be a connected simple graph. A set of vertices, RS ⊆ V is called
resolving set if for every two given vertices, there’s a vertex from the set RS
which is resolving vertex.
Definition 5.3.22. (Dimension Set).

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 5.3. Preliminaries

Figure 5.9: The set {k7 , k8 , k9 , k10 , k11 , k12 , k13 , k14 } is DS for K1,8 . Thus
DN (K1,8 ) = 7. The set {k22 , k23 , k24 , k25 , k26 , k27 , k28 , k29 } is DS for K8 . Thus
DN (K8 ) = 7.

Figure 5.10: The set {c4 , c5 } is DS for C8 . Thus DN (C8 ) = 2. The set {c4 , c7 , c8 }
is RS for C8 .

Let G : (V, E) be a connected simple graph. A resolving set RS is called a

dimension set DS if it has the minimum cardinality amid all resolving sets RSs
in G.

Definition 5.3.23. (Dimension Number).

Let G : (V, E) be a connected simple graph. A number DN is called dimension
number if it’s cardinality of a dimension set DS.

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5. Dimension

Figure 5.11: The set {p6 } is DS for P6 . Thus DN (P6 ) = 1. The set {p4 , p5 } is
RS for P6 .

5.4 Definitions
This chapter is devised to
represent the basic results and
definitions in the terms of the
topic. In this way, the examples
in hugely diverse ways, have the
key roles to do these tasks and to
tackle the obstacles which are in
front of understanding the notions
as soon as possible. The focus of
this chapter is on the
clarifications of definitions and
related concepts to them.
m

Definition 5.4.1. (Simultaneous Resolving Vertex).

Let G = {G1 , G2 , · · · , Gk } be a family of connected simple graph Gi : (V, Ei )
with common vertex set V. A vertex SRV is called simultaneous resolving
vertex for vertex x and y if from each Gi , it’s simultaneously RV. It means
dGi (x, RV ) 6= dGi (y, RV ), for all i = 1, 2, · · · , k.
Definition 5.4.2. (Simultaneous Resolving Set).
Let G = {G1 , G2 , · · · , Gk } be a family of connected simple graph Gi : (V, Ei )
with common vertex set V. A set of vertices, SRS ⊆ V is called simultaneous
resolving set if for every two given vertices, there’s a vertex SRV from the set
SRS.

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 5.4. Definitions

Definition 5.4.3. (Simultaneous Dimension Set).

Let G = {G1 , G2 , · · · , Gk } be a family of connected simple graph Gi : (V, Ei )
with common vertex set V. A simultaneous resolving set SRS is called a
simultaneous dimension set SDS if it has the minimum cardinality amid all
simultaneous resolving sets SRSs in G.

Definition 5.4.4. (Simultaneous Dimension Number).

Let G = {G1 , G2 , · · · , Gk } be a family of connected simple graph Gi : (V, Ei )
with common vertex set V. A number SDN is called simultaneous dimension
number if it’s cardinality of a simultaneous dimension set SDS.

Figure 5.12: A family of graphs G = {G1 : (V, E1 ), G2 : (V, E2 ), G3 : (V, E3 )}

with common vertex set V.

F1 Example 5.4.5. Assume a family of graphs G = {G1 : (V, E1 ), G2 : (V, E2 ), G3 :

(V, E3 )} with common vertex set V as figure (7.8). The distance all vertices
from the vertex v1 and v4 is shown as Table (7.5). Different number is every
row is resolved by the corresponded vertex and the same number is any row has
to be resolved by another vertex and the corresponded vertex couldn’t resolve
them.
By Table (7.5), the vertex v1 is a resolving vertex RV for any two given vertices
with two exception: the couple (v2 , v6 ) and the couple (v3 , v5 ). In other words,
the vertex v2 and the vertex v6 aren’t resolved by v1 . The vertex v3 and the
vertex v5 aren’t resolved by v1 .
These exceptions are handled by the vertex v4 as follows:
By Table (7.5), The vertices v2 and v6 aren’t resolved by the vertex v1 because
they’ve same distance, one from v1 but they’re resolved by the vertex v4 because
they’ve different distances, three and six, respectively, from v4 .
By Table (7.5), the vertex v4 is a resolving vertex RV for any two given vertices
with two exceptions: the couple (v1 , v2 ) and the couple (v3 , v6 ). In other words,
the vertex v1 and the vertex v2 aren’t resolved by v4 . The vertex v3 and the
vertex v6 aren’t resolved by v4 .
These exceptions are handled by the vertex v1 as follows:
By Table (7.5), The vertices v1 and v2 aren’t resolved by the vertex v4 because
they’ve same distance one from v4 but they’ve resolved by the vertex v1 because
they’re different distances, zero and one, respectively, from v1 .
The vertices v3 and v6 aren’t resolved by the vertex v4 because they’ve same
distance, one from v4 but they’re resolved by the vertex v1 because they’ve
different distances, two and six, respectively, from v1 .
By applying the mathematical literature and our literature about this concept,

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5. Dimension

we have,

∀i < j s.t. (vi , vj ) ∈ V1 × V1 \ {(v2 , v6 ), (v3 , v5 )} : dG1 (vi , v1 ) 6= dG1 (vj , v1 )

dG1 (v2 , v1 ) = dG1 (v6 , v1 ), dG1 (v3 , v1 ) = dG1 (v5 , v1 )

∀i < j s.t. (vi , vj ) ∈ V1 × V1 \ {(v1 , v2 ), (v3 , v6 )} : dG1 (vi , v4 ) 6= dG1 (vj , v4 )
dG1 (v1 , v4 ) = dG1 (v2 , v4 ), dG1 (v3 , v4 ) = dG1 (v6 , v4 )

Table 5.1: Distances of Vertices from the vertex set {v1 , v4 } in Graph G1 T1

Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6
v1 0 1 2 3 2 1
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6
v4 3 3 2 0 1 2

By Table (7.6), the vertex v1 is a resolving vertex RV for any two given
vertices with one exception: the couple (v3 , v6 ). In other words, the vertex v3
and the vertex v6 aren’t resolved by v1 . The vertex v3 and the vertex v6 aren’t
resolved by v1 .
This exception isn’t handled by the vertex v4 as follows:
By Table (7.6), The vertices v3 and v6 aren’t resolved by the vertex v1 because
they’ve same distance, three, from v1 but they aren’t resolved by the vertex v4
because they’ve same distances, two, respectively, from v4 .
By Table (7.6), the vertex v4 is a resolving vertex RV for any two given vertices
with two exceptions: the couple (v1 , v5 ) and the couple (v3 , v6 ). In other words,
the vertex v1 and the vertex v5 aren’t resolved by v4 . The vertex v3 and the
vertex v6 aren’t resolved by v4 .
One of these exceptions is handled by the vertex v1 as follows:
By Table (7.6), The vertices v1 and v5 aren’t resolved by the vertex v4 because
they’ve same distance, one, from v4 but they’re resolved by the vertex v1 because
they’ve different distances, zero and two, respectively, from v1 .
The vertices v3 and v6 aren’t resolved by the vertex v4 because they’ve same
distance, two, from v4 but they aren’t resolved by the vertex v1 because they’ve
same distances, three, respectively, from v1 .
By applying the mathematical literature and our literature about this concept,
we have,

∀i < j s.t. (vi , vj ) ∈ V1 × V1 \ {(v3 , v6 )} : dG1 (vi , v1 ) 6= dG1 (vj , v1 )

dG1 (v3 , v1 ) = dG1 (v6 , v1 )

∀i < j s.t. (vi , vj ) ∈ V1 × V1 \ {(v1 , v5 ), (v3 , v6 )} : dG1 (vi , v4 ) 6= dG1 (vj , v4 )
dG1 (v1 , v4 ) = dG1 (v5 , v4 ), dG1 (v3 , v4 ) = dG1 (v6 , v4 )
By Table (7.7), the vertex v1 is a resolving vertex RV for any two given
vertices with four exceptions: the couples (v2 , v4 ), (v2 , v6 ), (v4 , v6 ) and the couple
(v3 , v5 ). In other words, the vertex v2 and the vertex v4 aren’t resolved by v1 .
The vertex v2 and the vertex v6 aren’t resolved by v1 . The vertex v4 and the
vertex v6 aren’t resolved by v1 . The vertex v3 and the vertex v5 aren’t resolved

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 5.4. Definitions

Table 5.2: Distances of Vertices from the vertex set {v1 , v4 } in Graph G2 T2

Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6
v1 0 4 3 1 2 3
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6
v4 1 3 2 0 1 2

by v1 .
These exceptions are handled by the vertex v4 as follows:
By Table (7.7), The vertices v2 and v4 aren’t resolved by the vertex v1 because
they’ve same distance, one, from v1 but they’re resolved by the vertex v4 because
they’ve different distances, one and zero, respectively, from v4 .
The vertices v2 and v6 aren’t resolved by the vertex v1 because they’ve same
distance, one, from v1 but they’re resolved by the vertex v4 because they’ve
different distances, one and two, respectively, from v4 .
The vertices v4 and v6 aren’t resolved by the vertex v1 because they’ve same
distance, one, from v1 but they’re resolved by the vertex v4 because they’ve
different distances, zero and two, respectively, from v4 .
The vertices v3 and v5 aren’t resolved by the vertex v1 because they’ve same
distance, one, from v1 but they’re resolved by the vertex v4 because they’ve
different distances, two and one, respectively, from v4 .
By Table (7.7), the vertex v4 is a resolving vertex RV for any two given vertices
with four exceptions: the couples (v1 , v2 ), (v1 , v5 ), (v2 , v5 ) and the couple (v3 , v6 )
In other words, the vertex v1 and the vertex v2 aren’t resolved by v4 . The
vertex v1 and the vertex v5 aren’t resolved by v4 . The vertex v2 and the vertex
v5 aren’t resolved by v4 . The vertex v3 and the vertex v6 aren’t resolved by v4 .
These exceptions are handled by the vertex v1 as follows:
By Table (7.7), The vertices v1 and v2 aren’t resolved by the vertex v4 because
they’ve same distance, one, from v4 but they’re resolved by the vertex v1 because
they’ve different distances, zero and one, respectively, from v1 .
The vertices v1 and v5 aren’t resolved by the vertex v4 because they’ve same
distance, one, from v4 but they’re resolved by the vertex v1 because they’ve
different distances, zero and two, respectively, from v1 .
The vertices v2 and v5 aren’t resolved by the vertex v4 because they’ve same
distance, one, from v4 but they’re resolved by the vertex v1 because they’ve
different distances, one and two, respectively, from v1 .
The vertices v3 and v6 aren’t resolved by the vertex v4 because they’ve same
distance, two, from v4 but they’re resolved by the vertex v1 because they’ve
different distances, two and one, respectively, from v1 .
By applying the mathematical literature and our literature about this concept,
we have,

∀i < j s.t. (vi , vj ) ∈ V1 × V1 \ {(v2 , v4 ), (v2 , v6 ), (v4 , v6 ), (v3 , v5 )} :

dG1 (vi , v1 ) 6= dG1 (vj , v1 ).

dG1 (v2 , v1 ) = dG1 (v4 , v1 ), dG1 (v2 , v1 ) = dG1 (v6 , v1 ),
dG1 (v4 , v1 ) = dG1 (v6 , v1 ), dG1 (v3 , v1 ) = dG1 (v5 , v1 ).
∀i < j s.t. (vi , vj ) ∈ V1 × V1 \ {(v1 , v2 ), (v1 , v5 ), (v2 , v5 ), (v3 , v6 )} :

209
5. Dimension

dG1 (vi , v4 ) 6= dG1 (vj , v4 ).

dG1 (v1 , v4 ) = dG1 (v2 , v4 ), dG1 (v1 , v4 ) = dG1 (v5 , v4 ),
dG1 (v2 , v4 ) = dG1 (v5 , v4 ), dG1 (v3 , v4 ) = dG1 (v6 , v4 ).

Table 5.3: Distances of Vertices from the vertex set {v1 , v4 } in Graph G3 T3

Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6
v1 0 1 2 1 2 1
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6
v4 1 1 2 0 1 2

To get SRS, the set with one element has to be identified whether they’re
SRS or not. Every singleton {vi }, i = 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 isn’t SRS because in G1 has
two neighbors. And {v4 } isn’t SRS because the couple (v3 , v6 ) aren’t resolved
by {v4 }. Thus, Every singleton isn’t SRS.
To sum up, {v1 , v4 } is a simultaneous resolving set SRS for family of graphs
G = {G1 : (V, E1 ), G3 : (V, E3 )} with common vertex set V because {v1 , v4 }
is a resolving set RS for G1 : (V, E1 ) and G3 : (V, E3 ), simultaneously. But
{v1 , v4 } isn’t simultaneous resolving set SRS for family of graphs G = {G1 :
(V, E1 ), G2 : (V, E2 ), G3 : (V, E3 )} with common vertex set V because, by Table
(7.6) and as mentioned, {v1 , v4 } isn’t RS for G2 : (V, E2 ).
The key role of defining the number SDN is the number distance.
Finding different distances make SDN.
The word related to distance is neighbor of the vertex which is a formalization
of the concept edge
Neighbor of the vertex is the vertex which has the number one as its distance
from the vertex.
Another word which crosses from mind is the word twin which is defined on
the concept of neighbor where the twin vertices are the vertices which have the
same neighbors.
An idea which is defined on the notion of twin, is complete graph which is a
graph where each two given vertices are twin.
Another idea which is defined on the notion of twin, is star graph which is a
graph where each two given vertices are twin where the center is only exception.
The center is only neighbor of non-center vertices. Non-center vertices are twin
where the number of vertices’ neighbor is only one and it’s center.
In the terms of neighbors, there’s cycle graph, where n ≥ 3, which every vertex
has two neighbors which have the situation to get discussion about SDN one.
So there’re some interesting questions about SDN one:
(1). What if there’s a relation between the neighbors of the vertex and the vertex
where all graphs of a family are formed to reflect the impacts of neighbors in
the terms of SDN which is one?
(2). What if the graphs of a given family are formed to have twin vertices in
the ways that, SDN one is a matter of mind?
(3). What if the graphs of a given family are formed to have only twin vertices,
this graph is called complete graph, in the ways that, SDN one is a matter of
mind?
(4). What if the graphs of a given family are formed to have only twin vertices

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 5.4. Definitions

with the exception of one vertex, called center, which is only common neighbor,
this graph is called star graph, in the ways that, SDN one is a matter of mind?
(5). What if the family of graphs are formed in the ways, they are cycle graphs
which the number of neighbors for each vertex is two?
By definition of neighbor, the neighbors of a given vertex have the distance
one from it. In other words, y ∈ N (x) : d(y, x) = 1. Thus, a given
vertex couldn’t resolve two given vertices from its neighborhood. Because
y, z ∈ N (x) : d(y, x) = 1 = d(z, x). Therefore,
Observation 5.4.6. Every vertex isn’t RV for its neighbors.
Observation 5.4.7. If there’s a graph in a given family of graphs such that
every vertex has at least two neighbors, then SDN is at least two.
Observation 5.4.8. Every vertex from twin vertices is a RV for another vertex.
Observation 5.4.9. If there’s a graph in a given family of graphs such that
there’re two styles of twin vertices, then SDN is at least two where n ≥ 3.
Observation 5.4.10. If there’s a complete graph in a given family of graphs,
then SDN is at least two where n ≥ 3.
Observation 5.4.11. If there’s a star graph in a given family of graphs, then
SDN is at least two where n ≥ 3.
Observation 5.4.12. If there’s a cycle graph in a given family, then SDN is
at least two.
There’re some natural questions about this new number with other numbers
arise from the graphs:
(1). What if there’s a relation between the SDN of subfamily of a given family
and SDN of the family?
(2). What if there’s a relation between the number DN s of graphs of a given
family and SDN of the family?
(3). What if there’s a relation between the number of common vertices of a
given family with SDN of the family?
To avoid confusion, for a graph, we use the normal English capital letter but
for family of graphs, we use the mathcal version of LaTeX of English capital
letter. For instance, G, G and H, H.
Thus by these questions, it’s the way to introduce new observation which has
the answer of that three questions which are passed.

1 Observation 5.4.13. For any family G = {G1 , G2 , · · · , Gk } of connected graphs

with common vertex set V and any subfamily H of G,
k
X
SDN (H) ≤ SDN (G) ≤ min{|V | − 1, DN (Gi )}.
i=1

In particular,
max {DN (Gi )} ≤ SDN (G).
i∈{1,2,··· ,k}

The above inequalities are sharp. For instance, for the family of graphs
shown in Figure 7.9 we have SDN (G = {G1 , G2 , G3 }) = 2 = dim(G1 ) =

211
5. Dimension

dim(G2 ) = maxi∈{1,2,3} {dim(Gi )}, while for the family of graphs shown in
Figure 7.10 we have SDN (G = {G1 , G2 , G3 }) = 3 = |V | − 1.

Figure 5.13: The set {v3 , v4 } is SDS of G = {G1 , G2 , G3 }. Thus, SDN (G =

{G1 , G2 , G3 }) = 2 F2

Figure 5.14: The set {v2 , v3 , v4 } is SDS of G = {G1 , G2 , G3 }. Thus, SDN (G =

{G1 , G2 , G3 }) = 3 = |V | − 1. F3

Observation 5.4.14. Any set with the cardinality |V | − 1 is SRS.

Observation 5.4.15. For any family G = {G1 , G2 , · · · , Gk } of connected graphs
Pk
with common vertex set V, any set with the cardinality i−1 DN (Gi ) is SRS.
Observation 5.4.16. There’s a family with |V | − 1 as SDN.
Pk
Observation 5.4.17. There’s a family with i−1 DN (Gi ) as SDN.
Observation 5.4.18. There’s a subfamily H of family G with SDN (H) as
SDN (G).
Observation 5.4.19. There’s a family with maxi∈{1,2,··· ,k {DN (Gi )} as SDN.

Figure 5.15: The set {v3 , v4 } is SDS of G = {G1 , G2 , G3 }. Thus, SDN (G =

{G1 , G2 , G3 }) = 2

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F4 Example 5.4.20. Assume a family of graphs G = {G1 : (V, E1 ), G2 :

(V, E2 ), G3 : (V, E3 )} with common vertex set V as Figure (7.11).
(i) Any of vertices v1 , v2 and v4 has at least two neighbors so by using the idea
of neighbor and applying definition, we have:
N (v1 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v2 , v4 ∈ N (v1 ) : dG1 (v2 , v1 ) = 1 = dG1 (v4 , v1 )
⇒ dG1 (v2 , v1 ) = dG1 (v4 , v1 ) ≡ v1 isn’t RV for v2 and v4 ;

N (v2 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v1 , v4 ∈ N (v2 ) : dG1 (v1 , v2 ) = 1 = dG1 (v4 , v2 )

⇒ dG1 (v1 , v2 ) = dG1 (v4 , v2 ) ≡ v2 isn’t RV for v1 and v4 ;

N (v4 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v2 , v1 ∈ N (v4 ) : dG1 (v1 , v4 ) = 1 = dG1 (v2 , v4 )

⇒ dG1 (v1 , v4 ) = dG1 (v2 , v4 ) ≡ v4 isn’t RV for v1 and v2 ;

dG1 (v1 , v3 ) = 2 = dG1 (v4 , v3 )

⇒ dG1 (v1 , v3 ) = dG1 (v4 , v3 ) ≡ v3 isn’t RV for v1 and v4 .
So it isn’t RS for G1 : (V, E1 ). The vertex v3 has one neighbor but it isn’t RS
for v1 and v4 because dG1 (v1 , v3 ) = 2 = dG1 (v4 , v3 ) so dG1 (v1 , v3 ) = dG1 (v4 , v3 ).
By using the idea of distance and applying Table (7.8), for all vertices, we have:

Table 5.4: Distances of Vertices from the vertex sets {v1 }, {v2 }, {v3 }, {v4 } in
Graph G1 T4

Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4
v1 0 1 2 1
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4
v2 1 0 2 1
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4
v3 2 1 0 2
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4
v4 1 1 2 0

By G1 : (V, E1 ) ∈ G, the SDN (G) is at least two because SDN (G) ≥ SDN (H =
{G1 }) ≥ 2. Thus every vertex set with two vertices which is SRS, is also SDS.
By G1 : (V, E1 ) ∈ G, the SDN is at least two.
By using Table (7.8), the sets with the cardinality two is investigated to obtain
all DSs for G1 . {v1 , v2 }, {v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v4 }, {v3 , v4 } are DS. Any of sets
which has one of these sets as its subset, is RS but it isn’t DS.
(ii) Any of vertices v1 , v3 and v4 has at least two neighbors so by using the idea
of neighbor and applying definition, we have:
N (v1 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v3 , v4 ∈ N (v1 ) : dG2 (v3 , v1 ) = 1 = dG2 (v4 , v1 )
⇒ dG2 (v3 , v1 ) = dG2 (v4 , v1 ) ≡ v1 isn’t RV for v3 and v4 ;

N (v3 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v1 , v4 ∈ N (v3 ) : dG2 (v1 , v3 ) = 1 = dG2 (v4 , v3 )

⇒ dG2 (v1 , v3 ) = dG2 (v4 , v3 ) ≡ v3 isn’t RV for v1 and v4 ;

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5. Dimension

N (v4 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v1 , v3 ∈ N (v4 ) : dG2 (v1 , v4 ) = 1 = dG2 (v3 , v4 )

⇒ dG2 (v1 , v4 ) = dG2 (v3 , v4 ) ≡ v4 isn’t RV for v1 and v3 ;

dG2 (v3 , v2 ) = 2 = dG2 (v4 , v2 )

⇒ dG2 (v3 , v2 ) = dG2 (v4 , v2 ) ≡ v2 isn’t RV for v3 and v4 .

So it isn’t RS for G2 : (V, E2 ). The vertex v2 has one neighbor but it isn’t RS
for v3 and v4 because dG2 (v3 , v2 ) = 2 = dG2 (v4 , v2 ) so dG2 (v3 , v2 ) = dG2 (v4 , v2 ).
By using the idea of distance and applying Table (7.9), for all vertices, we have:

Table 5.5: Distances of Vertices from the vertex sets {v1 }, {v2 }, {v3 }, {v4 } in
Graph G2 T5

Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4
v1 0 1 1 1
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4
v2 1 0 2 2
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4
v3 1 2 0 1
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4
v4 1 2 1 0

By G2 : (V, E2 ) ∈ G, the SDN (G) is at least two because SDN (G) ≥ SDN (H =
{G2 }) ≥ 2. Thus every vertex set with two vertices which is SRS, is also SDS.
By G2 : (V, E2 ) ∈ G, the SDN is at least two.
By using Table (7.9), the sets with the cardinality two is investigated to obtain
all DSs for G2 . {v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v3 }, {v2 , v4 } are DS. Any of sets which
has one of these sets as its subset, is RS but it isn’t DS.
(iii) Any of vertices v2 and v3 has at least two neighbors so by using the idea
of neighbor and applying definition, we have:

N (v2 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v1 , v3 ∈ N (v2 ) : dG3 (v1 , v2 ) = 1 = dG3 (v3 , v2 )

⇒ dG3 (v1 , v2 ) = dG3 (v3 , v2 ) ≡ v2 isn’t RV for v1 and v3 ;

N (v3 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v2 , v4 ∈ N (v3 ) : dG3 (v2 , v3 ) = 1 = dG3 (v4 , v3 )

⇒ dG3 (v2 , v3 ) = dG3 (v4 , v3 ) ≡ v3 isn’t RV for v2 and v4 ;

dG3 (v2 , v1 ) = 1 6= 2 = dG3 (v3 , v1 )

⇒ dG3 (v2 , v1 ) 6= dG3 (v3 , v1 ) ≡ v1 is RV for v2 and v3 .

dG3 (v2 , v1 ) = 1 6= 3 = dG3 (v4 , v1 )

⇒ dG3 (v2 , v1 ) 6= dG3 (v4 , v1 ) ≡ v1 is RV for v2 and v4 .

dG3 (v3 , v1 ) = 2 6= 3 = dG3 (v4 , v1 )

214
 5.4. Definitions

⇒ dG3 (v3 , v1 ) 6= dG3 (v4 , v1 ) ≡ v1 is RV for v3 and v4 .

dG3 (v2 , v4 ) = 2 6= 1 = dG3 (v3 , v4 )

⇒ dG3 (v2 , v4 ) 6= dG3 (v3 , v4 ) ≡ v4 is RV for v2 and v3 .

dG3 (v3 , v4 ) = 1 6= 3 = dG3 (v1 , v4 )

⇒ dG3 (v3 , v4 ) 6= dG3 (v1 , v4 ) ≡ v4 is RV for v1 and v3 .

dG3 (v2 , v4 ) = 2 6= 3 = dG3 (v1 , v4 )

⇒ dG3 (v2 , v4 ) 6= dG3 (v1 , v4 ) ≡ v4 is RV for v2 and v1 .

The graph is called path graph and the vertex with one neighbor in this graph,
is called leaf. Any path has 1 as its DN And its leaf is DS. In path graph,
there are only two DSs which are leaves of it. In path graph, there are two
leaves. Thus DS of path has only one member. In third graph in Figure (7.11),
the vertex v1 and v4 are leaves. To get all DSs, the two sets {v1 } and {v4 } are
only DSs. dG3 (vi , v1 ) = i − 1, dG3 (vi , v4 ) = i − 1. In general, the expression
dPn (vi , v1 ) = i − 1, 1 < i ≤ n and dPn (vi , v1 ) = i − 1, 1 ≤ i < n hold where v1
and vn are only leaves of paths.
By using the idea of distance and applying Table (5.6), for all vertices, we have:

Table 5.6: Distances of Vertices from the vertex sets {v1 }, {v2 }, {v3 }, {v4 } in
Graph G3 T6

Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4
v1 0 1 2 3
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4
v2 1 0 1 2
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4
v3 2 1 0 1
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4
v4 3 2 1 0

By G3 : (V, E3 ) ∈ G, the SDN (G) is at least one because SDN (G) ≥ SDN (H =
{G1 }) ≥ 1. But by G1 : (V, E1 ), G2 : (V, E2 ) ∈ G, the SDN is at least two.
Thus every vertex set with two vertices which is SRS, is also SDS.
By using Table (5.6), the sets with the cardinality one is investigated to obtain
all DSs for G3 . {v1 } and {v4 } are DS. Any of sets which has one of these sets
as its subset, is RS but it isn’t DS.
To sum them up, by Tables (7.5), (7.6) and (7.7) or the results excerpt from
them in the term of DS:
(i): {v1 , v2 }, {v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v4 }, {v3 , v4 } are DS for G1 .
(ii): {v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v3 }, {v2 , v4 } are DS for G2 .
(iii): {v1 } and {v4 } are DS for G3 .
Case (iii) implies every SDS has to have either v1 or v4 so the set {v2 , v3 } isn’t
SDS for }. By applying the results of G3 on cases (i) and (ii):

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 5. Dimension

(i): {v1 , v2 }, {v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v4 }, {v3 , v4 } are DS for G1 and RS for G3 .
(ii): {v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v4 } are DS for G2 and RS for G3 .
By applying the results of case (ii) on cases (i):
(i): {v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v4 } are DS for G1 , DS for G2 and RS for G3 .
Therefore, the cardinality of these sets which are two and any set with cardin-
ality one can’t be RS. Thus as its consequences, it can’t be DS. Then only
attribute to get the SDS is the minimum number of cardinality of the set after
that the set is SRS. The sets {v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v4 } are SRS for G1 , G2 , G3
and they’ve the minimal cardinality between other SRSs. Thus

{v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v4 } are SRS for G1 , G2 , G3 .

{v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v4 } are SRS for G = {G1 , G2 , G3 }.

{v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v4 } are SRS for G.

To clarify the bounds of Observation (6.5.1), there are four numbers, SDS(H),
P3
|V | − 1, i=1 DN (Gi ) and maxi∈{1,2,3} {DN (Gi )}:

(i). SDS(H) = 2 where

H = {G1 }, {G2 }, {G1 , G2 }, {G1 , G3 }, {G2 , G3 }, {G1 , G2 , G3 }, G

thus SDS(H) = 2 = 2 = SDS(G). Therefore, SDS(H) = SDS(G).

(ii). SDS(H) = 1 where H = {G3 } thus SDS(H) = 1 < 2 = SDS(G).

Therefore, SDS(H) 6= SDS(G).

(iii). |V | − 1 = 4 − 1 = 3 thus SDS(G) = 2 < 3 = |V | − 1. Therefore,

SDS(G) 6= |V | − 1.
Pk P3
(iv). i=1 DN (Gi ) = 2 + 2 + 1 = 5 thus SDS(G) = 2 < 5 = i=1 DN (Gi ).
P3
Therefore, SDS(G) 6= i=1 DN (Gi ).

(v). maxi∈{1,2,3} {DN (Gi )} = 2 thus maxi∈{1,2,3} {DN (Gi )} = 2 = 2 =

SDS(G). Therefore, maxi∈{1,2,3} {DN (Gi )} = SDS(G).

The Figure (7.11), and the above computations of cases, (i) and (v) ex-
press some points about Observation (6.5.1): The bounds, SDS(H) and
maxi∈{1,2,3} {DN (Gi )}, for SDS, are sharp.
F5 Example 5.4.21. Assume a family of graphs G = {G1 : (V, E1 ), G2 :
(V, E2 ), G3 : (V, E3 )} with common vertex set V as Figure (5.16).
(i) Any of vertices v1 , v2 , v3 and v4 has at least two neighbors so by using the
idea of neighbor and applying definition, we have:

N (v1 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v2 , v4 ∈ N (v1 ) : dG1 (v2 , v1 ) = 1 = dG1 (v4 , v1 )

⇒ dG1 (v2 , v1 ) = dG1 (v4 , v1 ) ≡ v1 isn’t RV for v2 and v4 ;

N (v2 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v1 , v3 ∈ N (v2 ) : dG1 (v1 , v2 ) = 1 = dG1 (v3 , v2 )

⇒ dG1 (v1 , v2 ) = dG1 (v3 , v2 ) ≡ v2 isn’t RV for v1 and v3 ;

216
 5.4. Definitions

Figure 5.16: The set {v2 , v3 , v4 } is SDS of G = {G1 , G2 , G3 }. Thus, SDN (G =

{G1 , G2 , G3 }) = 3 = |V | − 1.

N (v3 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v2 , v4 ∈ N (v3 ) : dG1 (v2 , v3 ) = 1 = dG1 (v4 , v3 )

⇒ dG1 (v2 , v3 ) = dG1 (v4 , v3 ) ≡ v3 isn’t RV for v2 and v4 ;

N (v4 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v1 , v3 ∈ N (v4 ) : dG1 (v1 , v4 ) = 1 = dG1 (v3 , v4 )

⇒ dG1 (v1 , v4 ) = dG1 (v3 , v4 ) ≡ v4 isn’t RV for v1 and v3 ;

So it isn’t RS for G1 : (V, E1 ). Thus the set with cardinality one, we called
1 − set, isn’t RS for G1 : (V, E1 ).
By using the idea of distance and applying Table (5.7), for all vertices, we have:

Table 5.7: Distances of Vertices from the vertex sets {v1 }, {v2 }, {v3 }, {v4 } in
Graph G1 T7

Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4
v1 0 1 2 1
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4
v2 1 0 1 1
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4
v3 2 1 0 1
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4
v4 1 1 1 0

By G1 : (V, E1 ) ∈ G, the SDN (G) is at least two because SDN (G) ≥ SDN (H =
{G1 }) ≥ 2. Thus every vertex set with two vertices which is SRS, is also SDS.
By G1 : (V, E1 ) ∈ G, the SDN is at least two.
By using Table (5.7), the sets with the cardinality two is investigated to obtain
all DSs for G1 . {v1 , v2 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v3 }, {v3 , v4 } are DS. Any of sets which
has one of these sets as its subset, is RS but it isn’t DS.
(ii) There’s only the vertex, v2 , which has at least two neighbors so by using
the idea of neighbor and applying definition, we have:

N (v2 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v1 , v3 , v4 ∈ N (v2 ) :
dG2 (v1 , v2 ) = 1 = dG2 (v3 , v2 ) ⇒ dG2 (v1 , v2 ) = dG2 (v3 , v2 )
≡ v2 isn’t RV for v1 and v3 ;
dG2 (v1 , v2 ) = 1 = dG2 (v4 , v2 ), ⇒ dG2 (v1 , v2 ) = dG2 (v4 , v2 )

217
5. Dimension

≡ v2 isn’t RV for v1 and v4 ;

dG2 (v3 , v2 ) = 1 = dG2 (v4 , v2 ) ⇒ dG2 (v3 , v2 ) = dG2 (v4 , v2 )
≡ v2 isn’t RV for v3 and v4 ;

N (v1 ) = 1 ⇒ dG2 (v3 , v1 ) = 2 = dG2 (v4 , v1 )

⇒ dG2 (v3 , v1 ) = dG2 (v4 , v1 ) ≡ v1 isn’t RV for v3 and v4 ;

N (v3 ) = 1 ⇒ dG2 (v1 , v3 ) = 2 = dG2 (v4 , v3 )

⇒ dG2 (v1 , v3 ) = dG2 (v4 , v3 ) ≡ v3 isn’t RV for v1 and v4 ;

N (v4 ) = 1 ⇒ dG2 (v1 , v4 ) = 2 = dG2 (v3 , v4 )

⇒ dG2 (v1 , v4 ) = dG2 (v3 , v4 ) ≡ v4 isn’t RV for v1 and v3 ;

So it isn’t RS for G2 : (V, E2 ). The vertex v1 has one neighbor but it isn’t RS
for v3 and v4 because dG2 (v3 , v2 ) = 2 = dG2 (v4 , v2 ) so dG2 (v3 , v2 ) = dG2 (v4 , v2 ).
By using the idea of distance and applying Table (5.8), for all vertices, we have:

Table 5.8: Distances of Vertices from the vertex sets {v1 }, {v2 }, {v3 }, {v4 } in
Graph G2 T8

Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4
v1 0 1 2 2
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4
v2 1 0 1 1
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4
v3 2 1 0 2
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4
v4 2 1 2 0

By G2 : (V, E2 ) ∈ G, the SDN (G) is at least two because SDN (G) ≥ SDN (H =
{G2 }) ≥ 2. Thus every vertex set with two vertices which is SRS, is also SDS.
By G2 : (V, E2 ) ∈ G, the SDN is at least two.
By using Table (5.8), the sets with the cardinality two is investigated to obtain
all DSs for G2 . {v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v3 , v4 } are DS. Any of sets which has one of
these sets as its subset, is RS but it isn’t DS.
(iii) There’s only the vertex, v4 , which has at least two neighbors so by using
the idea of neighbor and applying definition, we have:

N (v4 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v1 , v2 , v3 ∈ N (v4 ) :
dG3 (v1 , v4 ) = 1 = dG3 (v2 , v4 ) ⇒ dG3 (v1 , v4 ) = dG3 (v2 , v4 )
≡ v4 isn’t RV for v1 and v2 ;
dG3 (v1 , v4 ) = 1 = dG3 (v3 , v4 ), ⇒ dG3 (v1 , v4 ) = dG3 (v3 , v4 )
≡ v4 isn’t RV for v1 and v3 ;
dG3 (v2 , v4 ) = 1 = dG3 (v3 , v4 ) ⇒ dG3 (v2 , v4 ) = dG3 (v3 , v4 )
≡ v4 isn’t RV for v2 and v3 ;

218
 5.4. Definitions

N (v1 ) = 1 ⇒ dG3 (v2 , v1 ) = 2 = dG3 (v3 , v1 )

⇒ dG3 (v2 , v1 ) = dG3 (v3 , v1 ) ≡ v1 isn’t RV for v2 and v3 ;

N (v2 ) = 1 ⇒ dG3 (v1 , v2 ) = 2 = dG3 (v3 , v2 )

⇒ dG3 (v1 , v2 ) = dG3 (v3 , v2 ) ≡ v2 isn’t RV for v1 and v3 ;

N (v3 ) = 1 ⇒ dG3 (v1 , v3 ) = 2 = dG3 (v2 , v3 )

⇒ dG3 (v1 , v3 ) = dG3 (v2 , v3 ) ≡ v3 isn’t RV for v1 and v2 ;

So it isn’t RS for G3 : (V, E3 ). The vertex v2 has one neighbor but it isn’t RS
for v1 and v3 because dG3 (v3 , v2 ) = 2 = dG3 (v4 , v2 ) so dG3 (v3 , v2 ) = dG3 (v4 , v2 ).
By using the idea of distance and applying Table (5.9), for all vertices, we have:

Table 5.9: Distances of Vertices from the vertex sets {v1 }, {v2 }, {v3 }, {v4 } in
Graph G3 T9

Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4
v1 0 2 2 1
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4
v2 2 0 2 1
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4
v3 2 2 0 1
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4
v4 1 1 1 0

By G3 : (V, E3 ) ∈ G, the SDN (G) is at least two because SDN (G) ≥ SDN (H =
{G3 }) ≥ 2. Thus every vertex set with two vertices which is SRS, is also SDS.
By G3 : (V, E3 ) ∈ G, the SDN is at least two.
By using Table (5.9), the sets with the cardinality two is investigated to obtain
all DSs for G3 . {v1 , v2 }, {v1 , v3 }, {v2 , v3 } are DS. Any of sets which has one of
these sets as its subset, is RS but it isn’t DS.
To sum them up, by Tables (5.7), (5.8) and (5.9) or the results excerpt from
them in the term of DS:
(i): {v1 , v2 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v3 }, {v3 , v4 } are DS for G1 .
(ii): {v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v3 , v4 } are DS for G2 .
(iii): {v1 , v2 }, {v1 , v3 }, {v2 , v3 } are DS for G3 .
Case (iii) implies some sets aren’t SDS for G. By applying the results of G3
on cases (i) and (ii):
(i): {v1 , v2 }, {v2 , v3 } are DS for G1 and DS for G3 .
(ii): {v1 , v3 } are DS for G2 and DS for G3 .
By applying the results of case (ii) on cases (i):
(i): none of sets is DS for G1 , DS for G2 and DS for G3 .

So, SDN is at least three. To take it:

(i): {v1 , v2 }, {v2 , v3 } are DS for G1 and DS for G3 .
(ii): {v1 , v3 } are DS for G2 and DS for G3 .
Every set with cardinality three, 3-set, is on demand. by regarding the cases,

219
5. Dimension

{v1 , v2 , v3 } is SDS and SDN is three.

Now, we find other SDSs.

To sum them up, by Tables (5.7), (5.8) and (5.9) or the results excerpt from
them in the term of DS:
(i): {v1 , v2 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v3 }, {v3 , v4 } are DS for G1 .
(ii): {v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v3 , v4 } are DS for G2 .
(iii): {v1 , v2 }, {v1 , v3 }, {v2 , v3 } are DS for G3 .
By applying the results of cases (ii) on cases (i) and (iii):
(i): {v1 , v4 }, {v3 , v4 } are DS for G2 and DS for G1 .
(iii): {v1 , v3 } are DS for G2 and DS for G3 .
Every set with cardinality three, 3-set, is on demand. By regarding the cases,
{v1 , v3 , v4 } is SDS and SDN is three.

Now, we find other SDSs.

To sum them up, by Tables (5.7), (5.8) and (5.9) or the results excerpt from
them in the term of DS:
(i): {v1 , v2 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v2 , v3 }, {v3 , v4 } are DS for G1 .
(ii): {v1 , v3 }, {v1 , v4 }, {v3 , v4 } are DS for G2 .
(iii): {v1 , v2 }, {v1 , v3 }, {v2 , v3 } are DS for G3 .
By applying the results of cases (i) on cases (ii) and (iii):
(ii): {v1 , v4 }, {v3 , v4 } are DS for G1 and DS for G2 .
(iii): {v1 , v2 }, {v2 , v3 } are DS for G1 and DS for G3 .
Every set with cardinality three, 3-set, is on demand. In this By regarding the
cases, {v1 , v2 , v4 } and {v2 , v3 , v4 } are SDS and SDN is three.

Therefore, the cardinality of these sets which are three and any set with car-
dinality either one or two can’t be RS. Thus as its consequences, they can’t be
DS. Then only attribute to get the SDS is the minimum number of cardinality
of the set after that the set is SRS. The sets {v1 , v2 , v3 }, {v1 , v3 , v4 }, {v1 , v2 , v4 }
and {v2 , v3 , v4 } are SRS for G1 , G2 , G3 and they’ve the minimal cardinality
between other SRSs. Thus

{v1 , v2 , v3 }, {v1 , v3 , v4 }, {v1 , v2 , v4 } and {v2 , v3 , v4 } are SRS for G1 , G2 , G3 .

{v1 , v2 , v3 }, {v1 , v3 , v4 }, {v1 , v2 , v4 } and {v2 , v3 , v4 } are SRS for G =

{G1 , G2 , G3 }.

{v1 , v2 , v3 }, {v1 , v3 , v4 }, {v1 , v2 , v4 } and {v2 , v3 , v4 } are SRS for G.

To clarify the bounds of Observation (6.5.1), there are four numbers, SDS(H),
P3
|V | − 1, i=1 DN (Gi ) and maxi∈{1,2,3} {DN (Gi )}:

(i). SDS(H) = 2 where

H = {G1 }, {G2 }, {G1 , G2 }, {G1 , G3 }, {G2 , G3 }.

thus SDS(H) = 2 < 3 = SDS(G). Therefore, SDS(H) 6= SDS(G).

220
 5.4. Definitions

(ii). SDS(H) = 3 where

H = {G1 , G2 , G3 }, G
thus SDS(H) = 3 = 3 = SDS(G). Therefore, SDS(H) = SDS(G).

(iii). |V | − 1 = 4 − 1 = 3 thus SDS(G) = 3 = 3 = |V | − 1. Therefore,

SDS(G) = |V | − 1.
Pk Pk
(iv). i=1 DN (Gi ) = 2 + 2 + 2 = 6 thus SDS(G) = 3 < 6 = i=1 DN (Gi ).
P3
Therefore, SDS(G) 6= i=1 DN (Gi ).

(v). maxi∈{1,2,3} {DN (Gi )} = 2 thus maxi∈{1,2,··· ,k} {DN (Gi )} = 2 < 3 =
SDS(G). Therefore, maxi∈{1,2,3} {DN (Gi )} =
6 SDS(G).

The Figure (5.16), and the above computations of case, (iii) only expresses one
point about Observation (6.5.1): The bound, |V | − 1, is sharp.

Figure 5.17: The set {v1 , v2 , v3 } is SDS of G = {G1 , G2 , G3 }. Thus, SDN (G =

{G1 , G2 , G3 }) = 3 = SDS(H = {G1 , G2 }, {G1 , G3 }, {G2 , G3 }, G)

F6 Example 5.4.22. Assume a family of graphs G = {G1 : (V, E1 ), G2 :

(V, E2 ), G3 : (V, E3 )} with common vertex set V as Figure (5.17).
(i) Any of vertices v2 , v3 , v4 and v5 has at least two neighbors so by using the
idea of neighbor and applying definition, we have:
N (v2 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v1 , v3 ∈ N (v2 ) : dG1 (v1 , v2 ) = 1 = dG1 (v3 , v2 )
⇒ dG1 (v1 , v2 ) = dG1 (v3 , v2 ) ≡ v2 isn’t RV for v1 and v3 ;

N (v3 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v2 , v4 ∈ N (v3 ) : dG1 (v2 , v3 ) = 1 = dG1 (v4 , v3 )

⇒ dG1 (v2 , v3 ) = dG1 (v4 , v3 ) ≡ v3 isn’t RV for v2 and v4 ;

N (v4 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v3 , v5 ∈ N (v4 ) : dG1 (v3 , v4 ) = 1 = dG1 (v5 , v4 )

⇒ dG1 (v3 , v4 ) = dG1 (v5 , v4 ) ≡ v4 isn’t RV for v3 and v5 ;

N (v5 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v4 , v6 ∈ N (v5 ) : dG1 (v4 , v5 ) = 1 = dG1 (v6 , v5 )

⇒ dG1 (v4 , v5 ) = dG1 (v6 , v5 ) ≡ v5 isn’t RV for v4 and v6 ;

dG1 (vi , v1 ) = i − 1 6= j − 1 = dG1 (vj , v1 ), i 6= j, i, j 6= 1

⇒ dG1 (vi , v1 ) 6= dG1 (vj , v1 ) ≡ v1 is RV for vi and vj ;

221
5. Dimension

dG1 (vi , v6 ) = 6 − i 6= 6 − j = dG1 (vj , v6 ), i 6= j, i, j 6= 6

⇒ dG1 (vi , v6 ) 6= dG1 (vj , v6 ) ≡ v6 is RV for vi and vj ;

So both sets {v1 } and {v6 } are RS for G1 : (V, E1 ). Thus the set with cardinality
one, we called 1 − set, is RS for G1 : (V, E1 ).
By using the idea of distance and applying Table (5.10), for all vertices, we
have:

Table 5.10: Distances of Vertices from the vertex sets

{v1 }, {v2 }, {v3 }, {v4 }, {v5 }, {v6 } in Graph G1 T10

Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6
v1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6
v2 1 0 1 2 3 4
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6
v3 2 1 0 1 2 3
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6
v4 3 2 1 0 1 2
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6
v5 4 3 2 1 0 1
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6
v6 5 4 3 2 1 0

By G1 : (V, E1 ) ∈ G, the SDN (G) is at least one because SDN (G) ≥ SDN (H =
{G1 }) ≥ 1. Thus every vertex set with one vertex which is SRS, is also SDS.
By G1 : (V, E1 ) ∈ G, the SDN is at least one.
By using Table (5.10), the sets with the cardinality one is investigated to obtain
all DSs for G1 . {v1 } and {v6 } are DS. Any of sets which has one of these sets
as its subset, is RS but it isn’t DS.
(ii) Any of vertices v1 , v3 , v4 and v6 has at least two neighbors so by using the
idea of neighbor and applying definition, we have:

N (v1 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v2 , v3 ∈ N (v2 ) : dG2 (v2 , v1 ) = 1 = dG2 (v3 , v1 )

⇒ dG2 (v2 , v1 ) = dG2 (v3 , v1 ) ≡ v1 isn’t RV for v2 and v3 ;

N (v3 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v1 , v4 ∈ N (v3 ) : dG2 (v1 , v3 ) = 1 = dG2 (v4 , v3 )

⇒ dG2 (v1 , v3 ) = dG2 (v4 , v3 ) ≡ v3 isn’t RV for v1 and v4 ;

N (v4 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v3 , v6 ∈ N (v4 ) : dG2 (v3 , v4 ) = 1 = dG2 (v6 , v4 )

⇒ dG2 (v3 , v4 ) = dG2 (v6 , v4 ) ≡ v4 isn’t RV for v3 and v6 ;

N (v6 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v4 , v5 ∈ N (v5 ) : dG2 (v4 , v6 ) = 1 = dG2 (v5 , v6 )

⇒ dG2 (v4 , v6 ) = dG2 (v5 , v6 ) ≡ v6 isn’t RV for v4 and v5 ;

dG2 (vi , v2 ) 6= dG2 (vj , v2 ) ≡ v2 is RV for vi and vj ;

222
 5.4. Definitions

dG2 (vi , v5 ) 6= dG2 (vj , v5 ) ≡ v5 is RV for vi and vj ;

So both sets {v2 } and {v5 } are RS for G2 : (V, E2 ). Thus the set with cardinality
one, we called 1 − set, is RS for G2 : (V, E2 ).
By using the idea of distance and applying Table (5.11), for all vertices, we
have:

Table 5.11: Distances of Vertices from the vertex sets

{v1 }, {v2 }, {v3 }, {v4 }, {v5 }, {v6 } in Graph G2 T11

Vertices v2 v1 v3 v4 v6 v5
v2 0 1 2 3 4 5
Vertices v2 v1 v3 v4 v6 v5
v1 1 0 1 2 3 4
Vertices v2 v1 v3 v4 v6 v5
v3 2 1 0 1 2 3
Vertices v2 v1 v3 v4 v6 v5
v4 3 2 1 0 1 2
Vertices v2 v1 v3 v4 v6 v5
v6 4 3 2 1 0 1
Vertices v2 v1 v3 v4 v6 v5
v5 5 4 3 2 1 0

By G2 : (V, E2 ) ∈ G, the SDN (G) is at least one because SDN (G) ≥ SDN (H =
{G2 }) ≥ 1. Thus every vertex set with one vertex which is SRS, is also SDS.
By G2 : (V, E2 ) ∈ G, the SDN is at least one.
By using Table (5.11), the sets with the cardinality one is investigated to obtain
all DSs for G2 . {v2 } and {v5 } are DS. Any of sets which has one of these sets
as its subset, is RS but it isn’t DS.
(iii) Any of vertices v2 , v1 , v6 and v5 has at least two neighbors so by using the
idea of neighbor and applying definition, we have:

N (v2 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v1 , v3 ∈ N (v2 ) : dG3 (v1 , v2 ) = 1 = dG3 (v3 , v2 )

⇒ dG3 (v1 , v2 ) = dG3 (v3 , v2 ) ≡ v2 isn’t RV for v1 and v3 ;

N (v1 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v2 , v6 ∈ N (v3 ) : dG3 (v2 , v1 ) = 1 = dG3 (v6 , v1 )

⇒ dG3 (v2 , v1 ) = dG3 (v6 , v1 ) ≡ v1 isn’t RV for v2 and v6 ;

N (v6 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v1 , v5 ∈ N (v6 ) : dG3 (v1 , v6 ) = 1 = dG3 (v5 , v6 )

⇒ dG3 (v1 , v6 ) = dG3 (v5 , v6 ) ≡ v6 isn’t RV for v1 and v5 ;

N (v5 ) ≥ 2 ⇒ v4 , v6 ∈ N (v5 ) : dG3 (v4 , v5 ) = 1 = dG3 (v6 , v5 )

⇒ dG3 (v4 , v5 ) = dG3 (v6 , v5 ) ≡ v5 isn’t RV for v4 and v6 ;

dG3 (vi , v3 ) 6= dG3 (vj , v3 ) ≡ v3 is RV for vi and vj ;

dG3 (vi , v4 ) 6= dG3 (vj , v4 ) ≡ v4 is RV for vi and vj ;

223
5. Dimension

So both sets {v3 } and {v4 } are RS for G3 : (V, E3 ). Thus the set with cardinality
one, we called 1 − set, is RS for G3 : (V, E3 ).
By using the idea of distance and applying Table (5.12), for all vertices, we
have:

Table 5.12: Distances of Vertices from the vertex sets

{v1 }, {v2 }, {v3 }, {v4 }, {v5 }, {v6 } in Graph G3 T12

Vertices v3 v2 v1 v6 v5 v4
v3 0 1 2 3 4 5
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6
v2 1 0 1 2 3 4
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6
v3 2 1 0 1 2 3
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6
v6 3 2 1 0 1 2
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6
v5 4 3 2 1 0 1
Vertices v1 v2 v3 v4 v5 v6
v4 5 4 3 2 1 0

By G3 : (V, E3 ) ∈ G, the SDN (G) is at least one because SDN (G) ≥ SDN (H =
{G3 }) ≥ 1. Thus every vertex set with one vertex which is SRS, is also SDS.
By G3 : (V, E3 ) ∈ G, the SDN is at least one.
By using Table (5.12), the sets with the cardinality one is investigated to obtain
all DSs for G3 . {v3 } and {v4 } are DS. Any of sets which has one of these sets
as its subset, is RS but it isn’t DS.
To sum them up, by Tables (5.10), (5.11) and (5.12) or the results excerpt from
them in the term of DS:
(i): {v1 }, {v6 } are DS for G1 .
(ii): {v2 }, {v5 } are DS for G2 .
(iii): {v3 }, {v4 } are DS for G3 .
Cases imply some sets aren’t SDS for G.
Every set with cardinality two, 2-set, is on demand. by regarding the cases,
{vi , vj } is SDS and SDN is two.

Therefore, the cardinality of these sets which are two and any set with
cardinality one can’t be RS. Thus as its consequences, they can’t be DS. Then
only attribute to get the SDS is the minimum number of cardinality of the
set after that the set is SRS. The 2-sets, {vi , vj }, are SRS for G1 , G2 , G3 and
they’ve the minimal cardinality between other SRSs. Thus

{vi , vj }s are SRS for G1 , G2 , G3 .

{vi , vj }s are SRS for G = {G1 , G2 , G3 }.

{vi , vj }s are SRS for G.

To clarify the bounds of Observation (6.5.1), there are four numbers, SDS(H),

224
 5.5. Classes

P3
|V | − 1, i=1 DN (Gi ) and maxi∈{1,2,3} {DN (Gi )}:

(i). SDS(H) = 1 where

H = {G1 }, {G2 }, {G3 }

thus SDS(H) = 1 < 2 = SDS(G). Therefore, SDS(H) 6= SDS(G).

(ii). SDS(H) = 2 where

H = {G1 , G2 }, {G1 , G3 }, {G2 , G3 }, {G1 , G2 , G3 }, G

thus SDS(H) = 2 = 2 = SDS(G). Therefore, SDS(H) = SDS(G).

(iii). |V | − 1 = 6 − 1 = 5 thus SDS(G) = 2 < 5 = |V | − 1. Therefore,

SDS(G) 6= |V | − 1.
Pk Pk
(iv). i=1 DN (Gi ) = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3 thus SDS(G) = 2 < 3 = i=1 DN (Gi ).
P3
Therefore, SDS(G) 6= i=1 DN (Gi ).

(v). maxi∈{1,2,3} {DN (Gi )} = 1 thus maxi∈{1,2,3} {DN (Gi )} = 1 < 2 =

SDS(G). Therefore, maxi∈{1,2,3} {DN (Gi )} =
6 SDS(G).

The Figure (5.17), and the above computations of case, (ii) only expresses one
point about Observation (6.5.1): The bound, SDS(H), is sharp.
Observation 5.4.23. Any of sets which has one of DSs as its proper subset, is
RS but it isn’t DS.

5.5 Classes
The last chapter is assigned to
gives us more perspective in the
terms of results. In that way,
many results are given and results
have the big tasks to tackle the
obstacles in the front of better
understanding this notion as soon
as possible. The design of this
chapter is about obtaining results
and in this case, some different
family of graphs are studied to
obtain results about them and
from them.
m

The following result is a direct consequence of Observation (6.5.1).

2 Corollary 5.5.1. Let G be a family of connected graphs with the same vertex
set. If Kn ∈ G, then SDN (G) = n − 1.
As shown in Figure (7.10), the converse of Corollary (5.5.1) does not hold.
In a complete graph, every given vertex is neighbor to any given vertex. So the

225
5. Dimension

dG (x, y) = 1 for any given vertices x and y. So there’s no vertex to be resolved.

Thus, the only choice for SD and RS is the set V \ {v} for every given vertex v.
In this case, the situation is provided to have only vertex so the possibility for
resolving is ruined. So with this choice of set, there’s no pair of vertices to be
resolved. Because the notion of resolving is about the pair of vertices therefore,
in this case, one of pair is deleted. It’s obvious the set V is RS but it is neither
SD nor DS. For doing the operation of resolving, there’s a need to have two
vertices out of the set RS. So if any two given vertices are twin, then operation
of resolving is impossible so there’s a need to change the structure of RS by
making the situation in that, there’s no two vertices out of RS to be resolved
so there’s two choices. One is having no vertex out of RS which is possible
when RS= V . Second is having one vertex out of RS which is possible when
RS = V \ {v}, for every given vertex. So there are |V | + 1 = n + 1 number of
RSs and there are |V | = n number of DS.
The basis is a graph which is general, precisely a given graph. And we find the
special graphs.
Observation 5.5.2. For any given graph, there are two RSs.
Sometimes, the basis is a graph and we find the special set but sometimes,
the set is basis and we find the graph.
Observation 5.5.3. V and V \ {v} for every given vertex v are RSs for any
given graph.
Complete graph is a reflection of a graph which has the extension of the
twin vertices. So we can assign the results of twin vertices to complete graph
as follows.
Observation 5.5.4. Let Kn : (V, E) be a complete graph. Then DN = |V | − 1 =
n − 1.
Observation 5.5.5. Let Kn : (V, E) be a complete graph. Then DSV \ v where
v is arbitrary vertex.
Observation 5.5.6. Let Kn : (V, E) be a complete graph. Then the number of
RS is |V | + 1 = n + 1.
Observation 5.5.7. Let Kn : (V, E) be a complete graph. Then the number of
DS is |V | = n.
Observation 5.5.8. Let Kn : (V, E) be a complete graph. Then every pair
u, v ∈ V are twin vertices.
The styles of twin vertices are about equality, N [x] = N [y] for any two
given vertices. The curious question is when the another style is satisfied. The
equality N (x) = N (y) holds if the complete graph is bipartite but in this case,
any two given vertices in the same part, are twin. So it’s natural extension to
another classes of complete graphs which are bipartite.
Observation 5.5.9. For any given graph which is bipartite, there are three RSs
where RSs have different cardinalities.
The kind decomposition of n into n1 , n2 , · · · , nt when the results are about
the classes of complete graphs which are multipartite.

226
 5.5. Classes

Observation 5.5.10. V and V \ {v1 , v2 } for every given vertices v1 ∈ V1 and

v2 ∈ V2 are RSs for any given complete graph which is bipartite.
Observation 5.5.11. Let Kn1 ,n2 : (V1 ∪ V2 , E) be a complete graph which is
bipartite. Then DN = |V | − 2 = n − 2.
Observation 5.5.12. Let Kn1 ,n2 : (V, E) be a complete graph which is bipartite.
Then DSV \ {v1 , v2 } for every arbitrary vertices v1 ∈ V1 and v2 ∈ V2 .
Observation 5.5.13. Let Kn1 ,n2 : (V, E) be a complete graph which is bipartite.
Then the number of RS is n1 .n2 + |V | + 1 = n1 .n2 + n + 1 = n1 .n2 + n1 + n2 + 1.
Observation 5.5.14. Let Kn1 ,n2 : (V, E) be a complete graph which is bipartite.
Then the number of DS is n1 .n2 .
Observation 5.5.15. Let Kn1 ,n2 : (V, E) be a complete graph which is bipartite.
Then the DS is |V | − 2 = n − 2.
Observation 5.5.16. Let Kn1 ,n2 : (V, E) be a complete graph which is bipartite.
Then every pair u, v ∈ V are twin vertices where u and v have different parts.
There’s a natural extension to another class of complete graphs which are
multipartite.
Observation 5.5.17. For any given complete graph which is multipartite, there
are t + 1 RSs where RSs have different cardinalities and t is the number of
parts.
Observation 5.5.18. For any given complete graph which is multipartite, the
sequences |V |, |V | − 1, |V | − 2, |V | − 3, · · · , |V | − t are the cardinality of RSs
where t is the number of parts.
Observation 5.5.19. V, V \ {v1 }, V \ {v1 , v2 }, V \ {v1 , v2 , v3 }, · · · , V \
{v1 , v2 , v3 , · · · , vt } for every given vertices v1 ∈ V1 , v2 ∈ V2 , v3 ∈ V3 , · · · , vt ∈
Vt , are RSs for any given complete graph which is multipartite.
Observation 5.5.20. Let Kn1 ,n2 ,··· ,nt : (V1 ∪ V2 ∪ · · · ∪ Vt , E) be a complete
graph which is multipartite. Then DN = |V | − t = n − t.
Observation 5.5.21. Let Kn1 ,n2 ,··· ,nt : (V1 ∪ V2 ∪ · · · ∪ Vt , E) be a complete
graph which is multipartite. Then DSV \ {v1 , v2 , v3 , · · · , vt } for every arbitrary
vertices v1 ∈ V1 , v2 ∈ V2 , v3 ∈ V3 , · · · , vt ∈ Vt .
Observation 5.5.22. Let Kn1 ,n2 ,··· ,nt : (V1 ∪ V2 ∪ · · · ∪ Vt , E) be a complete
graph which is multipartite. Then the number of RS is n1 .n2 .n3 . · · · .nt +
n1 .n2 .n3 . · · · .nt−1 + n1 .n2 .n3 . · · · .nt−2 + 1.|V | + 1 = n1 .n2 .n3 . · · · .nt +
n1 .n2 .n3 . · · · .nt−1 + n1 .n2 .n3 . · · · .nt−2 + n + 1 = n1 .n2 .n3 . · · · .nt +
n1 .n2 .n3 . · · · .nt−1 + n1 .n2 .n3 . · · · .nt−2 + n1 + n2 + n3 + · · · + nt .
Observation 5.5.23. Let Kn1 ,n2 ,··· ,nt : (V1 ∪ V2 ∪ · · · ∪ Vt , E) be a complete
graph which is multipartite. Then the number of DS is n1 .n2 .n3 . · · · .nt .
Observation 5.5.24. Let Kn1 ,n2 ,··· ,nt : (V1 ∪ V2 ∪ · · · ∪ Vt , E) be a complete
graph which is multipartite. Then DS is |V | − t.
Observation 5.5.25. Let Kn1 ,n2 ,··· ,nt : (V1 ∪ V2 ∪ · · · ∪ Vt , E) be a complete
graph which is multipartite. Then every pair u, v ∈ V are twin vertices where u
and v have different parts.

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 5. Dimension

Guv isn’t Guv : (V − {u, v}, E). Guv is G in such a way that, V − {u, v}
isn’t RS for G = Guv .
Observation 5.5.26. If for any x ∈ V − {u, v}, dGuv (u, x) = dGuv (v, x), then
N (v) = N (u).
Observation 5.5.27. If for any x ∈ V − {u, v}, dGuv (u, x) = dGuv (v, x), then
u and v are twin vertices in Guv .
Observation 5.5.28. If u and v are twin vertices, then either u ∈ DS or v ∈
DS.
We want to generalize the concept of twin vertices. The kind of extension
of the complete graph on the all graphs on a given family. If there’s a complete
graph, then every pair of vertices are twin vertices but the generalization of
this concept is as follows. For every pair of vertices, there exists one graph such
that the pair of vertices are twin vertices. It can be considered as the complete
notion of a family. It’s like the complete family in comparison to one graph.
If one graph is complete, then DN = |V | − 1. If one family is complete, then
SDN = |V | − 1.
3 Theorem 5.5.29. Let G be a family of connected graphs with the same vertex
set V. Then SDN (G) = |V | − 1 if and only if for every pair u, v ∈ V, there
exists a graph Guv ∈ G such that u and v are twin vertices in Guv .

Proof. By SDN (G) = |V | − 1, the set V − {v} is DS for every G ∈ G and the
set V − {v} is SDS for G and for every v ∈ V. Thus for every u ∈ V − {v}, there
exists a graph Guv ∈ G such that V − {u, v} isn’t RS for Guv and for every
x ∈ V − {u, v}, dGuv (u, x) = dGuv (v, x). Therefore, u and v are twin vertices in
Guv . To warp it up,

• u and v are twin vertices in Guv .

• pick V − {v};

• choose u ∈ V − {v};

• pick Guv ;

• using the definition of isn’t RS for Guv ;

• choose x ∈ V − {u, v};

• u and v aren’t resolved by any x ∈ V − {u, v};

• for any x ∈ V − {u, v}, dGuv (u, x) = dGuv (v, x);

• for any x ∈ N (u) ⊆ V − {u, v}, 1 = dGuv (v, x) so x ∈ N (v) thus

N (u) ⊆ N (v);

• for any x ∈ N (v) ⊆ V − {u, v}, dGuv (u, x) = 1 so x ∈ N (u) thus

N (v) ⊆ N (u);

• N (v) = N (u);

• u and v are twin vertices in Guv .

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 5.5. Classes

Conversely. suppose S is SRS for G. By for every pair u, v ∈ V, there exists

a graph Guv ∈ G such that u and v are twin vertices in Guv , either u ∈ S or
v ∈ S. Thus |S| ≥ |V | − 1. By Observation (6.5.1), |S| ≤ |V | − 1. Therefore, we
conclude that |S| = |V | − 1. 

Observation (6.5.1), gives us a bound which is sharp. Sharpness of this

bound is passed by specific Examples, and in other ways by Corollary (5.5.1),
and Theorem (6.4.3). Actually, Corollary (5.5.1), introduces us some good
collections for showing that the bound in Observation (6.5.1), is sharp. For
every given family of connected graphs with the same vertex set, if a complete
graph is in this family, if a complete graph belongs to family, the bound is sharp.
The next result introduces another graph which makes the bound to be sharp
if it’s in the family in the specific number.
Another point about giving the order of results, Corollary (5.5.1) is a
consequence of Theorem (6.4.3). Complete graphs has only twin vertices
so for every given vertices complete graph in the family, is the intended graph,
Guv , which is graph containing u and v as twin vertices.
Observation 5.5.30. All non-center vertices have the same neighbors which is
the center in any given star.
Observation 5.5.31. All non-center vertices are twin in any given star.
The notion of subgraph is extended to be subfamily.
4 Corollary 5.5.32. Let G be a family of connected graphs with the same vertex
set V. If G contains three distinct star graphs, then SDN (G) = |V | − 1.

Figure 5.18: The sets V −{u, ui }, V −{v, vj }, V −{x, xs } are DSs for G1 , G2 , G3 ,
however, they aren’t SDS for any G containing G1 , G2 , G3 . Any set with the
cardinality |V | − 1 is SDS for any G containing G1 , G2 , G3 . F15

Proof. To get more clarification, consider Figure (5.18) and the common vertex
set as V = {u, u1 , u2 , · · · , un } = {v, v1 , v2 , · · · , vn } = {x, x1 , x2 , · · · , xn }.
Let H = {G1 , G2 , G3 } be a subfamily of the family G where Gi is a star
with same vertex set V, for any i = 1, 2, 3. Let u, v, x be the centers of
G1 , G2 , G3 , respectively and ui , vi , xi are non-center vertices of G1 , G2 , G3 ,
respectively. If we prove that SDN (H) is |V | − 1, then by Observation (6.5.1),
SDN (H) ≤ SDN (G) ≤ |V | − 1 which implies |V | − 1 ≤ SDN (G) ≤ |V | − 1
which means SDN (G) = |V | − 1, straightforward.
Any set V − {u, ui } is SDS for G1 where u is the center of G1 and ui is
the non-center vertex of G1 . Consider G2 . If u = v, then the result is

229
 5. Dimension

straightforward because G1 = G2 . Otherwise, G1 6= G2 . Suppose the set

V − {u, ui } = V − {v, vi } that implies u = vi and v = ui . So V − {u, ui } is
SDS for {G1 , G2 }. If u 6= v = 6 x, then the set V − {u, ui } isn’t RS for G3 ,
however it’s RS for G1 , G2 and it’s SRS for {G1 , G2 }. Because u and ui are
non-center vertices in G3 , however, they aren’t non-center vertices in G1 , G2 .
It implies u and ui are twin vertices in G3 , however, they aren’t non-center
vertices in G1 , G2 . It induces either u or ui are in any DS for G3 and as its
consequence, either u or ui in any SDS for H = {G1 , G2 , G3 }. So arbitrary
set V − {u, ui } isn’t SDS for H = {G1 , G2 , G3 }. It implies set V − {t}, t ∈ V
is SDS for H = {G1 , G2 , G3 }. Thus, SDN (H = {G1 , G2 , G3 }) ≥ |V | − 1.
By Observation (6.5.1), SDN (H = {G1 , G2 , G3 }) ≤ |V | − 1. Therefore,
SDN (H = {G1 , G2 , G3 }) = |V | − 1. If the case, u 6= v 6= x, doesn’t hold,
the situation is impossible because there exist at least two same graphs and this
is contradiction with the supposition about three distinct star graphs. To sum
it up, SDN (H = {G1 , G2 , G3 }) = |V | − 1 ≤ SDN ({G | H = {G1 , G2 , G3 } ⊆
G}) ≤ |V | − 1. Thus SDN ({G | H = {G1 , G2 , G3 } ⊆ G}) = |V | − 1. 

Figure 5.19: The sets V − {xi , xs }, V − {xj , xs }, V − {xt , xs } are DSs for
G1 , G2 , G3 , however, they aren’t SDS for any G containing G1 , G2 , G3 . Any set
with the cardinality |V | − 1 is SDS for any G containing G1 , G2 , G3 . F7

Figure 5.20: The sets V − {x4 , x7 }, V − {x4 , x7 }, V − {x4 , x6 } are DSs for
G1 , G2 , G3 , however, they aren’t SDS for any G containing G1 , G2 , G3 . Any set
with the cardinality |V | − 1 is SDS for any G containing G1 , G2 , G3 . F14

5 Theorem 5.5.33. Let G be a family of graphs with common vertex set V that
have a shortest path of length d in common. Then

SDN (G) ≤ |V | − d.

230
 5.5. Classes

Proof. Assume that P : v0 , v1 , v2 , · · · , vd is a shortest path of length d in

common. Let S be the set V − {v1 , v2 , · · · , vd }. Since dGj (v0 , vi ) = i, for
any i ∈ {1, 2, · · · , d}, every vertex vi is resolved by vertex v0 . Thus S is RS
for every Gj and as its consequence, S is SRS for every G. By definition,
SDN (G) ≤ |S| = |V | − d. 

Figure 5.21: The set {v1 , v2 , v 0 } is DS for G1 , G2 and it’s SDS for G = {G1 , G2 } F8

Example 5.5.34.

• Consider three graphs, complete graph, star graph and path graph. We
want to create two graphs with common vertex V having a shortest path
of length d.

• G1 is obtained by joining the a leaf of path to a vertex of complete graph

and G2 is obtained by joining the a leaf of path to a center of star graph.

• To get it more precisely. Let r ≥ 3 be an integer. Label the vertices of Kr

and K1,r−1 with the same set of labels and suppose c is the label of the
center of the star K1,r−1 . Let Pd , d ≥ 2, be an a − b path of order d whose
vertex set is disjoint from that of Kr . Let G1 be the graph obtained from
complete graph Kr = (V 0 , E 0 ), r ≥ 3, and the path graph Pd , d ≥ 2, by
identifying the leaf a of Pd , with the vertex c of Kr and calling it c, and let
G2 be the graph obtained by identifying the leaf a of Pd with the center
c of the star K1,r−1 and also calling it c. In this case, G1 and G2 have
the same vertex set V (where |V | = d + r − 1). For any v ∈ V (Kr ) = {c}
we have dG1 (b, v) = dG2 (b, v) = d and V (Pd ) ∪ {v} is a shortest path of
length d in both graphs G1 and G2 . Moreover, W = (V 0 − {v, c}) ∪ {b} is
a SDS of {G1 , G2 } and so SDN (G1 , G2 ) = |V | − d. Therefore, the above
bound is sharp.

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5. Dimension

• To clarify, let r, d = 4. Consider Figure (5.21), Label the vertices of K4

and K1,3 with the same set of labels {v1 , v2 , v, c} and suppose c is the
label of the center of the star K1,3 . Let P4 be an a − v 0 path of order 4
whose vertex set is disjoint from that of K4 . Let G1 be the graph obtained
from complete graph K4 = (V 0 = {v1 , v2 , v, c}, E 0 ) and the path graph P4
by identifying the leaf a of P4 , with the vertex c of K4 and calling it c,
and let G2 be the graph obtained by identifying the leaf a of P4 with the
center c of the star K1,3 and also calling it c. In this case, G1 and G2 have
the same vertex set V = {v1 , v2 , v, c, v20 , v10 , v 0 } (where |V | = 4 + 4 − 1 = 7).
For any v ∈ V (K4 ) = {c} we have dG1 (v 0 , v) = dG2 (v 0 , v) = 4 and
V (P4 ) ∪ {v} is a shortest path of length 4 in both graphs G1 and G2 .
Moreover, W = (V 0 = {v1 , v2 , v, c} − {v, c}) ∪ {v 0 } = {v1 , v2 , v 0 } is a SDS
of {G1 , G2 } and so SDN (G1 , G2 ) = |V | − d = 7 − 4 = 3.

Figure 5.22: The set {v1 , v2 , v3 , v 0 } is DS for G1 , G2 and it’s SDS for
G = {G1 , G2 } F9

Example 5.5.35. Let r = 5 and d = 4. Consider Figure (5.22), Label the

vertices of K5 and K1,4 with the same set of labels {v1 , v2 , v3 , v, c} and suppose
c is the label of the center of the star K1,4 . Let P4 be an a − v 0 path of order
4 whose vertex set is disjoint from that of K5 . Let G1 be the graph obtained
from complete graph K5 = (V 0 = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v, c}, E 0 ) and the path graph
P4 by identifying the leaf a of P4 , with the vertex c of K5 and calling it c,
and let G2 be the graph obtained by identifying the leaf a of P4 with the
center c of the star K1,4 and also calling it c. In this case, G1 and G2 have
the same vertex set V = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v, c, v20 , v10 , v 0 } (where |V | = 5 + 4 − 1 = 8).
For any v ∈ V (K5 ) = {c} we have dG1 (v 0 , v) = dG2 (v 0 , v) = 4 and
V (P4 ) ∪ {v} is a shortest path of length 4 in both graphs G1 and G2 . Moreover,

232
 5.5. Classes

W = (V 0 = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v, c} − {v, c}) ∪ {v 0 } = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v 0 } is a SDS of

{G1 , G2 } and so SDN (G1 , G2 ) = |V | − d = 8 − 4 = 4.

Figure 5.23: The set {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v 0 } is DS for G1 , G2 and it’s SDS for
G = {G1 , G2 } F10

Example 5.5.36. Let r = 6 and d = 4. Consider Figure (5.23), Label the

vertices of K6 and K1,5 with the same set of labels {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v, c} and
suppose c is the label of the center of the star K1,5 . Let P4 be an a − v 0 path
of order 4 whose vertex set is disjoint from that of K6 . Let G1 be the graph
obtained from complete graph K6 = (V 0 = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v, c}, E 0 ) and the path
graph P4 by identifying the leaf a of P4 , with the vertex c of K6 and calling it c,
and let G2 be the graph obtained by identifying the leaf a of P4 with the center
c of the star K1,5 and also calling it c. In this case, G1 and G2 have the same
vertex set V = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v, c, v20 , v10 , v 0 } (where |V | = 6 + 4 − 1 = 9).
For any v ∈ V (K6 ) = {c} we have dG1 (v 0 , v) = dG2 (v 0 , v) = 4 and
V (P4 ) ∪ {v} is a shortest path of length 4 in both graphs G1 and G2 . Moreover,
W = (V 0 = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v, c} − {v, c}) ∪ {v 0 } = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v 0 } is a SDS of
{G1 , G2 } and so SDN (G1 , G2 ) = |V | − d = 9 − 4 = 5.

Example 5.5.37. Let r = 7 and d = 4. Consider Figure (5.24), Label the vertices
of K7 and K1,6 with the same set of labels {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v, c} and suppose
c is the label of the center of the star K1,6 . Let P4 be an a − v 0 path of order 4
whose vertex set is disjoint from that of K7 . Let G1 be the graph obtained from
complete graph K7 = (V 0 = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v, c}, E 0 ) and the path graph P4
by identifying the leaf a of P4 , with the vertex c of K7 and calling it c, and
let G2 be the graph obtained by identifying the leaf a of P4 with the center c
of the star K1,6 and also calling it c. In this case, G1 and G2 have the same
vertex set V = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v, c, v20 , v10 , v 0 } (where |V | = 7 + 4 − 1 = 10).

233
5. Dimension

Figure 5.24: The set {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v 0 } is DS for G1 , G2 and it’s SDS for
G = {G1 , G2 } F11

For any v ∈ V (K7 ) = {c} we have dG1 (v 0 , v) = dG2 (v 0 , v) = 4 and

V (P4 ) ∪ {v} is a shortest path of length 4 in both graphs G1 and G2 . Moreover,
W = (V 0 = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v, c} − {v, c}) ∪ {v 0 } = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v 0 } is a
SDS of {G1 , G2 } and so SDN (G1 , G2 ) = |V | − d = 10 − 4 = 6.

Example 5.5.38. Let r = 8 and d = 4. Consider Figure (5.25), Label the vertices
of K8 and K1,7 with the same set of labels {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v, c} and suppose
c is the label of the center of the star K1,7 . Let P4 be an a − v 0 path of order 4
whose vertex set is disjoint from that of K8 . Let G1 be the graph obtained from
complete graph K8 = (V 0 = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v, c}, E 0 ) and the path graph
P4 by identifying the leaf a of P4 , with the vertex c of K8 and calling it c, and
let G2 be the graph obtained by identifying the leaf a of P4 with the center c of
the star K1,7 and also calling it c. In this case, G1 and G2 have the same vertex
set V = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v, c, v20 , v10 , v 0 } (where |V | = 8 + 4 − 1 = 11).
For any v ∈ V (K8 ) = {c} we have dG1 (v 0 , v) = dG2 (v 0 , v) = 4 and
V (P4 ) ∪ {v} is a shortest path of length 4 in both graphs G1 and G2 . Moreover,
W = (V 0 = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v, c} − {v, c}) ∪ {v 0 } = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v 0 }
is a SDS of {G1 , G2 } and so SDN (G1 , G2 ) = |V | − d = 11 − 4 = 7.
Example 5.5.39. Let r = 8 and d = 6. Consider Figure (5.25), Label the vertices
of K8 and K1,7 with the same set of labels {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v, c} and suppose
c is the label of the center of the star K1,7 . Let P6 be an a − v 0 path of order 6
whose vertex set is disjoint from that of K8 . Let G1 be the graph obtained from
complete graph K8 = (V 0 = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v, c}, E 0 ) and the path graph
P6 by identifying the leaf a of P6 , with the vertex c of K8 and calling it c, and let
G2 be the graph obtained by identifying the leaf a of P6 with the center c of the
star K1,7 and also calling it c. In this case, G1 and G2 have the same vertex set

234
 5.5. Classes

Figure 5.25: The set {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v 0 } is DS for G1 , G2 and it’s SDS for
G = {G1 , G2 } F12

Figure 5.26: The set {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v 0 } is DS for G1 , G2 and it’s SDS for
G = {G1 , G2 } F13

V = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v, c, v40 , v30 , v20 , v10 , v 0 } (where |V | = 8 + 4 − 1 = 11).

For any v ∈ V (K8 ) = {c} we have dG1 (v 0 , v) = dG2 (v 0 , v) = 6 and

235
 5. Dimension

V (P6 ) ∪ {v} is a shortest path of length 6 in both graphs G1 and G2 . Moreover,

W = (V 0 = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v, c} − {v, c}) ∪ {v 0 } = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 , v5 , v6 , v 0 }
is a SDS of {G1 , G2 } and so SDN (G1 , G2 ) = |V | − d = 11 − 6 = 5.
Remark 5.5.40. It’s meaningful to use same notations for the vertices of
a specific graph with using the name of the graph in small letter and
applying the numbers as their indexes. For instance, the complete graph
Kn has the vertex set V = {k1 , k2 , . . . , kn }. For example, a star graph Sn
has the vertex set V = {s, s1 , s2 , . . . , sn−1 }. A wheel graph Wn has the
vertex set V = {w, w1 , w2 , . . . , wn−1 }. A cycle graph Cn has the vertex set
V = {c1 , c2 , . . . , cn } and also it’s denoted by Cn : c1 , c2 , . . . , cn . A path
graph Pn has the vertex set V = {p1 , p2 , . . . , pn } and also it’s denoted by
Pn : p1 , p2 , . . . , pn . A general graph G has the vertex set V = {g1 , g2 , . . . , gn }.
If the collection of graphs has the same style of graphs, then it’s meaningful to
use these types of notations for the common vertex set.
There’s a natural question about what’s going on the graphs which have
the DN which is as small as possible. It motivates us to study the families of
graphs for which SDN is as small as possible.
If Pn : p0 , p1 , · · · , pn−1 is a p0 − pn−1 path of order and length of n, then
leaves are DSs so in this case, the path has only two minimal DS which
are 1-sets including one leaf, independently. In this case, p0 and pn−1 are
the leaves of path. Thus only two minimal DSs for p0 − pn−1 path Pn are
{p0 } and {pn−1 }. Because, dPd (p0 , pi ) = i where i is positive integer such
that 1 ≤ i ≤ n − 1. Therefore, for every given distinct vertices vi and vj ,
dPd (p0 , pi ) = i 6= j = dPd (p0 , pi ) thus every two given vertices are resolved by
leaf p0 . {pn−1 } is DS for p0 − pn−1 path Pn . Since dPd (pn−1 , pi ) = n − 1 − i
where i is positive integer such that 0 ≤ i ≤ n − 2. Therefore, for every given
distinct vertices pi and pj , dPd (pn−1 , pi ) = n − 1 − i 6= n − 1j = dPd (p0 n − 1, pi )
thus every two given vertices are resolved by leaf pn−1 . Thus there are some
Observations.
Observation 5.5.41. Every given vertex which isn’t leaf, from a given path,
doesn’t resolve its neighbors.
Observation 5.5.42. Every 2-set is RS for every given path.
Observation 5.5.43. Every 1-set containing one leaf is a minimal DS for every
given path.
Observation 5.5.44. Every leaf resolves every couple vertices belong to a given
path.
Observation 5.5.45. Every given path has only two minimal DSs.
Observation 5.5.46. DN is one for every given path.
Observation 5.5.47. DN is one if and only if the graph is path.
In the next result, the graphs with SDN equals to one is characterized.
6 Theorem 5.5.48. Let G be a family of connected graphs on a common vertex
set. Then
(i). SDN (G) = 1 if and only if G is a collection of paths that share a common
leaf.

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 5.5. Classes

(ii). If G is a collection of paths, then 1 ≤ SDN (G) ≤ 2.

Proof. (i). (⇒). If SDN (G) = 1, then G has 1-set which is SDS for G. It
implies 1-set is DS for every given G from G. Thus DN for every G is one. It
induces DN (G) = 1 which means G is a path. For every given G from G, G
is path. Thus G is a family consists of paths. By SDN (G) = 1, G is a family
consists of paths that share a common leaf.
(⇐). There’s a common leaf amid any G belongs to G. It implies common
leaf resolves every couple vertices from any G, simultaneously. Thus, 1-set
containing only a common leaf is DS for any G, simultaneously. It implies 1-set
containing only a common leaf is SDS for G. Therefore, SDN (G) = 1
(ii). For every given path graph P, DN (P ) = 1. Hence Observation (6.5.1),
SDN (H = {P }) = 1 ≤ SDN (G ⊇ H = {P }). Also, every given couple of
distinct vertices of a path graph P is an SDS for any given family of path
graphs. Thus by using the Definition of SDN which implies having the minimum
set, SDN (G) ≤ SRN (G) = 2 where SRN is the cardinality of any given SRS.
Therefore, by 1 ≤ SDN (G) and SDN (G) ≤ 2, we have 1 ≤ SDN (G) ≤ 2. 

Theorem 5.5.49. Let G be a family of connected graphs on a common vertex

set V such that G does not only consist of paths. Let H be the collection of
elements of G which are not paths. Then

SDN (G) = SDN (H).

Proof. It’s enough to show SDN (H) ≤ SDN (G) and SDN (G) ≤ SDN (H). By
Observation (6.5.1), SDN (H) ≤ SDN (G). By applying negation of Theorem
(6.4.6) (i) and H doesn’t contain any of path, SDN (H) ≥ 2. It implies every
SDS for H, is SRS for G. Thus SDN of G, is smaller than SDN of H. It implies
SDN (G) ≤ SDN (H). By SDN (H) ≤ SDN (G) and SDN (G) ≤ SDN (H),
SDN (G) = SDN (H). 

Example 5.5.50. In Figure (5.27), SDN (P) = 1 and SDS(P) = {p1 } but in
Figure (5.28), SDN (P) = 2, SDS(P) = {p1 , p2 }. SDS(P) is also any given
couple of distinct vertices of Pi ∈ P.
We recall that a graph C is 2-antipodal graph if for every vertex c, there
exists a vertex c1 such that dC (c, c1 ) = D(C) where D(G) is diameter of the
graph C. Thus we give some Observations about cycle graphs and the notions
of being mutually antipodal.
Observation 5.5.51. If n is even in a cycle graph, then for every vertex, there
exists exactly one vertex which is mutually antipodal with it.
Observation 5.5.52. If n is even in a cycle graph, then the cycle graph is
2-antipodal graph.
Let n be even. Let two vertices are mutually antipodal. Thus these two
vertices don’t any other two given vertices which are mutually antipodal and
have specific properties. Therefore, by n is given, there exists exactly one vertex
which is mutually antipodal to a given vertex. In other words, for every vertex,
there exists exactly one vertex which the intended vertex is mutually antipodal
with it.

237
5. Dimension

Figure 5.27: The family P = {P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 } contains six path graphs on a

common vertex set {p1 , p2 , p3 , p4 , p5 , p6 } containing a common leaf p1 . F16

Figure 5.28: The family P = {P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 } contains six path graphs on a

common vertex set {p1 , p2 , p3 , p4 , p5 , p6 } without any common leaf. F17

Observation 5.5.53. Let n be even. If the couple of vertices are mutually

antipodal in a cycle graph, then any of these two vertices only resolves the two
vertices which aren’t mutually antipodal.
Observation 5.5.54. Let n be even. If the couple of vertices are mutually
antipodal in a cycle graph, then any of these two vertices only resolves the two
vertices which aren’t mutually antipodal.
Observation 5.5.55. Let n be even. The vertex which doesn’t have the distance
n
2 from two given vertices, resolves them.
n
Observation 5.5.56. Let n be even. The vertex which has the distance 2 from
two given vertices, doesn’t resolve them.
Observation 5.5.57. Let n be even. Two mutually antipodal vertices are
resolved by one vertex which doesn’t have the distance n2 from them.
Observation 5.5.58. For every given vertex, there exists at most one vertex in

238
 5.5. Classes

a cycle graph which is mutually antipodal to it.

Theorem 5.5.59. Let C = {C1 , C2 , · · · , Ck } be a family of cycles on a common
vertex set V. Then the following assertion hold:
(i) if |V | is odd, then SDN (C) = 2.
(ii) if |V | is even, then 2 ≤ SDN (C) ≤ 3. Moreover, SDN (C) = 2 if and only
if there are two vertices c1 , c2 ∈ V which aren’t mutually antipodal in Ci
for every i ∈ {1, 2, · · · , k}.

Proof. (i) Since the statement, DN (P ) = 1 if and only if P is a path graph,

we have DN (C) > 1 where C is a given cycle graph. It’s enough to show
that given vertices c1 , c2 are RS for every cycle graph C. Suppose n = 3, then
the result is clear. Consider n ≥ 4 and n is odd. In this case, we have either
dC (c1 , c3 ) 6= dC (c1 , c4 ) or dC (c2 , c3 ) 6= dC (c2 , c4 ) where c1 , c2 , c3 , c4 are four
given vertices which are distinct. Thus {c1 , c2 } is RS for any given cycle graph
C which, by DN (C) > 1, implies DN (C) = 2. For every given cycle graph C,
every set containing two given distinct vertices {c1 , c2 } is DS for every cycle
graph C ∈ C which implies {c1 , c2 } is SDS for C. Thus SDS(C) = 2 where n is
odd.
(ii) Suppose n is even. It implies every C ∈ C is 2-antipodal graph. We recall
that a graph C is 2-antipodal graph if for every vertex c, there exists a vertex c1
such that dC (c, c1 ) = D(C) where D(G) is diameter of the graph C. Consider
c1 and c2 aren’t mutually antipodal in any C ∈ C. Any set containing two
given distinct vertices {c1 , c2 } is DS for every cycle graph C ∈ C which implies
{c1 , c2 } is SDS for C. Thus SDS(C) = 2 where n is even and c1 and c2 aren’t
mutually antipodal in every C ∈ C.
Now consider for every two given distinct vertices c1 and c2 , there exists a
cycle graph C ∈ C such that c1 and c2 are mutually antipodal in C ∈ C. Thus
DN (C) > 2. Let c1 , c2 and c3 are three vertices which only two of them are
mutually antipodal in a cycle graph C ∈ C. It’s possible because for every
given vertex, there exists at most one vertex in a cycle graph C ∈ C which is
mutually antipodal C ∈ C. Take any set containing three given distinct vertices
{c1 , c2 , c3 } is DS for every cycle graph C ∈ C which implies {c1 , c2 , c3 } is SDS
for C. Thus SDS(C) = 3. 

Figure 5.29: Any two given vertices like c1 and c2 resolve any couple of vertices
in cycle graphs C1 , C2 and C3 . Thus the family C = {C1 , C2 , C3 } has two as its
SDN. Thus SDN (C) = 2 and {c1 , c2 } is SDS for C.

239
5. Dimension

Figure 5.30: Two vertices c1 and c2 aren’t mutually antipodal in cycle graphs
C1 , C2 and C3 . Thus the family C = {C1 , C2 , C3 } has two as its SDN. Thus
SDN (C) = 2 and {c1 , c2 } is SDS for C.

Figure 5.31: For every two given vertices, there exists at least one cycle graphs
from C1 , C2 and C3 . Precisely, We study all two given vertices in the terms
of being mutually antipodal. c1 , c2 in C2 , c1 , c3 in C1 , c1 , c4 in C3 , c2 , c3 in
C3 , c2 , c4 in C1 and c3 , c4 in C2 are mutually antipodal. Thus the family
C = {C1 , C2 , C3 } has three as its SDN. Thus SDN (C) = 3 and {c1 , c2 , c4 } is
SDS for C.

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 CHAPTER 6

Theorems

6.1 Abstract
Arts of proof are important and
the proofs are the hearts of
mathematics which are contained
in theorems.

few principles and after that, Theorems! The book is based on the topic
which uses a few definitions but by these definitions, theorems are formed. The
book has detailed-oriented approach to elicit the proofs of the theorems, step
by step, and in this way, every word is referred to the proper result which is
used. In this way, there’re no examples and figures but concrete structure of
this book is based on the results and connections amid them. Every step of
proofs are referred to make sense about the validity of results. The approach
is about using obvious literature of mathematics as possible and in this way,
the design is about oversimplifying the proofs. Theorems have the key roles
in mathematical results and the future of the mathematical person. Arts of
proof are important and the proofs are the hearts of mathematics which are
contained in theorems.

6.2 Acknowledgements

The words of mind and the minds

of words, are too eligible to be in
the stage of acknowledgements

he author is going to say his gratitude and his appreciation about the brains
and their hands which are showing the importance of words in the framework
of every wisdom, knowledge, arts and emotions which are streaming in the lines
from the words, notions, ideas and approaches to have the material which is
only the way to flourish the minds, the growing the notions, advancing ways
and making the stable ways to be amid the events and storms of minds for
surviving from them and making the outstanding experiences about the tools
and ideas to be on the star lines of words and shining like stars, forever.

241
 6. Theorems

6.3 Definitions

6.4 First Part

Definitions and principles are
introduced in the separate section
but a few definitions have the
labels which indicate that they’re
used in the third chapter and
precisely in the proofs of the
theorems. By using these
definitions and some theorems,
the main chapter is formed.
Simple literature of mathematics
are used to introduce the
definition as possible and in this
way, to avoid confusion, the labels
are the landmarks of this chapter.
m

Definition 6.4.1. (Poset).

A partial ordered set (poset) is a set in which a binary relation ≤ is defined,
which satisfies the following conditions:
for any x, y, z,

(P 1). Reflexive Property). x ≤ x, for any x;

(P 2). Antisymmetry Property). x ≤ y and y ≤ x implies x = y;

(P 3). Transitivity Property). x ≤ y and y ≤ z implies x ≤ z.

Definition 6.4.2. (Lattice).

A lattice is a poset any two of whose elements have a greatest lower bound
(g.l.b.), denoted by x ∧ y, and a least upper bound (l.u.b.), denoted by x ∨ y. A
lattice is complete when each of its subsets X has a l.u.b. and a g.l.b. in L.
3 Definition 6.4.3. (Lattice).
Let L be an arbitrary set, and let there be given two binary operations on L,
denoted by ∧ and ∨. Then the structure (L, ∧, ∨) is an algebraic structure with
two binary operations. We call the structure (L, ∧, ∨) a lattice provided that it
satisfies the following properties:

(1). (Assosiative Property). For any x, y, z ∈ L, x ∧ (y ∧ z) = (x ∧ y) ∧ z, and

x ∨ (y ∨ z) = (x ∨ y) ∨ z;

(2). (Commutative Property). For any x, y ∈ L, x∧y = y∧x, and x∨y = y∨x;

(3). (Self-potent Property). For any x ∈ L, x ∧ x = x, and x ∨ x = x;

(4). (Absorption Property). For any x, y ∈ L, x ∧ (x ∨ y) = x, and

x ∨ (x ∧ y) = x.

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 6.4. First Part

Definition 6.4.4. (Semilattice).

A poset < A, ≤> is a join semilattice if sup{a, b} exists for all a, b ∈ A. A poset
< A, ≤> is a meet semilattice if inf {a, b} exists for all a, b ∈ A.
Definition 6.4.5. (Bounded Lattice).
If a lattice has a smallest element, denoted by O, and a greatest element,
denoted by I, then it is called a bounded lattice.
6 Definition 6.4.6. (Complement).
We say that the complement of x is x0 if the following conditions are satisfied.

(1). (x0 )0 = x;

(2). x ∧ x0 = O;

(3). x ∨ x0 = I;

(4). x ≥ y implies x0 ≤ y 0 .

Definition 6.4.7. (Distributive Lattice).

A distributive lattice L is a lattice which satisfies either of the distributive laws
for any x, y, z ∈ L,

z ∨ (x ∧ y) = (x ∨ z) ∧ (y ∨ z), x ∧ (y ∨ z) = (x ∧ y) ∨ (x ∧ z).

Definition 6.4.8. (Boolean Lattice). A boolean lattice is an uniquely comple-

mented distributive lattice.
Definition 6.4.9. (Modular).
A lattice L is called modular if for any x, y, z ∈ L, we have x ≤ y implies
x ∨ (y ∧ z) = y ∧ (x ∨ z). This is called the modular law.
Definition 6.4.10. (Orthomodular Lattice).
A lattice L is called orthomodular if for any x, y, z ∈ L, we have x ≤ y implies
x ∨ (x0 ∧ y) = y.
Definition 6.4.11. (Bilattice).
A bilattice is a structure < B, ≤t , ≤k , q > consisting of a nonempty set B, two
partial orders of it, ≤t and ≤k , and a mapping from it to itself, q, such that :

(i). each of ≤t , and ≤k , makes B a complete lattice;

(ii). x ≤t y implies qy ≤t qx;

(iii). x ≤k y implies qx ≤k qy;

(iv). qqx = x.

Definition 6.4.12. (Distributive p-lattice).

A distributive p-lattice is an algebra (A, ∧, ∨, ∗, 0, 1) of type (2, 2, 1, 0, 0) such
that (A, ∧, ∨, 0, 1) is a distributive lattice with 0 and 1, and ∗ is an operation
of pseudo complementation, i.e.,a∗ = max{b ∈ A | a ∧ b = 0}.
Definition 6.4.13. (Residuated Lattice).
A residuated lattice is an algebraic structure < L, ∨, ∧, , →, O, I > of type
N
(2, 2, 2, 2, 0, 0), where

243
 6. Theorems

(1). L =< L, ∨, ∧, , →, O, I > is a bounded lattice with the smallest element

N
O and the greatest element I.
(2). < , →> is an adjoint couple on L, i.e.,
N

is isotone (order-preserving) on L × L;
N
a)
b) → is antitone (order-reversing) in the first and isotone in the second
variable on L × L;
c) for all x, y, z ∈ N
L hold the adjointness condition or Galois
correspondence: x y ≤ c if and only if x ≤ y → z.
(3). < L, , I > is a comutative monoid.
N

Definition 6.4.14. (De Morgan Algebra).

A De Morgan Algebra, also called soft algebra L = (L, ∨, ∧, q) is a distributive
lattice (A, ∧, ∨) with an unary operation q such that the De Morgan laws hold.

6.5 Second Part

1 Definition 6.5.1. (Quasi-lattice Implication Algebra).
Let (L, ∨, ∧, O, I) be a bounded lattice with an order-reversing involution 0 , I
and O the greatest and the smallest element of L respectively, and →: L×L → L
be a mapping. (L, ∨, ∧,0 , →, O, I) is called a quasi-lattice implication algebra if
the following conditions hold for any x, y, z ∈ L :
(I1 ) x → (y → z) = y → (x → z);
(I2 ) x → x = I;
(I3 ) x → y = y 0 → x0 ;
(I4 ) x → y = y → x = I implies x = y;
(I5 ) (x → y) → y = (y → x) → x.
Definition 6.5.2. (Lattice Implication Algebra).
A quasi-lattice implication algebra is called a lattice implication algebra, if (l1 )
and (l2 ) hold.
(l1 ) : (x ∨ y) → z = (x → z) ∧ (y → z);
(l2 ) : (x ∧ y) → z = (x → z) ∨ (y → z).
Definition 6.5.3. (Lattice H Implication Algebra).
A lattice implication algebra L is called a lattice H implication algebra, if for
any x, y, z ∈ L, x ∨ y ∨ ((x ∧ y) → z) = I.
Definition 6.5.4. (Lattice Implication Subalgebra).
Let L be a lattice implication algebra, S ⊆ L is called a lattice implication
subalgebra of L, if the following conditions hold:
(1). (S, ∨, ∧,0 ) is a bounded sublattice of (L, ∨, ∧) with an order-reversing
involution 0 ;
(2). if x, y ∈ S, then x → y ∈ S.

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 6.6. Third Part

Definition 6.5.5. (Homomorphisms).

Let L1 and L2 be lattice implication algebras, f :→ L2 a mapping from L1 to
L2 , if f (x → y) = f (x) → f (y) holds for any x, y ∈ L1 , then f is called an
implication homomorphism from L1 to L2 . If an implication homomorphism f is
a surjection, then it is called an implication epimorphism. If f is an implication
homomorphism and satisfies

f (x ∨ y) = f (x) ∨ f (y), f (x ∧ y) = f (x) ∧ f (y), f (x0 ) = (f (x))0 ,

then f is called a lattice implication homomorphism from L1 to L2 .

A one-to-one and onto lattice implication homomorphism is called a lattice
implication isomorphism. If there exists a lattice implication isomorphism from
L1 to L2 , L1 and L2 are called to be isomorphic and denoted by L1 ∼ = L2 .
126 Definition 6.5.6. In a lattice implication algebra L, we define binary operations
⊗ and ⊕ as follows: for any x, y ∈ L,
0 0
x ⊗ y = (x → y ) ;
0
x ⊕ y = x → y.
In a lattice implication algebra, x ⊕ y = O if and only if x = y = O, x ⊗ y = I
if and only if x = y = I. In lattice implication algebra, L, for any a ∈ L, and
n ∈ N, we denote
a0 = I, a1 = a, an+1 = (an ) ⊗ a;
0a = O, 1a = a, (n + 1)a = (na) ⊕ a.

6.6 Third Part

Definition 6.6.1. (Filters and Implicative Filters).
Let L be a lattice implication algebra, J ⊆ L is said to be a filter of L, if it
satisfies the following conditions:
(1). I ∈ J;
(2). for any x, y ∈ L, if x ∈ J and x → y ∈ J, then y ∈ J.
J ⊆ L is said to be an implicative filter of L, if it satisfies the following
conditions:
(1). I ∈ J;
(2). for any x, y, z ∈ L, if x → (y → z) ∈ J and x → y ∈ J, then x → z ∈ J.
Definition 6.6.2. (A(a)).
Let L be a lattice implication algebra, a ∈ L. Denote the interval [a, I] =
{x | x ∈ L, a ≤ x} of L as A(a).
Definition 6.6.3. (Finite Intersection Property).
Let L be a lattice implication algebra. A ⊆ LNis said N to have the finite
intersection property if for any a1 , · · · , an ∈ A, a1 · · · an > 0.
Definition 6.6.4. (Positive Implicative Filter).
Let L be a lattice implication algebra. A subset F of L is called a positive
implicative filter of L if it satisfies:

245
6. Theorems

(1). I ∈ F ;

(2). x → ((y → z) → y) ∈ F and x ∈ F imply y ∈ F, for any x, y, z ∈ L.

Definition 6.6.5. (Associative Filter).

Let L be a lattice implication algebra, x ∈ L. A subset F of L is called an
associative filter of L w.r.t. x if it satisfies:

(1). I ∈ F ;

(2). x → (y → z) ∈ F and x → y ∈ F imply z ∈ F, for any y, z ∈ L.

F is called an associative filter of L if F is an associative filter w.r.t. x for any

x 6= O.
Definition 6.6.6. (Prime Filter).
Let L be a lattice implication algebra, P a proper filter of L. P is called a prime
filter if a ∨ b ∈ P implies a ∈ P or b ∈ P for any a, b ∈ L.
Definition 6.6.7. (Irreducible).
Let L be a lattice implication algebra. A proper filter J of L is called irreducible,
if J = J1 ∩ J2 implies J = J1 or J = J2 for any filters J1 and J2 of L.
Definition 6.6.8. (Ultra-filter).
Let L be a lattice implication algebra. A filter J of L is called an ultra-filter if
for any x ∈ L, x ∈ J if and only if x0 6∈ J.
Definition 6.6.9. (I-filter).
For any a ∈ L, Fa is called the I-filter determined by a.
Definition 6.6.10. (Involution Filter).
A filter A of L is called an involution filter if A = (A∗ )∗ .
Definition 6.6.11. (Obstinate Filter).
Let L be a lattice implication algebra, J a filter of L. J is called an obstinate
filter if x 6∈ J, y 6∈ J imply x → y ∈ J, y → x ∈ J for any x, y ∈ L.
Definition 6.6.12. (Fuzzy Filter).
Let L be a lattice implication algebra, A ∈ F (L) and A 6= ∅. A is called a fuzzy
filter of L if it satisfies: for any x, y ∈ L,

(1). A(x) ≤ A(I);

(2). A(y) ≥ min{A(x → y), A(x)}.

Definition 6.6.13. (Fuzzy Implicative Filter).

Let L be a lattice implication algebra, A ∈ F (L) and A 6= ∅. A is called a fuzzy
implicative filter of L if it satisfies: for any x, y, z ∈ L,

(1). A(x) ≤ A(I);

(2). A(x → z) ≥ min{A(x → y), A(x → (y → z))}.

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 6.7. Fourth Part

6.7 Fourth Part

Definition 6.7.1. (BCK−Algebra).
A (2, 0)−type algebra (X, ∗, θ) is called a BCK−algebra, if the following
conditions hold for any x, y, z ∈ X,

(1). [(x ∗ y) ∗ (x ∗ z)] ∗ (z ∗ y) = θ;

(2). [x ∗ (x ∗ y)] ∗ y = θ;

(3). x ∗ x = θ;

(4). θ ∗ x = θ

(5). x ∗ y = y ∗ x = θ implies x = y.

Definition 6.7.2. (M V −Algebra).

A (2, 2, 1, 0, 0)−type algebra (A, +, ., ∗, O, I) is called M V −algebra, if A is a
non-empty set and the following conditions hold for any x, y, z ∈ A;

(AX1) x + y = y + x;
0
(AX1 ) x.y = y.x;

(AX2) x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z;
0
(AX2 ) x.(y.z) = (x.y).z;

(AX3) x + x∗ = I;
0
(AX3 ) x.x∗ = O;

(AX4) x + I = I;
0
(AX4 ) x.O = O;

(AX5) x + O = x;
0
(AX5 ) x.I = x;

(AX6) (x + y)∗ = x∗ .y ∗ ;
0
(AX6 ) (x.y)∗ = x∗ + y ∗ ;

(AX7) x = (x∗ )∗ ;

(AX8) O∗ = I;

(AX9) x ∨ y = y ∨ x;
0
(AX9 ) x ∧ y = y ∧ x;

(AX10) x ∨ (y ∨ z) = (x ∨ y) ∨ z;
0
(AX10 ) x ∧ (y ∧ z) = (x ∧ y) ∧ z;

(AX11) x + (y ∧ z) = (x + y) ∧ (x + z);

247
 6. Theorems

(AX11) x.(y ∨ z) = (x.y) ∨ (x.z);

where x ∨ y = (x.y ∗ ) + y and x ∧ y = (x + y ∗ ).y.
Definition 6.7.3. (F I−Algebra).
A (2, 0)−type algebra (X, →, O) is called a fuzzy implication algebra if for any
x, y, z ∈ X,
(1). x → (y → z) = y → (x → z);
(2). (x → y) → ((y → z) → (x → z)) = I;
(3). x → x = I;
(4). if x → y = y → x = I, then x = y;
(5). O → I = I,
where I = O → O.
Definition 6.7.4. (R0 −algebra).
Let (M, ∨, ∧, O, I) be a bounded distributive lattice with an order-reversing
involution q and →: M × M → M a mapping. M is called a R0 −algebra if the
following conditions hold for any a, b, c ∈ M :
(R1). (qa) → (qb) = b → a;
(R2). I → a = a;
(R3). b → c ≤ (a → b) → (a → c);
(R4). a → (b → c) = b → (a → c);
(R5). a → (b ∨ c) = (a → b) ∨ (a → c);
(R6). (a → b) ∨ (a → b) → ((qa) ∨ b) = I;
(R7). a → a = I;
(R8). a → (b ∧ c) = (a → b) ∧ (a → c).

6.8 Ideas
In this chapter, the theorems are
introduced and they’re like
checkmark to see what theorems
are used. Labeled theorems are
indicators about being a tool to
prove other theorems as expected
but in the upcoming chapter,
they’re labeled. In chapter, the
simple viewpoints of theorems are
given. To get overview, the
theorems are without any
additional points. Thus there’s a
way to get ideas when the
theorems are together.
m

248
 6.9. First Part

6.9 First Part

Theorem 6.9.1. Let (L, ∨, ∧,0 , →, O, I) be a quasi-lattice implication algebra,
then
(1). (l2 ) holds if and only if (l3 ) holds;
(2). (l1 ) holds if and only if (l4 ) holds;
where
(l1 ) (x ∨ y) → z = (x → z) ∧ (y → z);
(l2 ) (x ∧ y) → z = (x → z) ∨ (y → z);
(l3 ) x → (y ∨ z) = (x → y) ∨ (x → z);
(l4 ) x → (y ∧ z) = (x → y) ∧ (x → z).
Theorem 6.9.2. Let L be a quasi-lattice implication algebra, then for any
x, y, z ∈ L,
(1). if I → x = I, then x = I;
0
(2). I → x = x and x → O = x ;
(3). O → x = I and x → I = I;
(4). (x → y) → ((y → z) → (x → z)) = I;
0 0
(5). (x → y) → x = (y → x) → y .
Theorem 6.9.3. Let L be a quasi-lattice implication algebra, then for any
x, y ∈ L, the following statements are equivalent:
(1). x → y = I;
(2). for any z ∈ L, (y → z) → (x → z) = I;
(3). for any z ∈ L, (z → x) → (z → y) = I;
(4). for any z ∈ L, z → y = ((z → x) → x) → y;
0 0
(5). for any z ∈ L, x → z = x → (z → (z → y) ) .
Theorem 6.9.4. Let L be a quasi-lattice implication algebra, then for any
x, y ∈ L,
((x → y) → y) → y = x → y.
Theorem 6.9.5. Let L be a quasi-lattice implication algebra, then for any
x, y ∈ L, the following statements are equivalent:
(1). x ∨ y = (x → y) → y;
0 0
(2). x ∧ y = ((x → y) → x ) ;
(3). x ≤ y if and only if x → y = I.
Corollary 6.9.6. In a quasi-lattice implication algebra L, for any x, y, z ∈ L, if
x ≤ y, then x → z ≥ y → z and z → x ≤ z → y.
Theorem 6.9.7. Let L be a quasi-lattice implication algebra and x ∨ y = (x →
y) → y for any x, y, z ∈ L, then

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6. Theorems

(1). ((x ∨ y) → x) ∨ ((x ∨ y) → y) = I;

0 0 0
(2). for x ≤ z and y ≤ z, x ∨ y = (z → ((z → x) ∧ (z → y) )) ;
(3). z → (x ∧ y) ≤ (z → x) ∧ (z → y);
(4). (x ∨ y) → z ≤ (x → z) ∧ (y → z);
(5). (x → z) ∨ (y → z) ≤ (x ∧ y) → z;
(6). (z → x) ∨ (z → y) ≤ z → (x ∨ y).
Theorem 6.9.8. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, then x ≤ y if and only
if x → y = I for any x, y ∈ L.
Theorem 6.9.9. Let L be a quasi-lattice implication algebra, then L is a lattice
implication algebra if and only if x ∨ y = (x → y) → y for any x, y ∈ L.
Theorem 6.9.10. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, then for any x, y ∈ L,
0
(1). x → y ≥ x ∨ y;
(2). for any z ∈ L, x → z = y → z if and only if x = y if and only if for any
z ∈ L, z → x = z → y.
Theorem 6.9.11. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, then for any x, y ∈
L, (x → y) ∨ (y → x) = I.
Theorem 6.9.12. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, then for any x, y, z ∈ L,
(1). (x → z) → (y → z) = y → (x ∨ z) = (z → x) → (y → x);
(2). (z → x) → (z → y) = (x ∧ z) → y = (x → z) → (x → y).
Theorem 6.9.13. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, then (L, ∨, ∧) is a
distributive lattice.
Theorem 6.9.14. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, then for any x, y ∈ L,
(1). x ∨ y = I if and only if x → y = y;
0
(2). x ∧ y = O if and only if x → y = x .
Theorem 6.9.15. Let L be a lattice implication algebra. For any x, y, z ∈ L,
(1). if x → y = x → z, then x → (y ∨ z) = x → (y ∧ z) = x → y;
(2). if y → x = z → x, then (y ∧ z) → x = (y ∨ z) → x = y → x;
(3). x → (y → z) = (x ∨ y) → z if and only if x → (y → z) = x → z = y → z.
Corollary 6.9.16. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, then for any x, y, z ∈ L,
(1). if x → y = x → z, then for any t ∈ [y ∧ z, y ∨ z], x → t = x → y;
(2). if y → x = z → x, then for any t ∈ [y ∧ z, y ∨ z], t → x = y → x.
Theorem 6.9.17. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, then for any x, y, z ∈ L,
(1). (x ∧ z) → (y ∧ z) = (x ∧ z) → y;

250
 6.9. First Part

0
(2). (x → y) ∧ z ≤ (x → (y ∧ z)) ∧ ((x ∨ z ) → y);

(3). ((x → y) ∧ (y → z)) → (x → z) = (x → y) ∨ (y → z) ∨ (x → z).

Theorem 6.9.18. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, a, b ∈ L. For any

0
x, y ∈ L, (a → b) ≤ (x → a) ∧ (b → y).
Theorem 6.9.19. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, a, b ∈ L, then a → b =
O if and only if a = I and b = O.
Theorem 6.9.20. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, then for any x, y, z ∈ L,

(1). z → (y → x) ≥ (z → y) → (z → x);

(2). z ≤ (y → x) if and only if y ≤ z → x.

Theorem 6.9.21. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, then for any x, y, z ∈

L, (x → (y → z)) → ((x → y) → (x → z)) = x ∨ y ∨ ((x ∧ y) → z).
Theorem 6.9.22. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, then the following
statements are equivalent:

(1). for any x, y, z ∈ L, x → (y → z) = (x ∧ y) → z;

(2). for any x, y, z ∈ L, (x → (y → z)) → ((x → y) → (x → z)) = I;

(3). for any x, y ∈ L, x → (x → y) = x → y.

Theorem 6.9.23. In a lattice implication algebra L,

(1). x ⊗ y = y ⊗ x, x ⊕ y = y ⊕ x;

(2). (x ⊗ y) ⊗ z = x ⊗ (y ⊗ z), (x ⊕ y) ⊕ z = x ⊕ (y ⊕ z);

0 0 0 0 0 0
(3). (x ⊗ y) = x ⊕ y , (x ⊕ y) = x ⊗ y ;

(4). x ⊗ y ≤ x ≤ x ⊕ y, x ⊗ y ≤ y ≤ x ⊕ y;
0 0
(5). O ⊗ x = O, I ⊗ x = x, x ⊗ x = O, O ⊕ x = x, I ⊕ x = I, x ⊕ x = I;
0
(6). x → (x ⊗ y) = x ∨ y = (x ⊕ y) → y;

(7). (x → y) ⊗ x = x ∧ y;

(8). if x ≤ a and y ≤ b, then x ⊗ y ≤ a ⊗ b and x ⊕ y ≤ a ⊕ b;

0 0 0 0 0 0
(9). (x ⊗ y) = x ⊕ y , (x ⊕ y) = x ⊗ y ;

(10). x → (y → z) = (x ⊗ y) → z;

(11). x ≤ y → z if and only if x ⊗ y ≤ z;

(12). a ⊗ (b ∨ c) = (a ⊗ b) ∨ (a ⊗ c), a ⊗ (b ∧ c) = (a ⊗ b) ∧ (a ⊗ c);

(13). x ⊗ (y → z) ≤ y → (x ⊗ z), x ⊕ (y → z) = y → (x ⊕ z);

(14). a ⊕ (b ∨ c) = (a ⊕ b) ∨ (a ⊕ c), a ⊕ (b ∧ c) = (a ⊕ b) ∧ (a ⊕ c);

(15). a⊗b = (a∨b)⊗(a∧b), a⊕b = (a∨b)⊕(a∧b); hold for any x, y, z, a, b, c ∈ L.

251
6. Theorems

Corollary 6.9.24. If (L, ∨, ∧,0 , →, O, I) is a lattice implication algebra, then

(L, ⊗, →, I) is a residuated lattice.
Theorem 6.9.25. Let L be a lattice implication algebra. Then (L, ≤, ⊕) and
(L, ≤, ⊗) are all lattice-ordered semigroups.
Theorem 6.9.26. Let L be a lattice implication algebra.

(1). In semigroup (L, ⊕), the unique element with inverse is O.

(2). In semigroup (L, ⊗), the unique element with inverse is I.

Corollary 6.9.27. Suppose that L is a lattice implication algebra and |L| ≥ 2,

then neither (L, ⊕) nor (L, ⊗) is a lattice-ordered group.
TheoremV 6.9.28. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, and a, b ∈ L, then
a ⊗ b = {x | a ≤ b → x}.
Theorem 6.9.29. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, then for any a, b ∈ L
and m, n ∈ N+ (N+ = N \ {0},

(1). (a ∨ b)n = an ∨ bn ;

(2). (a ∧ b)n = an ∧ bn ;

(3). n(a ∨ b) = (na) ∨ (nb);

(4). n(a ∧ b) = (na) ∧ (nb);

(5). if m ≤ n, then an ≤ am , ma ≤ na.

Theorem 6.9.30. Let L be a lattice implication algebra and a, b, x ∈ L, if there

exist n, k ∈ N+ such that an → x = I and bk → x = I, then there exists m ∈ N+
such that (a ∨ b)m → x = I.
Theorem 6.9.31. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, x, y, z ∈ L and
m, n ∈ N, then

(xm → (y → z)) → ((xn → y) → (xm+n → z)) = I.

Theorem 6.9.32. Let L be a lattice H implication algebra, then for any

x, y, z ∈ L, x → (y → z) = (x → y) → (x → z).
Corollary 6.9.33. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, then the following
statements are equivalent:

(1). L is a lattice H implication algebra;

(2). for any x, y ∈ L, x → (x → y) = x → y;

(3). for any x, y, z ∈ L, x → (y → z) = (x → y) → (x → z);

(4). for any x, y, z ∈ L, x → (y → z) = (x ∧ y) → z;

(5). for any x, y, z ∈ L, (x → (y → z)) → ((x → y) → (x → z)) = I.

Theorem 6.9.34. Let L be a lattice implication algebra. The following

statements are equivalent:

252
 6.9. First Part

(1). L is a lattice H implication algebra;

(2). for any x, y ∈ L and z ∈ [x, I], z → (x → y) = x → y;

(3). for any x, y ∈ L, (x → y) → x = x;

0
(4). for any x ∈ L, x ∨ x = I.

Corollary 6.9.35. (L, ∨, ∧,0 , →) is a lattice H implication algebra if and only

0 0
if (L, ∨, ∧,0 ) is a Boolean lattice, x is the complement of x and x → y = x ∨ y
for any x, y ∈ L.
Lemma 6.9.36. Let L be a lattice implication algebra. Then it is a lattice H
implication algebra if and only if x ⊗ x = x holds for any x ∈ L.
Theorem 6.9.37. If L is a lattice H implication algebra, then for any x ∈ L
and n ∈ N+ , xn = x.
Theorem 6.9.38. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, x0 ∈ L, define
θl , θr : L → L as follows: for any x ∈ L,

θl (x) = x0 → x, θr (x) = x → x0 ,

then θl (named a left-mapping) is a lattice homomorphism and θr (named a

right-mapping) is a dual lattice homomorphism.
Theorem 6.9.39. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, J ⊆ L.

(1). If J is a dual ideal of lattice (L, ∨, ∧), then x → y ∈ J for any x, y ∈ J.

0 0 0
(2). Let J = {x | x ∈ J}. J is an ideal of (L, ∨, ∧) if and only if J is a dual
ideal of (L, ∨, ∧).

Theorem 6.9.40. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, a, b ∈ L,

Aa,b = {x | a → x ≥ b},
Ba,b = {x | a → x ≤ b},
Ca,b = {x | x → a ≥ b},
Da,b = {x | x → a ≤ b},

then
(1). Aa,b , Ba,b , Ca,b and Da,b are convex sublattices of (L, ∨, ∧);
(2). Aa,b and Da,b are dual ideals of (L, ∨, ∧), Ba,b and Ca,b are ideals of
(L, ∨, ∧).
Theorem 6.9.41. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, a, b ∈ L,

A(a,b) = {x | a → x = b}, B(a,b) = {x | x → a = b},

then both A(a,b) and B(a,b) are convex sublattices of (L, ∨, ∧).

253
6. Theorems

Corollary 6.9.42. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, a, b ∈ L,

A(a,a→b) = {x | a → x = a → b},
B(a,b→a) = {x | x → a = b → a},
A(a,b→a) = {x | a → x = b → a},
B(a,a→b) = {x | x → a = a → b},

then A(a,a→b) , B(a,b→a) , A(a,b→a) , and B(a,a→b) are all convex sublattices of
(L, ∨, ∧).
Theorem 6.9.43. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, a, b, c ∈ L,

Aa,b,c = {x | (a → x) ∧ (x → b) ≤ c},
Ba,b,c = {x | (a → x) ∧ (x → b) ≥ c},
Ca,b,c = {x | (a → x) ∨ (x → b) ≤ c},
Da,b,c = {x | (a → x) ∨ (x → b) ≥ c},

then Aa,b,c , Ba,b,c , Ca,b,c and Da,b,c are all sublattices of (L, ∨, ∧).
Corollary 6.9.44. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, a, b ∈ L. Aa,b,a→b is a
sublattice of (L, ∨, ∧) and O, I ∈ Aa,b,a→b .
Corollary 6.9.45. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, a, b, c ∈ L. Both
{x | (a → x) ∧ (x → b) = c} and {x | (a → x) ∨ (x → b) = c} are sublattices of
(L, ∨, ∧).
Theorem 6.9.46. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, S ⊆ L, if

(1). O ∈ S;

(2). x, y ∈ S implies x → y ∈ S, then S is a lattice implication subalgebra of

L.

Theorem 6.9.47. Let L be an atomless lattice implication algebra, then L is

densely ordered, i.e., for any x, y ∈ L, x < y, there exists z ∈ L such that
x < z < y.
Theorem 6.9.48. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, then θL is a lattice
homomorphis. If L is a lattice H implication algebra, then θL is a lattice
implication homomorphism.
Theorem 6.9.49. Let L1 and L2 be lattice implication algebras, f an implication
homomorphism from L1 to L2 , then

(1). for any x, y ∈ L, f (x ∨ y) = f (x) ∨ f (y);

(2). f (I) = I;

(3). if f (O) = O, then f is a lattice implication homomorphism.

Corollary 6.9.50. An implication homomorphism from L1 to L2 is a lattice

0 0
implication homomorphism if and only if f (x ) = (f (x)) for any x ∈ L1 .

254
 6.10. Second Part

Corollary 6.9.51. An onto mapping f from L1 to L2 is an implication

homomorphism if and only if f is a lattice implication homomorphism.
Corollary 6.9.52. Let L1 and L2 be lattice implication algebras, f an onto
implication homomorphism from L1 to L2 , then

(1). if J ⊆ L1 is a sublattice (ideal, dual ideal) of L1 , then f (J) is sublattice

(ideal, dual ideal) of L2 ;

(2). if J ⊆ L2 is sublattice (ideal, dual ideal) of L2 , then f −1 (J) is sublattice

(ideal, dual ideal) of L1 .

Theorem 6.9.53. Let L1 and L2 be lattice implication algebras, f an implication

homomorphism from L1 to L2 , ker(f ) = {x | f (x) = O, x ∈ L1 }, then

(1). ker(f ) 6= ∅ if and only if O ∈ ker(f );

(2). (ker(f ), ∨, ∧) is a convex sublattice and an ideal of (L, ∨, ∧).

Theorem 6.9.54. Let L1 and L2 be a lattice implication algebras, f an

implication homomorphism from L1 to L2 , f (O) = O. If S ⊆ L1 is a lattice
implication subalgebra of L1 , then f (S) is a lattice implication subalgeabra of
L2 .
Corollary 6.9.55. Let L1 and L2 be lattice implication algebras, f an onto
implication homomorphism from L1 to L2 .

(1). if S ⊆ L1 is a lattice implication subalgebra of L1 , then f (S) is a lattice

implication subalgebra of L2 .

(2). if S ⊆ L2 is a lattice implication subalebra of L2 , then f −1 (S) is a lattice

implication subalgebra of L1 .

Theorem 6.9.56. Let L1 and L2 be lattice implication algebras and f a lattice

implication homomorphism from L1 to L2 .

(1). if π : L1 → L2
≡f is the natural lattice implication homomorphism, then
there exists an uniques lattice implication homomorphism f ∗ : L1
≡f → L2 ,
such that f = f ∗ oπ.

(2). f ∗ is an injection, and L1 ∼

= f (L1 ).
≡f

(3). f ∗ is a lattice implication isomorphism if and only if f is a surjection.

6.10 Second Part

Theorem 6.10.1. If J is a filter of a lattice implication algebra L, J is a dual
ideal of (L, ∨, ∧).
Theorem 6.10.2. If J is a dual ideal of a lattice H implication algebra L and
j 6= ∅, then J is a filter of L.
Theorem 6.10.3. An implication filter is a filter in a lattice implication algebra.
Theorem 6.10.4. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, a ∈ L, then

255
6. Theorems

(1). A(a) is a dual ideal of L;

(2). A(a) is a filter of L if and only if for any x, y ∈ L, a ≤ y → x, and a ≤ y
imply a ≤ x;
(3). {I} is implicative filter of L if and only if A(a) is a filter for any a ∈ L.
Theorem 6.10.5. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, J ⊆ L. J is a filter of
L if and only if for any x, y ∈ J, Ax,y ⊆ J.
Corollary 6.10.6. J ⊆ L is a filter of L if and only if it satisfies the following
conditions:
(1). I ∈ J;
(2). for any x, y ∈ J and z ∈ L, x → (y → z) ∈ J implies z ∈ J.
Theorem 6.10.7. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, J ⊆ L. J is a filter of
L if and only if it satisfies the following conditions:
(1). I ∈ J;
(2). for any x, y, z ∈ J and x → y, y → z ∈ J implies x → z ∈ J.
Theorem 6.10.8. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, J ⊆ L. J is a filter of
L if and only if it satisfies the following conditions:
(1). I ∈ J;
(2). for any x, y, z ∈ J and (z → y) → x ∈ J, y ∈ J imply z → x ∈ J.
Theorem 6.10.9. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, J ⊆ L. The following
statements are equivalent:
(1). J is an implicative filter;
(2). J is a filter and for any x, y ∈ L, x → (x → y) ∈ J implies x → y ∈ J;
(3). J is a filter and for any x, y, z ∈ L, x → (y → z) ∈ J implies
(x → y) → (x → z) ∈ J;
(4). I ∈ J and for any x, y, z ∈ L, z → (x → (x → y)) ∈ J and z ∈ J imply
x → y ∈ J.
Theorem 6.10.10. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, J ⊆ L. J is a filter
of L if and only if:
(1). I ∈ J;
(2). if a ∈ J and a ≤ b, then b ∈ J;
(3). if a, b ∈ J, then a ⊗ b ∈ J.
Theorem 6.10.11. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, J1 , J2 filters of
L, J1 ⊆ J2 . If J1 is an implicative filter, so is J2 .
Theorem 6.10.12. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, J an implicative filter
of L. If a ∈ L, n ∈ N+ , na ∈ J, then a ∈ J.

256
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257
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258
6.10. Second Part

259
6. Theorems

260
6.10. Second Part

261
6. Theorems

262
6.10. Second Part

263
6. Theorems

264
6.10. Second Part

265
6. Theorems

266
6.10. Second Part

267
 6. Theorems

6.11 Theorems
In the last pages of previous
sections, there’re signs about this
chapter. But the tools which are
used in this chapter are about
short style of proofs. Thus the
design of proof is based on
detail-oriented approach to refer
to proper result and in this way,
there’s an idea to use the tools
which are definitely necessary.
The comprehensive discussions
about the proof and the arts of
proofs as they’re done in the last
pages of the previous chapter, are
left behind and instead of them,
the approach is based on the
short uses of tools to prove the
statements without additional
points but in the precise words
which are made by referring to
the intended result in the great
style as possible for the author to
do them.
m

6.12 First Part

311 Theorem 6.12.1. Let (L, ∨, ∧,0 , →, O, I) be a quasi-lattice implication algebra,
then
(1). (l2 ) holds if and only if (l3 ) holds;
(2). (l1 ) holds if and only if (l4 ) holds;
where
(l1 ) (x ∨ y) → z = (x → z) ∧ (y → z);

(l2 ) (x ∧ y) → z = (x → z) ∨ (y → z);

(l3 ) x → (y ∨ z) = (x → y) ∨ (x → z);

(l4 ) x → (y ∧ z) = (x → y) ∧ (x → z).

By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 ) 0 0 By De Morgan’s law for ∨

Proof. (1). x → (y ∨ z) = (y ∨ z) → x =
0 0 0 By using Theorem(6.12.1)(l2 ) 0 0 0 0 By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
(y ∧z ) → x = (y → x )∨(z → x ) =
(x → y) ∨ (x → z).
By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )) 0 0 By De Morgan’s law for ∧
(2). x → (y ∧ z) = (y ∧ z) → x =
0 0 0 By using Theorem(6.12.1)(l1 ) 0 0 0 0 By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
(y ∨z ) → x = (y → x )∧(z → x ) =
(x → y) ∧ (x → z).


268
 6.12. First Part

312 Theorem 6.12.2. Let L be a quasi-lattice implication algebra, then for any
x, y, z ∈ L,

(1). if I → x = I, then x = I;

(2). I → x = x and x → O = x0 ;

(3). O → x = I and x → I = I;

(4). (x → y) → ((y → z) → (x → z)) = I;

(5). (x → y) → x0 = (y → x) → y 0 .
By usingI→x=I By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
Proof. (1). x → I = x → (I → x) = I →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 ) By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 )
(x → x) = I → I = I. So x → I = I.
By x → I = I, using I → x = I and applying Definition(6.5.1)(I4 ), x = I.
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 ) By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 )
(2). x → (I → x) = I → (x → x) = I →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 )
I = I.
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
I → ((I → x) → x) = (I → x) → (I →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 )
x) = I.
So I → ((I → x) → x) = I. By Theorem (6.12.2)(1), (I → x) → x = I.
By x → ((I → x) = I, using (I → x) → x = I and applying
Definition(I4 )(6.5.1), I → x = x.
By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 ) By using O 0 =I By usingI→x=x
x→O = O 0 → x0 = I → x0 = x0 .
By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 ) By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
(3). x → I = x → (O → O) = O → (x →
By Theorem(6.12.2)(2) By Definition(6.5.1)(I5 )
O) = O → ((x → O) → O)0
= O → ((O →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 ) By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 )
x)→x)
0 0
= (O → x ) → (O → x )
0 0
= I.
0
By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 ) 0 By using O =I By Theorem(6.12.2)(3)(2)
O→x = x →O = 0
x →I 0
=
I.
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
(4). (x → y) → ((y → z) → (x → z)) = (x → y) →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I5 )
(x → (((y → z) → z)) = (x → y) → (x → (((z → y) →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 ) By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
y)) = (x → y) → (((z → y) → (x → y)) =
By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 )
(z → y) → (((x → y) → (x → y)) = (z → y) →
By Theorem(6.5.1)(I2 ) By Theorem(6.12.2)(3)(2)
I = (z → y) → I = I.
0 By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 ) By Definition(6.5.1)(I5 )
(5). (x → y) → x = (y → x ) → x0
0 0
=
0 By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
(x → y ) → y
0 0
= (y → x) → y . 0


313 Theorem 6.12.3. Let L be a quasi-lattice implication algebra, then for any
x, y ∈ L, the following statements are equivalent:

(1). x → y = I;

(2). for any z ∈ L, (y → z) → (x → z) = I;

(3). for any z ∈ L, (z → x) → (z → y) = I;

(4). for any z ∈ L, z → y = ((z → x) → x) → y;

269
6. Theorems

(5). for any z ∈ L, x → z = x → (z → (z → y)0 )0 .

By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
Proof. ((1) ⇒ (2)). (y → z) → (x → z) = x → ((y → z) →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I5 ) By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
z) = x → ((z → y) → y) = (z → y) →
By Theorem(6.12.3)(1) By Theorem(6.12.2)(3)(2)
(x → y) = (z → y) → I = I.
By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 ) 0 By Theorem(6.12.2)(3)(2)
((2) ⇒ (1)). x → y = 0
y → x = (y →
By Theorem(6.12.3)(2)
O) → (x → O) = I.
By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
((1) ⇒ (3)). (z → x) → (z → y) = (x0 → z 0 ) → (y 0 →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 ) By Definition(6.5.1)(I5 )
z0) = y 0 → ((x0 → z 0 ) → z 0 ) = y 0 → ((z 0 →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 ) By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
x0 ) → x0 ) = (z 0 → x0 ) → (y 0 → x0 ) = (z 0 →
By Theorem(6.12.3)(1) By Theorem(6.12.2)(3)(2)
x0 ) → (x → y) = (z 0 → x0 ) → I = I.
By Theorem(6.12.2)(2)(1)
((3) ⇒ (1)). x → y = (I → x) → (I →
By Theorem(6.12.3)(3)
y) = I.
By Theorem(6.12.2)(2)(1)
((1) ⇒ (4)). (((z → x) → x) → y) → (z → y) = I →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 )
((((z → x) → x) → y) → (z → y)) = ((z → x) → (z →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
x)) → ((((z → x) → x) → y) → (z → y)) = (z → ((z →
By Theorem(6.12.2)(4)
x) → x)) → ((((z → x) → x) → y) → (z → y)) = I
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
(z → y) → (((z → x) → x) → y) = ((z → x) →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I5 )
x) → ((z → y) → y) = ((x → z) → z) → ((y → z) →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 ) By Definition(6.5.1)(I5 )
z) = (y → z) → (((x → z) → z) → z) =
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
(y → z) → ((z → (x → z)) → (x → z)) = (y → z) → ((x →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 )
(z → z)) → (x → z)) = (y → z) → ((x → I) → (x →
By Theorem(6.12.2)(3)(2) By Theorem(6.12.2)(2)(1)
z)) = (y → z) → (I → (x → z)) = (y →
By Theorems(6.12.2)(2)(1),(6.12.3)(1)
z) → (x → z) = (x → y) → ((y → z) → (x →
By Theorem(6.12.2)(4)
z)) = I.
By (((z → x) → x) → y) → (z → y), using (z → y) → (((z → x) → x) → y)
and applying Definition (6.5.1)(I4 ), z → y = ((z → x) → x) → y).
By Theorem(6.12.2)(2)(1) By Theorem(6.12.2)(3)(1)
((4) ⇒ (1)). x → y = (I → x) → y =
By Theorems(6.12.2)(2)(1),(6.12.3)(4) By Theorem(6.12.2)(3)(1)
((O → x) → x) → y = O→y =
I
By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
((1) ⇒ (5)). (x → (z → (z → y)0 )0 ) → (x → z) = ((z →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
(z → y)0 ) → x0 ) → (z 0 → x0 ) = z 0 → (((z → (z →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I5 )
y)0 ) → x0 ) → x0 ) = z 0 → ((x0 → (z → (z → y)0 )) →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
(z → (z → y)0 )) = (x0 → (z → (z → y)0 )) → (z 0 →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
(z → (z → y)0 )) = (x0 → (z → (z → y)0 )) → (z 0 →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
((z → y) → z 0 ) = (x0 → (z → (z → y)0 )) → ((z → y) →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 )
(z 0 → z 0 )) = (x0 → (z → (z → y)0 )) → ((z → y) →
By Theorem(6.12.2)(3)(2) By Theorem(6.12.2)(3)(2)
I) = (x0 → (z → (z → y)0 )) → I = I.

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 6.12. First Part

By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
(x → z) → (x → (z → (z → y)0 )0 ) = (x → z) → ((z →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
(z → y) ) → x ) 0 0
= (z → (z → y) ) → ((x → z) →0
By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 ) By Definition(6.5.1)(I5 )
x)
0
= (z → (z → y) ) → ((z 0 → x0 ) → x0 )
0
=
By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
(z → (z → y) ) → ((x → z ) → z )
0 0 0 0
= (z → (z →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
y) ) → ((z → x) → z )
0 0
= ((z → y) → z ) → ((z → x) →
0
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 ) By Definition(6.5.1)(I5 )
z)
0
= (z → x) → ((z → y) → z 0 ) → z 0 ) =
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
(z → x) → ((z 0 → (z → y)) → (z → y)) = (z 0 → (z → y)) →
By Theorem(6.12.2)(2)(1)
((z → x) → (z → y)) = (z 0 → (z → y)) → (I → ((z →
By Theorem(6.12.3)(1)
x) → (z → y)) = (z 0 → (z → y)) → ((x → y) → ((z → x) →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
(z → y)) = (z 0 → (z → y)) → ((y 0 → x0 ) → ((x0 → z 0 ) →
By Theorem(6.12.2)(4) By Theorem(6.12.2)(3)
(y 0 → z 0 )) = (z 0 → (z → y)) → I = I
By (x → z) → (x → (z → (z → y)0 )0 ) = I, using (x → (z → (z → y)0 )0 ) →
(x → z) and applying Definition(6.5.1)(I4 ), x → z = x → (z → (z → y)0 )0 .
By Theorem(6.12.2)(2)(1)
((5) ⇒ (1)). x → y = x → (I → (I →
0 0 By Theorem(6.12.3)(5) By Theorem(6.12.2)(3)(2)
y) ) = x→I = I. 

314 Theorem 6.12.4. Let L be a quasi-lattice implication algebra, then for any
x, y ∈ L,
((x → y) → y) → y = x → y.

By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
Proof. (((x → y) → y) → y) → (x → y) = x → ((((x →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I5 )
y) → y) → y) → y) = x → ((y → ((x → y) → y)) →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
((x → y) → y)) = x → (((x → y) → (y → y)) →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 )
((x → y) → y)) = x → (((x → y) → I) → ((x → y) →
By Theorem(6.12.2)(3)(2) By Theorem(6.12.2)(2)(1)
y)) = x → (I → ((x → y) → y)) = x→
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 ) By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 )
((x → y) → y) = (x → y) → (x → y) = I.
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
(x → y) → (((x → y) → y) → y) = (x → y) → y) → (x →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 )
y) → y) = I.
By (((x → y) → y) → y) → (x → y) = I, using (x → y) → (((x → y) → y) →
y) = I and applying Definition(6.5.1)(I4 ), ((x → y) → y) → y = x → y. 

315 Theorem 6.12.5. Let L be a quasi-lattice implication algebra, then for any
x, y ∈ L, the following statements are equivalent:

(1). x ∨ y = (x → y) → y;

(2). x ∧ y = ((x → y) → x0 )0 ;

(3). x ≤ y if and only if x → y = I.

By De Morgan’s law for ∧ By Definition(6.4.3)(2)

Proof. ((1) ⇒ (2)). x∧y = (x0 ∨y 0 )0 = (y 0 ∨
0 0 By Theorem(6.12.5)(1) 0 0 By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
x) = ((y 0 → x0 ) → x ) = ((x → y) → x0 )0 .

271
 6. Theorems

By De Morgan’s law for ∨ By Definition(6.4.3)(2)

((2) ⇒ (1)). x ∨ y = (x0 ∧ y 0 )0 = (y 0 ∧
0 0 By Theorem(6.12.5)(2) 00 00 By Definition(6.4.6)(1)
x) = ((y 0 → x0 ) → y ) = (y 0 → x0 ) →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
y = (x → y) → y.
By Theorem(6.12.5)(3): x≤y⇒x∨y=y So by Theorem(6.12.5)(1): (x→y)→y=y
((1) ⇒ (3)). x → y =
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
x → ((x → y) → y) = (x → y) → (x →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 )
y) = I.
By Theorem(6.12.5)(1) By Theorem(6.12.5)(3): x→y=I
x∨y = (x → y) → y = I →
By Theorem(6.12.2)(2)(1)
y = y.
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
((3) ⇒ (1)). x → ((x → y) → y) = (x → y) → (x →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 ) By Theorem(6.12.5)(3)
y) = I ⇒ x ≤ ((x → y) → y).
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
y → ((x → y) → y) = (x → y) → (y →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 ) By Theorem(6.12.2)(3)(2) By Theorem(6.12.5)(3)
y) = (x → y) → I = I ⇒
y ≤ ((x → y) → y).
By x ≤ ((x → y) → y), using y ≤ ((x → y) → y) and applying Definition of ∨,
x ∨ y ≤ ((x → y) → y).
For any a ∈ L, if x ≤ a, y ≤ a, then x → a = I, y → a = I, and
By Theorem(6.12.2)(2)(1)
((x → y) → y) → a = ((x → y) → y) → (I →
By usingy→a=I By Definition(6.5.1)(I5 )
a) = ((x → y) → y) → ((y → a) → a) = ((x →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
y) → y) → ((a → y) → y) = (a → y) → (((x → y) → y) →
By Theorem(6.12.4) By Theorem(6.12.2)(2)(1)
y) = (a → y) → (x → y) = I → ((a → y) →
By usingx→a=I By Theorem(6.12.2)(4)
(x → y)) = (x → a) → ((a → y) → (x → y)) = I.
i.e., (x → y) → y) ≤ a.
By (x → y) → y) ≤ a and using x ∨ y ≤ ((x → y) → y) and applying the
definition of ∨, (x → y) → y = x ∨ y. 

316 Corollary 6.12.6. In a quasi-lattice implication algebra L, for any x, y, z, ∈ L,

if x ≤ y, then x → z ≥ y → z and z → x ≤ z → y.

By Theorem(6.12.2)(2)(1)
Proof. (y → z) → (x → z) = I → ((y → z) →
By x≤y By Theorem(6.12.5)(3)
(x → z)) = (x → y) → ((y → z) → (x →
By Theorem(6.12.2)(4)
z)) = I.
By (y → z) → (x → z) = I and applying Theorem (6.12.5)(3), x → z ≥ y → z.
By Theorem(6.12.2)(2)(1)
(z → x) → (z → y) = I → ((z → x) →
By x≤y By Theorem(6.12.5)(3)
(z → y)) = (x → y) → ((z → x) →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
(z → y)) = (y 0
→ x ) → ((x
0 0
→ z ) → (y
0 0
→
By Theorem(6.12.2)(4)
z ))0
= I.
By (z → x) → (z → y) = I and applying Theorem (6.12.5)(3), z → x ≤ z →
y. 

Theorem 6.12.7. Let L be a quasi-lattice implication algebra and x ∨ y = (x →

y) → y for any x, y, z ∈ L, then

272
 6.12. First Part

(1). ((x ∨ y) → x) ∨ ((x ∨ y) → y) = I;

(2). for x ≤ z and y ≤ z, x ∨ y = (z → ((z → x)0 ∧ (z → y)0 ))0 ;

(3). z → (x ∧ y) ≤ (z → x) ∧ (z → y);

(4). (x ∨ y) → z ≤ (x → z) ∧ (y → z);

(5). (x → z) ∨ (y → z) ≤ (x ∧ y) → z;

(6). (z → x) ∨ (z → y) ≤ z → (x ∧ y).
By Definition(6.4.3)(2)
Proof. (1). ((x ∨ y) → x) ∨ ((x ∨ y) → y) = ((x ∨ y) →
By using x∨y=(x→y)→y
y) ∨ ((x ∨ y) → x) = (((x ∨ y) → y) → ((x ∨ y) →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
x)) → ((x ∨ y) → x) = ((x ∨ y) → (((x ∨ y) → y) →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
x)) → ((x ∨ y) → x) = ((x ∨ y) → (x0 → ((x ∨ y) →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
y)0 )) → ((x ∨ y) → x) = (x0 → ((x ∨ y) → ((x ∨ y) →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
y)0 )) → ((x ∨ y) → x) = (((x ∨ y) → ((x ∨ y) →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
y) ) → x) → ((x ∨ y) → x)
0 0
= ((((x ∨ y) → y) →
By Theorem(6.12.5)(2)
(x ∨ y) ) → x) → ((x ∨ y) → x)
0 0
= (((x ∨ y) ∧ y) →
By Definitions ∨ and ∧
x) → ((x ∨ y) → x) = (y → x) → ((x ∨ y) →
By y≤x∨y and by Corollary (6.12.6): (y→x)≤(x∨y)→x and by Theorem(6.12.5)(3)
x) = I.
0 By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
(2). (z → ((z → x) ∧ (z → y) ))0 0
= ((z → x) ∧ (z →
0

0 0 By De Morgan’s law for ∨ 0 0 By Definition(6.4.3)(2)

y) ) → z )
0
= ((z → x) ∨ (z → y)) → z ) =
0 0 By using x∨y=(x→y)→y
(((z → y) ∨ (z → x)) → z ) = ((((z → y) → (z →
0 0 By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
x)) → (z → x)) → z ) = (((z → ((z → y) → x)) →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
(z → x)) → z ) 0 0
= (((z → (x0 → (z → y)0 )) →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
(z → x)) → z 0 )0 = (((x0 → (z → (z → y)0 )) →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
(z → x)) → z 0 )0 = ((((z → (z → y)0 )0 → x) →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
(z → x)) → z 0 )0 = (((((z → y) → z 0 )0 → x) →
By Theorem(6.12.5)(2)
(z → x)) → z 0 )0 = ((((z ∧ y) → x) → (z → x)) →
0 0 By using supposition x≤z, y≤z By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
z) = ((y → x) → (z → x)) → z 0 )0 =
0 0 By using supposition x∨y=(x→y)→y
(z → ((y → x) → x) → z ) = ((z → (y ∨ x)) →
0 0 By Definition(6.4.3)(2) 0 0 By Theorem(6.12.5)(2)
z) = (z → (x ∨ y)) → z ) = z ∧ (x ∨
By using supposition x≤z, y≤z
y) = x ∨ y.
By using x∧y≤x and by Theorem(6.12.6)(2)
(3). z → (x ∧ y) ≤ (z → x) and z →
By using x∧y≤y and by Theorem(6.12.6)(2)
(x ∧ y) ≤ (z → y). Thus z → (x ∧ y) ≤
(z → x) ∧ (z → y).
By using x∨y≥x and by Theorem(6.12.6)(1)
(4). (x ∨ y) → z ≤ (x → z) and (x ∨ y) →
By using x∨y≥y and by Theorem(6.12.6)(1)
z ≤ (y → z). Thus (x ∨ y) → z ≤ (x →
z) ∧ (y → z).

273
 6. Theorems

By using x∧y≤x and by Theorem(6.12.6)(1)

(5). (x ∧ y) → z ≥ (x → z) and (x ∧ y) →
By using x∧y≤y and by Theorem(6.12.6)(1)
z ≥ (y → z). Thus (x ∧ y) → z ≥ (x →
z) ∨ (y → z).
By using x∨y≥x and by Theorem(6.12.6)(2)
(6). z → (x ∨ y) ≥ (z → x) and z →
By using x∨y≥y and by Theorem(6.12.6)(2)
(x ∨ y) ≥ (z → y). Thus z → (x ∨ y) ≥
(x → z) ∨ (y → z). 

318 Theorem 6.12.8. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, then x ≤ y if and only
if x → y = I for any x, y ∈ L.
By using supposition x≤yBy applying definition of ∧
Proof. (⇒). x → y = (x ∧ y) →
By Theorem(6.12.1)(l2 ) By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 )
y = (x → y) ∨ (y → y) = (x → y) ∨
By applying definition of ∨ By Theorem(6.12.1)(l1 )
I = I. (⇐). (x ∨ y) → y = (x →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 ) By applying definition of ∨
y) ∧ (y → y) = (x → y) ∨ I = I. And
By Theorem(6.12.1)(l3 ) By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 )
y → (x ∨ y) = (y → x) ∨ (y → y) = (y →
By applying Definition of ∨
x) ∨ I = I. By Definition (6.5.1)(I4 ), x ∨ y = y. By
Definition of ∨, x ≤ y. 

Theorem 6.12.9. Let L be a quasi-lattice implication algebra, then L is a lattice

implication algebra if and only if x ∨ y = (x → y) → y for any x, y ∈ L.

Proof. (⇒). Suppose L is a lattice implication algebra. By Theorem (6.12.8),

the statement x ≤ y if and only if x → y = I for any x, y ∈ L. holds. By
Theorem (6.12.8), this statement is equivalent with x ∨ y = (x → y) → y for any
x, y ∈ L. Thus if L is a lattice implication algebra, then x ∨ y = (x → y) → y
for any x, y ∈ L.
(⇐). Suppose x ∨ y = (x → y) → y for any x, y ∈ L. It’s enough to prove
Theorem (6.12.1) (l1 ) and (l2 ).
By Theorem(6.12.5)(2)
((x → z) ∧ (y → z)) → ((x ∨ y) → z) = (((x → z) → (y →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 )
z)) → (x → z) ) → ((x ∨ y) → z)
0 0
= ((y → ((x → z) →
By using supposition x∨y=(x→y)→y
z)) → (x → z) ) → ((x ∨ y) → z)
0 0
= ((y →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
(x ∨ z)) → (x → z) ) → ((x ∨ y) → z) 0 0
= ((x ∨ y) →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
z) → ((y → (x ∨ z)) → (x → z) )
0 0
= (y → (x ∨ z)) →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
(((x ∨ y) → z) → (x → z) )
0 0
= (y → (x ∨ z)) → ((x → z) →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
((x ∨ y) → z)) = (y → (x ∨ z)) → ((x ∨ y) → ((x → z) →
By Theorem(6.12.5)(1) By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
z)) = (y → (x ∨ z)) → ((x ∨ y) → (x ∨ z)) =
By Theorem(6.12.5)(1)
(x ∨ y) → ((y → (x ∨ z)) → (x ∨ z)) = (x ∨ y) →
By Theorem(6.12.5)(3) and applying x∨z≤y∨x∨z
(y ∨ x ∨ z) = I. Thus ((x → z) ∧ (y →
z)) → ((x ∨ y) → z) = I. Therefore, by Theorem(6.12.5)(3) and applying
((x → z) ∧ (y → z)) → ((x ∨ y) → z) = I, ((x → z) ∧ (y → z)) ≤ ((x ∨ y) → z).
By x ≤ x ∨ y and Corollary (6.12.6)(1), x → z ≥ (x ∨ y) → z. By y ≤ x ∨ y
and Corollary (6.12.6)(1), y → z ≥ (x ∨ y) → z. Thus by using Definition of
∧, (x → z) ∧ (y → z) ≥ (x ∨ y) → z. By (x → z) ∧ (y → z) ≥ (x ∨ y) → z and

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 6.12. First Part

(x → z) ∧ (y → z) ≤ (x ∨ y) → z, we have (x → z) ∧ (y → z) = (x ∨ y) → z. It
implies Theorem (6.12.1) (l1 ) holds.
By x ≥ x ∧ y and Corollary (6.12.6)(1), x → z ≤ (x ∧ y) → z. By
y ≥ x ∧ y and Corollary (6.12.6)(1), y → z ≤ (x ∧ y) → z. Thus by
using Definition of ∨, (x → z) ∨ (y → z) ≤ (x ∧ y) → z. The proof the
statement, ((x ∧ y) → z)) → ((x → z) ∨ (y → z)) = I is similar. Thus, by
Theorem(6.12.5)(3) and applying ((x ∧ y) → z)) → ((x → z) ∨ (y → z)) = I,
((x ∧ y) → z)) ≤ ((x → z) ∨ (y → z)). By ((x ∧ y) → z)) ≤ ((x → z) ∨ (y → z))
and ((x ∧ y) → z)) ≥ ((x → z) ∨ (y → z)), we have ((x ∧ y) → z)) = ((x →
z) ∨ (y → z)). It implies Theorem (6.12.1) (l2 ) holds.
Thus L is a quasi-lattice implication algebra which satisfies Theorem (6.12.1)
(l1 ) and (l2 ). It implies that L is a lattice implication algebra. 

3110 Theorem 6.12.10. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, then for any , xy ∈ L,

(1). x → y ≥ x0 ∨ y;

(2). for any z ∈ L, x → z = y → z if and only if x = y if and only if for any

z ∈ L, z → x = z → y.

Proof. (1). By L is lattice implication algebra and Theorem (6.12.5) (3), it’s
enough to show (x0 ∨ y) → (x → y) = I.
By Theorem(6.12.1)(l1 )
(x0 ∨ y) → (x → y) = (x0 → (x → y)) ∧ (y → (x →
By Defintion(6.5.1)(I3 )(I1 ) By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 )
y)) = (x0 → (y 0 → x0 ))∧(x → (y → y)) =
By Theorem(6.12.2)(3)(2)
(x0 → (y 0 → x0 )) ∧ (y → I) = (x0 → (y 0 → x0 )) ∧
By Definition of ∧ By Theorem(6.5.1)(I1 )
I = (x0 → (y 0 → x0 )) = (y 0 → (x0 →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 ) By Theorem(6.12.2)(3)(2)
x0 )) = y0 → I = I.
By L is lattice implication algebra, Theorem (6.12.5) (3) and (x0 ∨ y) → (x →
y) = I, x → y ≥ x0 ∨ y.
By Definition(6.5.1)(I4 )
(2). ∀z ∈ L, x → z = y → z ≡ ∀z ∈ L, (x →
z) → (y → z) = I, ∀z ∈ L, (y → z) → (x → z) =
By L is lattice implication algebra and Theorem(6.12.5)(3)
I ≡ ∀z ∈ L, (x → z) ≤
By Corollary(6.12.6)(1)(2)
(y → z), ∀z ∈ L, (y → z) ≤ (x → z) ≡ x ≤ y, y ≤
By Definition =
x ≡ x = y.
By Definition(6.5.1)(I4 )
∀z ∈ L, z → x = z → y ≡ ∀z ∈ L, (z →
x) → (z → y) = I, ∀z ∈ L, (z → y) → (z → x) =
By L is lattice implication algebra and Theorem(6.12.5)(3)
I ≡ ∀z ∈ L, (z → x) ≤
By Corollary(6.12.6)(1)(2)
(z → y), ∀z ∈ L, (z → y) ≤ (z → x) ≡ x ≤ y, y ≤
By Definition =
x ≡ x = y. 

Theorem 6.12.11. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, then for any x, y ∈ L,

(x → y) ∨ (y → x) = I.
By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 )
Proof. For any x, y ∈ L, I = (x ∨ y) → (x ∨
By L is lattice implication algebra and Theorem(6.12.1)(l3 )
y) = ((x ∨ y) → x) ∨ ((x ∨ y) →

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 6. Theorems

By L is lattice implication algebra and Theorem(6.12.1)(l1 )

y) = ((x → x)∧(y → x))∨((x →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 ) By Definition ∧
y) ∧ (y → y)) = (I ∧ (y → x)) ∨ ((x → y) ∧ I) =
By Definition(6.4.3)(2)
(y → x) ∨ (x → y) = (x → y) ∨ (y → x). 

3112 Theorem 6.12.12. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, then for any x, y, z ∈
L,

(1). (x → z) → (y → z) = y → (x ∨ z) = (z → x) → (y → x);

(2). (z → x) → (z → y) = (x ∧ z) → y = (x → z) → (x → y);
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
Proof. (1). (x → z) → (y → z) = y → ((x → z) →
By Theorem(6.12.5)(1) and by Theorem(6.12.8)
z) = y → (x ∨ z).
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
(z → x) → (y → x) = y → ((z → x) →
By Theorem(6.12.5)(1) and by Theorem(6.12.8) By Definition(6.4.3)(2)
x) = y → (z ∨ x) = y→
(x ∨ z).
By (z → x) → (y → x) = y → (x ∨ z) and (x → z) → (y → z) = y → (x ∨ z),
we have

(x → z) → (y → z) = y → (x ∨ z) = (z → x) → (y → x).
By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
(2). (z → x) → (z → y) = (x0 → z 0 ) → (y 0 →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 ) By Theorem(6.12.5)(1) and by Theorem(6.12.8)
z0) = y 0 → ((x0 → z 0 ) → z 0 ) =
By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 ) De Morgan law for ∨
y → (x ∨ z )
0 0 0
= (x ∧ z) → y.
By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
(x → z) → (x → y) = (z 0 → x0 ) → (y 0 →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 ) By Theorem(6.12.5)(1) and by Theorem(6.12.8)
x)
0
= y → ((z → x ) → x )
0 0 0 0
=
By Definition(6.4.3)(2) By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 ) De Morgan law for ∨
y → (z ∨x )
0 0 0
= y → (x ∨z ) =0 0 0

(x ∧ z) → y.
By (z → x) → (z → y) = (x ∧ z) → y and (x → z) → (x → y) = (x ∧ z) → y,
we have

(z → x) → (z → y) = (x ∧ z) → y = (x → z) → (x → y).

Theorem 6.12.13. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, then (L, ∨, ∧) is a

distributive lattice.
By Definition, ∀ x,y,z∈L, x∨(y∧z)=(x∨y)∧(x∨z)
Proof. (L, ∨, ∧) is a distributive lattice ≡
By Definition(6.4.3)(2) By Theorem(6.12.5)(1) and by Theorem(6.12.8)
x ∨ (y ∧ z) = (y ∧ z) ∨ x =
By L is lattice implication algebra and Theorem(6.12.1)(l2 )
((y ∧ z) → x) → x = ((y →
By L is lattice implication algebra and Theorem(6.12.1)(l1 )
x) ∨ (z → x)) → x = ((y →
By Theorem(6.12.5)(1) and by Theorem(6.12.8)
x) → x) ∧ ((z → x) → x) = (y ∨ x) ∧ (z ∨
By Definition(6.4.3)(2)
x) = (x ∨ y) ∧ (x ∨ z). 

Theorem 6.12.14. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, then for any x, y ∈ L,

276
 6.12. First Part

(1). x ∨ y = I if and only if x → y = y;

(2). x ∧ y = O if and only if x → y = x0 ;
By Theorem(6.12.5)(1) and by Theorem(6.12.8)
Proof. (1). x ∨ y = I ≡ (x → y) → y =
By Theorem(6.12.8) By Theorem(6.12.10)1 t∨y≥y
I ≡ x→y ≤y ≡ x → y ≤ y, x → y ≥
By Definition≤,≥≡=
y ≡ x → y = y.
De Morgan law for ∧ By Definition(6.4.3)(2)
(2). x ∧ y = O ≡ x0 ∨ y 0 = I ≡ y 0 ∨ x0 =
By Theorem(6.12.5)(1) and by Theorem(6.12.8) By Theorem(6.12.8)
I ≡ (y 0 → x0 ) → x0 = I ≡
By Theorem(6.12.10)1 t∨x0 ≥x0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
y → x ≤ x ≡ y → x ≤ x, y → x0 ≥
By Definition≤,≥≡= By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
x0 ≡ y 0 → x0 = x0 ≡ x → y = x0 . 
3115 Theorem 6.12.15. Let L be a lattice implication algebra. For any x, y, z ∈ L,
(1). if x → y = x → z, then x → (y ∨ z) = x → (y ∧ z) = x → y;
(2). if y → x = z → x, then (y ∧ z) → x = (y ∨ z) → x = y → x;
(3). x → (y → z) = (x ∨ y) → z if and only if x → (y → z) = x → z = y → z.
By Theorem(6.12.1)(l3 )
Proof. (1). x → (y ∨ z) = (x → y) ∨ (x →
By supposition x→y=x→z By Definition(6.4.3)(I3 )
z) = (x → y) ∨ (x → y) = x → y.
By Theorem(6.12.1)(l4 ) By supposition x→y=x→z
x → (y ∧ z) = (x → y) ∨ (x → z) = (x →
By Definition(6.4.3)(I3 )
y) ∨ (x → y) = x → y.
By Theorem(6.12.1)(l2 ) By supposition y→x=z→x
(2). (y ∧ z) → x = (y → x) ∨ (z → x) =
By Definition(6.4.3)(I3 )
(y → x) ∨ (y → x) = y → x.
By Theorem(6.12.1)(l1 ) By supposition y→x=z→x
(y ∨ z) → x = (y → x) ∧ (z → x) = (y →
By Definition(6.4.3)(I3 )
x) ∧ (y → x) = y → x.
(3). (⇒). Suppose x → (y → z) = (x ∨ y) → z.
By Theorem(6.12.10)(1) By supposition x→(y→z)=(x∨y)→z
y → z ≤ x → (y → z) =
By Theorem(6.12.1)(l1 ) By Definition ∧, x∧y≤x
(x ∨ y) → z = (x → z) ∧ (y → z) ≤ y → z.
Thus by y → z ≤ y → z, x → (y → z) = y → z.
By Theorem(6.12.10)(1) By supposition y→(x→z)=(y∨x)→z
x → z ≤ y → (x → z) =
By Theorem(6.12.1)(l1 ) By Definition ∧, x∧y≤x
(y ∨ x) → z = (y → z) ∧ (x → z) ≤ x → z.
Thus by x → z ≤ x → z, y → (x → z) = x → z. Thus by Defintion (6.5.1)(I1 ),
y → (x → z) = x → (y → z). Therefore by y → (x → z) = x → (y → z) and
y → (x → z) = x → z, we have x → (y → z) = x → z.
By Theorem(6.12.1)(l1 )
(⇐). Suppose x → (y → z) = x → z = y → z. (x ∨ y) → z =
By supposition x→z=y→x By Definition(6.4.3)(3)
(x → z) ∧ (y → z) = (x → z) ∧ (x → z) =
By supposition, x→z=x→(y→z)
x→z = x → (y → z). Thus by x → (y → z) ≤ x →
(y → z), (x ∨ y) → z = x → (y → z). 
Corollary 6.12.16. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, then for any x, y, z ∈
L,

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 6. Theorems

(1). if x → y = x → z, then for any t ∈ [y ∧ z, y ∨ z], x → t = x → y;

(2). if y → x = z → x, then for any t ∈ [y ∧ z, y ∨ z], t → x = y → x.
By Corollary(6.12.6)(2) By Theorem(6.12.1)(l3 )
Proof. (1). x → t ≤ x → (y ∨ z) = (x →
By supposition x→y=x→z By Definition(6.4.3)(3)
y) ∨ (x → z) = (x → y) ∨ (x → y) =
By Definition(6.4.3)(3) By Theorem(6.12.1)(l4 )
x → y = (x → y) ∧ (x → z) = x →
By Corollary(6.12.6)(2)
(y ∧ z) ≤ x → t.
By x → t ≤ x → t, x → t = x → y.
By Corollary(6.12.6)(1) By Theorem(6.12.1)(l1 )
(2). t → x ≥ (y ∨ z) → x = (y →
By supposition y→x=z→x By Definition(6.4.3)(3)
x) ∧ (z → x) = (y → x) ∧ (y → x) =
By Definition(6.4.3)(3) By Theorem(6.12.1)(l2 )
y → x = (y → x) ∨ (z → x) = (y ∧ z) →
By Corollary(6.12.6)(1)
x ≥ t → x.
By t → x ≤ t → x, t → x = y → x. 

Theorem 6.12.17. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, then for any x, y, z ∈

L,
(1). (x ∧ z) → (y ∧ z) = (x ∧ z) → y;
(2). (x → y) ∧ z ≤ (x → (y ∧ z)) ∧ ((x ∨ z 0 ) → y);
(3). ((x → y) ∧ (y → z)) → (x → z) = (x → y) ∨ (y → z) ∨ (x → z).

Proof. (1). We start to prove this equality from left statement to right statement.
Thus, we write down the leftward and then moving forward to rightward.
By Theorem(6.12.1)(l4 ) By Theorem(6.12.8)
(x∧z) → (y∧z) = ((x∧z) → y)∧((x∧z) → z) =
By Definition of ∧
((x ∧ z) → y) ∧ I = (x ∧ z) → y.
By Theorem(6.12.1)(l4 ) By Theorem(6.12.10)(1)
(2). x → (y ∧ z) = (x → y) ∧ (x → z) ≥
(x → y) ∧ z.
By Theorem(6.12.1)(l1 ) By Theorem(6.12.10)(1)
(x ∨ z 0 ) → y = (x → y) ∧ (z 0 → y) ≥ (x →
y) ∧ z.
Thus by (x → y) ∧ z ≤ (x ∨ z 0 ) → y and (x → y) ∧ z ≤ x → (y ∧ z), we have
(x → y) ∧ z ≤ (x → (y ∧ z)) ∧ ((x ∨ z 0 ) → y).
By Theorem(6.12.1)(l2 )
(3). ((x → y) ∧ (y → z)) → (x → z) = ((x → y) → (x →
By Theorem(6.12.12)(2)
z))∨((y → z) → (x → z)) = ((x∧y) → z)∨((y → z) → (x →
By Theorem(6.12.12)(1) By Theorem(6.12.1)(l2 )
z)) = ((x ∧ y) → z) ∨ (x → (y ∨ z)) = ((x →
By Theorem(6.12.1)(l3 )
z) ∨ (y → z)) ∨ (x → (y ∨ z)) = ((x → z) ∨ (y → z)) ∨ ((x →
By Definition(6.4.3)(1)
y) ∨ (x → z)) = (x → z) ∨ (y → z) ∨ (x → y) ∨ (x →
By Definition(6.4.3)(2) By Definition(6.4.3)(3)
z) = (x → z) ∨ (x → z) ∨ (y → z) ∨ (x → y) =
(x → z) ∨ (y → z) ∨ (x → y). 

3118 Theorem 6.12.18. Let L be lattice implication algebra, a, b ∈ L. For any

x, y ∈ L,
(a → b)0 ≤ (x → a) ∧ (b → y).

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 6.12. First Part

Proof. By Theorem (6.12.8), it’s enough to show that (a → b)0 → ((x →

a) ∧ (b → y)) = I.
By Theorem(6.12.1)(l4 )
(a → b)0 → ((x → a) ∧ (b → y) = ((a → b)0 → (x →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
a) ∧ ((a → b)0 → (b → y)) = (x → ((a → b)0 → a)) ∧ (y 0 →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
((a → b)0 → b0 )) = (x → (a0 → (a → b))) ∧ (y 0 → (b →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
(a → b))) = (x → (a0 → (b0 → a0 ))) ∧ (y 0 → (b → (b0 →
By Theorem(6.12.10)(1) and by Theorem(6.12.8) By Definition(6.4.3)(3)
a0 ))) = I ∧I = I.
By Theorem (6.12.8), and (a → b)0 → ((x → a) ∧ (b → y)) = I, we have

(a → b)0 ≤ (x → a) ∧ (b → y).

Theorem 6.12.19. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, a, b ∈ L, then

a → b = O if and only if a = I and b = O.

Proof. (⇒). Consider a → b = O.

By Theorem(6.12.10)(1) By Definition of ∨,O O 0 =I
a→b=O ⇒ O ≥ a0 ∨b ≡ a0 = O, b = O ≡
a = I, b = O.
(⇐). Consider a = I and b = O.
By Theorem (6.12.2)(2) By Definition of I,I 0
a = I, b = O ⇒ a → b = I → O = I0 ≡ a→
b = O. 

Theorem 6.12.20. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, then for any x, y, z ∈

L,

(1). z → (y → x) ≥ (z → y) → (z → x);

(2). z ≤ y → x if and only if y ≤ z → x.

Proof. (1). We use direct approach to prove this statement. We goes from
leftward to rightward.
Definition(6.5.1)(I1 ) By Theorem(6.12.10)(1) and Corollary(6.12.6)(1)
z → (y → x) = y → (z → x) ≥
(z → y) → (z → x).
By Theorem(6.12.8) Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
(2). z ≤ y → x ≡ z → (y → x) = I ≡ y → (z →
By Theorem(6.12.8)
x) = I ≡ y ≤ z → x. 

Theorem 6.12.21. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, then for any x, y, z ∈

L,
(x → (y → z)) → ((x → y) → (x → z)) = x ∨ y ∨ ((x ∧ y) → z).
By Theorem(6.12.12)(2)
Proof. (x → (y → z)) → ((x → y) → (x → z)) = (x →
By Theorem(6.12.1)(l2 )
(y → z)) → ((x ∧ y) → z) = (x → (y → z)) → (x →
By Theorem(6.12.1)(l3 )
z) ∨ (y → z) = ((x → (y → z)) → (x → z)) ∨ ((x →
By Theorem(6.12.5)(1)
(y → z)) → (y → z)) = ((x → (y → z)) → (x →
By Theorem(6.5.1)(I1 )
z))(x ∨ (y → z)) = ((y → (x → z)) → (x → z)) ∨ (x ∨ (y →

279
6. Theorems

By Theorem(6.12.5)(1) By Definition(6.4.3)(2)
z)) = y ∨ (x → z) ∨ x ∨ (y → z) = x ∨ y ∨ (x →
By Theorem(6.12.1)(l2 )
z) ∨ (y → z) = x ∨ y ∨ (x ∧ y) → z). 

Theorem 6.12.22. Let L be a lattice implication algebra, then the following

statements are equivalent:
(1). for any x, y, z ∈ L, x → (y → z) = (x ∧ y) → z;
(2). for any x, y, z ∈ L, (x → (y → z)) → ((x → y) → (x → z)) = I;
(3). for any x, y ∈ L, x → (x → y) = x → y.
By using (1)
Proof. (1 ⇒ 2). (x → (y → z)) → ((x → y) → (x → z)) = ((x ∧ y) →
By Theorem(6.12.12)(2)
z) → ((x → y) → (x → z)) = ((x → y) → (x → z)) → ((x →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 )
y) → (x → z)) = I.
By Theorem(6.12.2)(2)
(2 ⇒ 3). (x → (x → y)) → (x → y) = (x → (x → y)) →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 )
(I → (x → y)) = (x → (x → y)) → ((x → x) → (x →
By applying (2)
y)) = I.
(3 ⇒ 1). We prove this case by writing rightward to get leftward.
By applying (3) By Theorem(6.12.1)(l2 )
(x∧y) → z = (x∧y) → ((x∧y) → z) = (x → (x →
By using (3)
z)) ∨ (x → (y → z)) ∨ (y → (x → z)) ∨ (y → (y → z)) = (x → z) ∨ (x →
By Theorem(6.12.10)(1 )and by Definition of ∨
(y → z)) ∨ (y → (x → z)) ∨ (y → z) =
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
(x → (y → z)) ∨ (y → (x → z) = (x → (y → z)) ∨ (x → (y →
By Definition(6.4.3)(3)
z)) = (x → (y → z)). 

Theorem 6.12.23. In a lattice implication algebra L,

(1). x ⊗ y = y ⊗ x, x ⊕ y = y ⊕ x;
(2). (x ⊗ y) ⊗ z = x ⊗ (y ⊗ z), (x ⊕ y) ⊕ z = x ⊕ (y ⊕ z);
0 0 0 0 0 0
(3). (x ⊗ y) = x ⊕ y , (x ⊕ y) = x ⊗ y ;
(4). x ⊗ y ≤ x ≤ x ⊕ y, x ⊗ y ≤ y ≤ x ⊕ y;
0 0
(5). O ⊗ x = O, I ⊗ x = x, x ⊗ x = O, O ⊕ x = x, I ⊕ x = I, x ⊕ x = I;
0
(6). x → (x ⊗ y) = x ∨ y = (x ⊕ y) → y;
(7). (x → y) ⊗ x = x ∧ y;
(8). if x ≤ a and y ≤ b, then x ⊗ y ≤ a ⊗ b and x ⊕ y ≤ a ⊕ b;
0 0 0 0 0 0
(9). (x ⊗ y) = x ⊕ y , (x ⊕ y) = x ⊗ y ;
(10). x → (y → z) = (x ⊗ y) → z;
(11). x ≤ y → z if and only if x ⊗ y ≤ z;
(12). a ⊗ (b ∨ c) = (a ⊗ b) ∨ (a ⊗ c), a ⊗ (b ∧ c) = (a ⊗ b) ∧ (a ⊗ c);
(13). x ⊗ (y → z) ≤ y → (x ⊗ z), x ⊕ (y → z) = y → (x ⊕ z);

280
 6.12. First Part

(14). a ⊕ (b ∨ c) = (a ⊕ b) ∨ (a ⊕ c), a ⊕ (b ∧ c) = (a ⊕ b) ∧ (a ⊕ c);

(15). a ⊗ b = (a ∨ b) ⊗ (a ∧ b), a ⊕ b = (a ∨ b) ⊕ (a ∧ b);

hold for any x, y, z, a, b, c ∈ L.

By Definition(6.5.6) By Definition(6.5.1)I3
Proof. (1). x ⊗ y = (x → y 0 )0 = (y 00 →
0 0 By Definition(6.4.6)(1) 0 0 By Definition(6.5.6)
x) = (y → x ) = y ⊗ x.
By Definition(6.5.6) By Definition(6.5.1)I3 By Definition(6.4.6)(1)
x⊕y = x → y0
= y 0 → x00 =
By Definition(6.5.6)
y →x0
= y ⊕ x.
By Definition(6.5.6) By Definition(6.5.6)
(2). (x ⊗ y) ⊗ z = (x → y 0 )0 ⊗ z = ((x → y 0 )0 →
0 0 By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 ) 0 By Definition(6.4.6)(1)
z) = (z 00 → (x → y 0 )) = (z → (x →
0 By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 ) 0 By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
y ))0
= (x → (z → y )) 0
= (x → (y 00 →
By Definition(6.4.6)(1) By Definition(6.5.6)
z 0 ))0 = (x → (y → z 0 ))0 = x ⊗ (y ⊗ z).
By Definition(6.5.6) By Definition(6.5.6)
(x ⊕ y) ⊕ z = (x → y) ⊕ z
0
= (x0 → y)0 →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 ) By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 )
z = z 0 → (x0 → y) = (x0 → (z 0 →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 ) By Definition(6.5.6)
y) = (x0 → (y 0 → z) = x ⊕ (y ⊕ z).
By Definition(6.5.6) By Definition(6.4.6)(1)
(3). (x ⊗ y) 0
= (x → y) 0 00
= x →
00 By Definition(6.4.6)(1) 0 By Definition(6.5.6)
y = x →y 00
= 0
x ⊕y . 0
By Definition(6.5.6) By Definition(6.4.6)(1)
(x ⊕ y) 0
= (x 0
→ y) 0
= (x0 →
00 0 By Definition(6.5.6)
y ) = 0
x ⊗y . 0
By Definition(6.5.6) By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
(4). (x ⊗ y) → x = (x → y 0 )0 → x = x0 →
By Definition(6.4.6)(1) By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
(x → y 0 )00 = x0 → (x → y 0 ) = x0 →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 ) By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 )
(y → x0 ) = y → (x0 → x0 ) = y →
By Theorem(6.12.2)(3)
I = I.
By applying Theorems (6.12.5)(3), (6.12.8)(3) and (x ⊗ y) → x = I, we have
(x ⊗ y) ≤ x.
By Definition(6.5.6) By Definition(6.4.6)(1)
x → (x⊕y) = x → (x0 → y) = x → (y 0 → x00 ) =
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 ) By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 )
x → (y → x) 0
= y → (x → x)
0
= y0 →
By Theorem(6.12.2)(3)
I = I
By applying Theorem (6.12.5)(3), Theorem(6.12.8) and x → (x ⊗ y) = I, we
have (x ⊕ y) ≥ x.
Thus (x ⊗ y) ≤ x ≤ (x ⊕ y).
Hence by item (4)(1), (y ⊗ x) ≤ y ≤ (y ⊕ x). By item (1), x ⊗ y = (y ⊗ x) ≤
y ≤ (y ⊕ x) = x ⊕ y. Therefore, x ⊗ y ≤ y ≤ x ⊕ y.
By Definition(6.5.6) By Theorem(6.12.2)(3)(1) By Definitions of 0 ,I
(5). O ⊗ x = (O → x0 )0 = I0 =
O.
By Definition(6.5.6) By Theorem(6.12.2)(2)(1) 00 By Definition(6.4.6)(1)
I ⊗x = (I → x0 )0 = x = x.
0 By Definition(6.5.6) 00 0 By Definition(6.4.6)(1) 0 By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 )
x⊗x = (x → x ) = (x → x) =
0
0 By Definitions of ,I
I = O. 0
By Definition(6.5.6) By Definitions of ,I By Theorem(6.12.2)(2)(1)
O⊕x = O0 → x = I→x = x.

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6. Theorems

By Definition(6.5.6) By Definitions of 0 ,I By Theorem(6.12.2)(3)(1)

I ⊕x = I0 → x = O→x = I.
By Definition(6.5.6) 0 By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 )
x⊕x 0
= 0
x →x = I.
By Definition(6.5.6) By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 )
(6). x → (x ⊗ y) = x → (x → y 0 )00 =
By Definition(6.5.1)(I2 ) By Theorem(6.12.5)(1)
(x → y 0 ) → x00 = (y → x0 ) → x0 =
0 By Definition(6.4.3)(2)
y∨x = x0 ∨ y.
By Definition(6.5.6) By Theorem(6.12.5)(1)
(x ⊕ y) → y = (x0 → y) → y = x0 ∨ y.
By Definition(6.5.6) 0 0 By Theorem(6.12.5)(2)
(7). (x → y) ⊗ x = ((x → y) → x ) = x ∧ y.
(8). Easy to check.
By Definition(6.5.6) By Definition(6.4.6)(1)
(9). (x ⊗ y)0 = (x → y 0 )00 = x →
0 By Definition(6.4.6)(1) 0 By Definition(6.5.6)
y = 00
x →y = 0
x ⊕y . 0
By Definition(6.5.6) By Definition(6.4.6)(1)
(x ⊕ y) 0
= (x 0
→ y) 0
= (x0 →
00 0 By Definition(6.5.6)
y ) = 0
x ⊗y . 0
By Definition(6.5.6) By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
(10). (x ⊗ y) → z = (x → y 0 )0 → z = z0 →
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 ) By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
(x → y 0 ) = x → (z 0 → y 0 ) = x → (y → z).
By Theorem(6.12.5)(3) and by Theorem(6.12.8)
(11). (x ⊗ y) ≤ z ≡ (x ⊗ y) → z =
By Definition(6.5.6) By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
I. ≡ (x → y 0 )0 → z = I. ≡ z 0 → (x → y 0 ) =
By Definition(6.5.1)(I1 ) By Definition(6.5.1)(I3 )
I. ≡ x → (z 0 → y 0 ) = I. ≡ x → (y → z) =
By Theorem(6.12.5)(3) and by Theorem(6.12.8)
I. ≡ x ≤ y → z.
By Definition(6.5.6) By De Morgan law for ∨
(12). a ⊗ (b ∨ c) = (a → (b ∨ c)0 )0 = (a →
0 By Theorem(6.12.1)(l4 ) 0 By De Morgan law for ∧
(b ∧ c ))
0 0
= ((a → b ) ∧ (a → c ))
0 0
= (a →
0 0 By Definition(6.5.6)
b ) ∨ (a → c )
0 0
= (a ⊗ b) ∨ (a ⊗ c).
By Definition(6.5.6) By De Morgan law for ∧
a ⊗ (b ∧ c) = (a → (b ∧ c)0 )0 = (a → (b0 ∨
By Theorem(6.12.1)(l3 ) By De Morgan law for ∨
c0 ))0 = ((a → b0 ) ∨ (a → c0 ))0 = (a →
0 0 By Definition(6.5.6)
b0 )0 ∧ (a → c ) = (a ⊗ b) ∧ (a ⊗ c).
(13), (14), (15). Easy to check. 

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 CHAPTER 7

Neutrosophic Graphs

7.1 Abstract
New notions are defined in the
comparable structures on these
three models to understand the
behaviors of these models
according to the notions.

n this outlet, a journey amid three models are designed. Graphs, fuzzy graphs
and neutrosophic graphs are three models which form main parts. Assigning
one specific number with some conditions to vertices and edges of graphs make
them to be titled as fuzzy graphs and assigning three specific numbers with
some conditions to vertices and edges of graphs make them to be titled as
neutrosophic graphs. In other viewpoint, neutrosophic graphs are 3-array fuzzy
graphs which every things are triple. To make more sense, the well-known
graphs are defined in new ways. For example, crisp complete, fuzzy complete
and neutrosophic complete when the context is about being complete in every
model. New notions are defined in the comparable structures on these three
models to understand the behaviors of these models according to the notions.

7.2 Acknowledgements

The words of mind and the minds

of words, are too eligible to be in
the stage of acknowledgements

he author is going to say his gratitude and his appreciation about the brains
and their hands which are showing the importance of words in the framework
of every wisdom, knowledge, arts and emotions which are streaming in the
lines from the words, notions, ideas and approaches to have the material which
is only the way to flourish the minds, the growing the notions, advancing ways
and making the stable ways to be amid the events and storms of minds for
surviving from them and making the outstanding experiences about the tools
and ideas to be on the star lines of words and shining like stars, forever.

283
7. Neutrosophic Graphs

7.3 Definitions

To clarify about the definitions, I

use some examples and in this
way, exemplifying has key role to
make sense about the definitions
and to introduce new ways to use
on these models in the terms of
new notions.

he concept of complete is used to classify specific graph in every environment.

To differentiate, I use an adjective or prefix in every definition. Two adjectives
“fuzzy” and “neutrosophic” are used to distinguish every graph or classes of
graph or any notion on them.
The reference [Ref4] is used to write the contents of this chapter. For further
studies, the references [Ref1; Ref2; Ref3; Ref4; Ref5; Ref6; Ref7; Ref8;
Ref9; Ref10] are suggested.
Definition 7.3.1. G : (V, E) is called a crisp graph where V is a set of objects
and E is a subset of V × V such that this subset is symmetric.
Definition 7.3.2. A crisp graph G : (V, E) is called a fuzzy graph G : (σ, µ)
where σ : V → [0, 1] and µ : E → [0, 1] such that µ(xy) ≤ σ(x) ∧ σ(y) for all
xy ∈ E.
Definition 7.3.3. A crisp graph G : (V, E) is called a neutrosophic graph
G : (σ, µ) where σ = (σ1 , σ2 , σ3 ) : V → [0, 1] and µ = (µ1 , µ2 .µ3 ) : E → [0, 1]
such that µ(xy) ≤ σ(x) ∧ σ(y) for all xy ∈ E.
Definition 7.3.4. A crisp graph G : (V, E) is called a crisp complete where
∀x ∈ V, ∀y ∈ V, xy ∈ E.

Definition 7.3.5. A fuzzy graph G : (σ, µ) is called fuzzy complete where it’s
complete and µ(xy) = σ(x) ∧ σ(y) for all xy ∈ E.
Definition 7.3.6. A neutrosophic graph G : (σ, µ) is called a neutrosophic
complete where it’s complete and µ(xy) = σ(x) ∧ σ(y) for all xy ∈ E.
Definition 7.3.7. A crisp graph G : (V, E) is called a crisp strong.
Definition 7.3.8. A fuzzy graph G : (σ, µ) is called fuzzy strong where
µ(xy) = σ(x) ∧ σ(y) for all xy ∈ E.
Definition 7.3.9. A neutrosophic graph G : (σ, µ) is called a neutrosophic
strong where µ(xy) = σ(x) ∧ σ(y) for all xy ∈ E.
Definition 7.3.10. A distinct sequence of vertices v0 , v1 , · · · , vn in a crisp
graph G : (V, E) is called crisp path with length n from v0 to vn where
vi vi+1 ∈ E, i = 0, 1, · · · , n − 1.
Definition 7.3.11. A path v0 , v1 , · · · , vn is called fuzzy path where µ(vi vi+1 ) >
0, i = 0, 1, · · · , n − 1.

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 7.3. Definitions

Figure 7.1: Neutrosophic Graph, N1 nsc1

Figure 7.2: Neutrosophic Complete, N1 nsc2

Definition 7.3.12. A path v0 , v1 , · · · , vn is called neutrosophic path where

µ(vi vi+1 ) > 0, i = 0, 1, · · · , n − 1.
Definition 7.3.13. A path v0 , v1 , · · · , vn with exception of v0 and vn in a crisp
graph G : (V, E) is called crisp cycle with length n for v0 where v0 = vn . and
the order is three.
Definition 7.3.14. A crisp cycle v0 , v1 , · · · , vn , v0 is called fuzzy cycle
where there are two edges xy and uv such that µ(xy) = µ(uv) =

285
7. Neutrosophic Graphs

Figure 7.3: Neutrosophic Strong, N1 nsc3

µ(vi vi+1 ).
V
i=0,1,··· ,n−1

Definition 7.3.15. A crisp cycle v0 , v1 , · · · , vn , v0 is called neutrosophic

cycle where there are two edges xy and uv such that µ(xy) = µ(uv) =
i=0,1,··· ,n−1 µ(vi vi+1 ).
V

Table 7.1: Crisp-fying, Fuzzy-fying and Neutrosophic-fying tbl1

Crisp Graphs Fuzzy Graphs Neutrosophic Graphs

Crisp Complete Fuzzy Complete Neutrosophic Complete
Crisp Strong Fuzzy Strong Neutrosophic Strong
Crisp Path Fuzzy Path Neutrosophic Path
Crisp Cycle Fuzzy Cycle Neutrosophic Cycle

New definitions are introduced in the terms of neutrosophic type. There are
some questions about the relations amid these notions.
The notion of strong is too close to the notions of complete.
(1). Is neutrosophic strong, neutrosophic complete?
No.
Example 7.3.16. Consider Figure (7.3). N1 is a neutrosophic strong
which isn’t also neutrosophic complete.

(2). Does neutrosophic strong imply neutrosophic complete?

Sometimes.
Example 7.3.17. Consider Figure (7.3). N1 is a neutrosophic strong
which isn’t neutrosophic complete.

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 7.3. Definitions

Example 7.3.18. Consider Figure (7.2). N1 is a neutrosophic strong

which is also neutrosophic complete.

(3). Does neutrosophic complete imply neutrosophic strong?

Yes. All neutrosophic complete from order 1, 2, 3, · · · are neutrosophic
strong. All neutrosophic complete from any order are neutrosophic strong.

Example 7.3.19. Consider Figure (7.2). N1 is a neutrosophic complete

which is also neutrosophic strong.

(4). When does neutrosophic complete imply neutrosophic strong?

Always.
Example 7.3.20. Consider Figure (7.2). N1 is a neutrosophic complete
which is also neutrosophic strong.

(5). When neutrosophic strong imply neutrosophic complete?

When neutrosophic graph is crisp complete.
Example 7.3.21. Consider Figure (7.2). N1 is a neutrosophic strong
which is also neutrosophic complete. Since it’s neutrosophic strong and
crisp complete.

(6). Which neutrosophic graphs are both neutrosophic complete and neutro-
sophic strong?
All neutrosophic graphs, which are neutrosophic complete, are neutro-
sophic strong. In other words, neutrosophic graphs, which are neutrosophic
strong and crisp complete, are neutrosophic complete. Neutrosophic com-
plete means that neutrosophic graph is neutrosophic strong and crisp
complete.
Example 7.3.22. Consider Figure (7.2). N1 is a neutrosophic strong
which is also neutrosophic complete.

(7). Which neutrosophic graphs are either neutrosophic complete or neutro-

sophic strong?
Neutrosophic graphs, which are neutrosophic strong but not crisp complete,
aren’t neutrosophic complete.
Example 7.3.23. Consider Figure (7.3). N1 is a neutrosophic strong
which isn’t also neutrosophic complete.

(8). Which neutrosophic graphs are neither neutrosophic complete nor

neutrosophic strong?
Neutrosophic graphs, which aren’t neutrosophic strong, are neithter
neutrosophic complete.
Example 7.3.24. Consider Figure (9.1). N1 is neither a neutrosophic
strong nor neutrosophic complete.

The notion of cycle when the order is three, is too close to the notions of
complete. Thus there are some natural questions about them.
(1). Is neutrosophic cycle, neutrosophic complete?

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7. Neutrosophic Graphs

When the order is three and it’s neutrosophic strong. For instance, there’s
a possibility to have neutrosophic cycle and neutrosophic complete. In
these Examples, at least the neutrosophic values of two vertices have to be
same and minimum to have two edges which have minimum neutrosophic
values. In this case, all three edges have same neutrosophic values. Thus I
represent three types neutrosophic graphs, which are neutrosophic cycle in
the terms of non-isomorphic. Firstly, two vertices have same neutrosophic
values and third vertex has neutrosophic value which is greater than them.

Example 7.3.25. Consider Figure (7.4). N1 is a neutrosophic cycle and

neutrosophic complete.

Figure 7.4: Neutrosophic Cycle, N1 , has same neutrosophic values for two
vertices. nsc4

Secondly, three vertices have same neutrosophic values.

Example 7.3.26. Consider Figure (7.4). N1 is both a neutrosophic
complete and neutrosophic cycle.

Thirdly, three vertices have different neutrosophic values.

Example 7.3.27. Consider Figure (7.2). N1 is both a neutrosophic
complete and neutrosophic cycle.

(2). Does neutrosophic cycle imply neutrosophic complete?

When the order is three and it’s neutrosophic strong.

(3). Does neutrosophic complete imply neutrosophic cycle?

When the order is three.

(4). When does neutrosophic complete imply neutrosophic cycle?

When the order is three.

288
 7.3. Definitions

Figure 7.5: Neutrosophic Cycle, N1 , has same neutrosophic values for vertices. nsc5

(5). When neutrosophic cycle imply neutrosophic complete?

When the order is three and it’s neutrosophic strong.
(6). Which neutrosophic graphs are both neutrosophic complete and neutro-
sophic cycle?
Only three types of neutrosophic graphs which are in Figures (7.2),(7.4)
and (7.5). The order has to be three and it’s neutrosophic strong.
Firstly, two vertices have same neutrosophic values and third vertex has
neutrosophic value which is greater than them.
Secondly, three vertices have same neutrosophic values.
Thirdly, three vertices have different neutrosophic values.
(7). Which neutrosophic graphs are either neutrosophic complete or neutro-
sophic cycle?
Either neutrosophic complete or neutrosophic cycle which don’t have the
order is three for neutrosophic complete and if they have, then they aren’t
neutrosophic strong.
(8). Which neutrosophic graphs are neither neutrosophic cycle nor neutrosophic
strong?
Neutrosophic graphs which aren’t neutrosophic strong.
Proposition 7.3.28. A neutrosophic cycle is neutrosophic complete if and only
if it’s neutrosophic strong and order is three.

Proof. Let N is neutrosophic cycle.

(⇒) If N is neutrosophic complete, then, by it’s neutrosophic complete, it’s
neutrosophic strong. By it’s crisp cycle and crisp complete, order is three. Thus
N is neutrosophic strong and order is three.
(⇐) If it’s neutrosophic strong and order is three, then, by order is three and it’s
crisp cycle, it’s crisp complete. By it’s neutrosophic strong, N is neutrosophic
complete. 

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7. Neutrosophic Graphs

Proposition 7.3.29. A neutrosophic complete is neutrosophic cycle if and only

if it’s order is three.

Proof. Let N is neutrosophic complete.

(⇒) If N is neutrosophic cycle, then, by it’s crisp cycle and it’s crisp complete,
order is three.
(⇐) If order is three, then, by order is three and it’s crisp complete, it’s crisp
cycle. By it’s neutrosophic complete, N is neutrosophic cycle. 

Proposition 7.3.30. A neutrosophic path is neutrosophic complete if and only

if it’s neutrosophic strong and order is two.

Proof. Let N is neutrosophic path.

(⇒) If N is neutrosophic complete, then, by it’s crisp path and it’s crisp
complete, order is two. By it’s crisp complete, it’s neutrosophic strong. Thus
it’s neutrosophic strong and order is two.
(⇐) If order is two, then, by order is two, it’s crisp connected and it’s
neutrosophic strong, N is neutrosophic complete. 

Proposition 7.3.31. A neutrosophic complete is neutrosophic path if and only

if it’s order is two.

Proof. Let N is neutrosophic complete.

(⇒) Consider N is neutrosophic path. Then, by it’s crisp path and it’s crisp
complete, order is two.
(⇐) Suppose order is two, then, by order is two and it’s crisp complete, it’s
crisp path. By it’s neutrosophic complete, it’s neutrosophic path. Thus N is
neutrosophic path. 

Example 7.3.32. Up to isomorphic there are two neutrosophic graphs which

are neutrosophic path, neutrosophic complete and neutrosophic strong.

• Firstly, two vertices have same neutrosophic values as Figure (7.6).

Figure 7.6: Neutrosophic path, N1 , has same neutrosophic values for vertices.
It’s also Neutrosophic strong and Neutrosophic complete. nsc6

• Secondly, two vertices have different neutrosophic values as Figure (7.7).

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 7.3. Definitions

Figure 7.7: Neutrosophic Path, N1 , has same neutrosophic values for vertices.
It’s also Neutrosophic strong and Neutrosophic complete. nsc7

Numbers are created by some tools arising from attributes concerning different
models of graphs.
Definition 7.3.33. Let G : (V, E) be a crisp graph. For any given subset N of
V, Σn∈N 1 is called crisp cardinality of N and it’s denoted by |N |c .
Definition 7.3.34. Let G : (V, E) be a crisp graph. Crisp cardinality of V is
called crisp order of G and it’s denoted by Oc (G).
Definition 7.3.35. Let G : (σ, µ) be a fuzzy graph. For any given subset N of
V, Σn∈N σ(n) is called fuzzy cardinality of N and it’s denoted by |N |f .
Definition 7.3.36. Let G : (σ, µ) be a fuzzy graph. Fuzzy cardinality of V is
called fuzzy order of G and it’s denoted by Of (G).
Definition 7.3.37. Let G : (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph. For any given subset
N of V, Σn∈N σ(n) is called neutrosophic cardinality of N and it’s denoted
by |N |n .
Definition 7.3.38. Let G : (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph. Neutrosophic
cardinality of V is called neutrosophic order of G and it’s denoted by On (G).
exm39 Example 7.3.39.

• Consider Figure (9.1). Neutrosophic order of N1 , On (N1 ) is

(2.57, 2.05, 1.04). Thus On (N1 ) = (2.57, 2.05, 1.04).

• Consider Figure (7.2). Neutrosophic order of N1 , On (N1 ) is

(2.57, 2.05, 1.04). Thus On (N1 ) = (2.57, 2.05, 1.04).

• Consider Figure (7.3). Neutrosophic order of N1 , On (N1 ) is

(2.57, 2.05, 1.04). Thus On (N1 ) = (2.57, 2.05, 1.04).

• Consider Figure (7.4). Neutrosophic order of N1 , On (N1 ) is

(2.47, 2.26, 1.47). Thus On (N1 ) = (2.47, 2.26, 1.47).

• Consider Figure (7.5). Neutrosophic order of N1 , On (N1 ) is

(2.22, 1.92, 1.47). Thus On (N1 ) = (2.47, 2.26, 1.38).

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 7. Neutrosophic Graphs

• Consider Figure (7.6). Neutrosophic order of N1 , On (N1 ) is

(1.48, 1.28, 0.92). Thus On (N1 ) = (1.48, 1.28, 0.92).
• Consider Figure (7.7). Neutrosophic order of N1 , On (N1 ) is
(1.73, 1.49, 1.13). Thus On (N1 ) = (1.73, 1.49, 1.13).
prp40 Proposition 7.3.40. |N |n ≤ (|N |c , |N |c , |N |c ).

Proof.

|N |n = Σn∈N σ(n) = Σn=(n1 ,n2 ,n3 )∈N (σ(n1 ), σ(n2 ), σ(n3 ))

≤ Σn=(n1 ,n2 ,n3 )∈N (1, 1, 1) = (|N |c , |N |c , |N |c ).

cor41 Corollary 7.3.41. On (N ) ≤ (Oc (N ), Oc (N ), Oc (N )).

Proof. By Proposition (7.3.40), Oc (N ) = |V |c and On (N ) = |V |n , the result is

straightforward. Since

On (N ) = |V |n = Σv∈V σ(v) = Σv=(v1 ,v2 ,v3 )∈V (σ(v1 ), σ(v2 ), σ(v3 ))

≤ Σn=(v1 ,v2 ,v3 )∈V (1, 1, 1) = (|V |c , |V |c , |V |c ) = (Oc (N ), Oc (N ), Oc (N )).

prp42 Proposition 7.3.42. |N |n = (|N |f , |N |f , |N |f ).

Proof.

|N |n = Σn∈N σ(n) = Σn=(n1 ,n2 ,n3 )∈N (σ(n1 ), σ(n2 ), σ(n3 ))

= (|N |f , |N |f , |N |f ).

In Example (7.3.39), the computations of this notion when they come to

neutrosophic order, are done. There’s same type-result with analogous to
Corollary (7.3.41).
Corollary 7.3.43. On (N ) = (Of (N ), Of (N ), Of (N )).

Proof. By Proposition (7.3.42), Of (N ) = |V |f and On (N ) = |V |n , the result is

straightforward. Since

On (N ) = |V |n = Σv∈V σ(v) = Σv=(v1 ,v2 ,v3 )∈V (σ(v1 ), σ(v2 ), σ(v3 ))

= (|V |f , |V |f , |V |f ) = (Of (N ), Of (N ), Of (N )).

prp44 Proposition 7.3.44. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph and S, S 0 ⊆ V. If

S ⊆ S 0 , then |S|n ≤ |S 0 |n .

Proof.

|S|n = Σs∈S σ(s) = Σs∈S⊆S 0 σ(s) ≤ Σs0 ∈S 0 σ(s0 ) = |S 0 |n .

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 7.3. Definitions

The converse of Proposition (7.3.44), doesn’t hold. Since in Figure (7.6),

S = {n1 }, S 0 = {n2 } ⊆ V = {n1 , n2 }.
|S|n = (0.74, 0.64, 0.46) = (0.74, 0.64, 0.46) = |S 0 |n . Thus |S|n ≤ |S 0 |n but
S 6⊆ S 0 .
cor45 Corollary 7.3.45. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph. S ⊆ V if and only
if |S|n ≤ |V |n .

Proof. (⇒). By S ⊆ V and Proposition (7.3.44), |S|n ≤ |V |n . In other words,

|S|n = Σs∈S σ(s) = Σs∈S⊆V σ(s) ≤ Σv∈V σ(v) = |V |n .

(⇐). This case is obvious. 

Corollary 7.3.46. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph and S ⊆ V.

|S|n = On (N ) if and only if S = V.

Proof. (⇒). Suppose |S|n = On (N ). Hence |S|n = On (N ) = |V |n . Thus

|S|n = |V |n . By Corollary (7.3.45), we get S = V.
(⇐). Consider S = V. Thus |V |n = |S|n . By On (N ) = |V |n , |S|n = On (N ). 

Definition 7.3.47. Let C = (V, E) be a crisp graph. It’s called crisp

connected if for every given couple of vertices, there’s at least one path
amid them.
Definition 7.3.48. Let F = (σ, µ) be a fuzzy graph. It’s called fuzzy
connected if for every given couple of vertices, there’s at least one path
amid them.
Definition 7.3.49. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph. It’s called
neutrosophic connected if for every given couple of vertices, there’s at
least one path amid them.
Example 7.3.50. Neutrosophic complete, neutrosophic path and neutrosophic
cycle, are only neutrosophic connected but neutrosophic strong could be either
neutrosophic connected or not. In other words, if neutrosophic graph is
neutrosophic strong, then it’s neutrosophic connected or not but if neutrosophic
graph is either of neutrosophic complete, neutrosophic path and neutrosophic
cycle, then it’s forever neutrosophic connected.
Definition 7.3.51. Let C = (V, E) be a crisp graph. Suppose a path P :
v0 , v1 , · · · , vn−1 , vn from v0 to vn . mini=0,1,2,··· ,n−1 1 is called crisp strength
of P and it’s denoted by Sc (P ).
Definition 7.3.52. Let F = (σ, µ) be a fuzzy graph. Suppose a path P :
v0 , v1 , · · · , vn−1 , vn from v0 to vn . mini=0,1,2,··· ,n−1 µ(vi vi+1 ) is called fuzzy
strength of P and it’s denoted by Sf (P ).
Definition 7.3.53. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph. Suppose a path
P : v0 , v1 , · · · , vn−1 , vn from v0 to vn . mini=0,1,2,··· ,n−1 µ(vi vi+1 ) is called
neutrosophic strength of P and it’s denoted by Sn (P ).
i-path is a path with i edges, it’s also called length of path.
Example 7.3.54. In Figures (9.1), (7.2), (7.3), (7.4), (7.5), (7.6), (7.7),
neutrosophic strengths are computed for all possible paths.

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7. Neutrosophic Graphs

(a) : Consider Figure (9.1).

(i) : An 1-path P1 : n1 , n2 has neutrosophic strength (0.74, 0.47, 0.31).
(ii) : An 1-path P2 : n1 , n3 has neutrosophic strength (0.55, 0.64, 0.26).
(iii) : An 1-path P3 : n2 , n3 has neutrosophic strength (0.37, 0.46, 0.24).
(iv) : An 2-path P4 : n1 , n2 , n3 has neutrosophic strength (0.37, 0.46, 0.24).
(v) : There are only four distinct paths.
(vi) : There are only three neutrosophic strengths.
(vii) : There are only two same neutrosophic strengths.
(b) : Consider Figure (7.2).
(i) : An 1-path P1 : n1 , n2 has neutrosophic strength (0.74, 0.47, 0.31).
(ii) : An 1-path P2 : n1 , n3 has neutrosophic strength (0.84, 0.47, 0.27).
(iii) : An 1-path P3 : n2 , n3 has neutrosophic strength (0.74, 0.64, 0.27).
(iv) : An 2-path P4 : n1 , n2 , n3 has neutrosophic strength (0.74, 0.47, 0.27).
(v) : There are only four distinct paths.
(vi) : There are only four different neutrosophic strengths.
(vii) : There is no same neutrosophic strengths.
(c) : Consider Figure (7.3).
(i) : An 1-path P1 : n1 , n3 has neutrosophic strength (0.84, 0.47, 0.27).
(ii) : An 1-path P2 : n2 , n3 has neutrosophic strength (0.74, 0.64, 0.27).
(iii) : An 2-path P3 : n1 , n3 , n2 has neutrosophic strength (0.74, 0.47, 0.27).
(iv) : There are only three distinct paths.
(v) : There are only three different neutrosophic strengths.
(vii) : There is no same neutrosophic strengths.
(d) : Consider Figure (7.4).
(i) : An 1-path P1 : n1 , n2 has neutrosophic strength (0.74, 0.64, 0.46).
(ii) : An 1-path P2 : n1 , n3 has neutrosophic strength (0.74, 0.64, 0.46).
(iii) : An 1-path P3 : n2 , n3 has neutrosophic strength (0.74, 0.64, 0.46).
(iv) : An 2-path P4 : n1 , n2 , n3 has neutrosophic strength (0.74, 0.64, 0.46).
(v) : There are only four distinct paths.
(vi) : There are only four different neutrosophic strengths.
(vii) : There are only four same neutrosophic strengths.
(e) : Consider Figure (7.5).
(i) : An 1-path P1 : n1 , n2 has neutrosophic strength (0.74, 0.64, 0.46).
(ii) : An 1-path P2 : n1 , n3 has neutrosophic strength (0.74, 0.64, 0.46).
(iii) : An 1-path P3 : n2 , n3 has neutrosophic strength (0.74, 0.64, 0.46).
(iv) : An 2-path P4 : n1 , n2 , n3 has neutrosophic strength (0.74, 0.64, 0.46).

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 7.3. Definitions

(v) : There are only four distinct paths.

(vi) : There are only four different neutrosophic strengths.
(vii) : There are only four same neutrosophic strengths.

(f ) : Consider Figure (7.6).

(i) : An 1-path P1 : n1 , n2 has neutrosophic strength (0.74, 0.64, 0.46).

(ii) : There is only one different neutrosophic strengths.
(iii) : There is no same neutrosophic strengths.

(g) : Consider Figure (7.7).

(i) : An 1-path P1 : n1 , n2 has neutrosophic strength (0.74, 0.64, 0.46).

(ii) : There is only one different neutrosophic strengths.
(iii) : There is no same neutrosophic strengths.

prp55 Proposition 7.3.55. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic cycle. Then the number
of distinct neutrosophic path is 2n − n − 1.

Proof. The number of subsets of number n is 2n . The vertex of 1-set couldn’t

be considered as path. The number of 1-set is n. Thus it remains 2n − n. Also,
the vertex of 0-set couldn’t be considered as path. The number of 0-set is 1.
Thus it finally remains 2n − n − 1. 

Corollary 7.3.56. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic cycle. Then the number of

distinct neutrosophic path is 2n − n − 1.

Proof. neutrosophic path implies having distinct vertices in a consecutive

sequence of vertices. Thus neutrosophic cycle is as same case as neutrosophic
path. So by applying Proposition (7.3.55), the result is straightforward. In
other way, there’s direct proof as follows. The number of subsets of number n
is 2n . The vertex of 1-set couldn’t be considered as path. The number of 1-set
is n. Thus it remains 2n − n. Also, the vertex of 0-set couldn’t be considered as
path. The number of 0-set is 1. Thus it finally remains 2n − n − 1. 

Definition 7.3.57. Let C = (V, E) be a crisp graph which isn’t crisp path. For
any given couple of vertices v0 and vn ,

(i) : max{P is a path from v0 to vn } Sc (P ) is denoted by C(v0 , vn ) and it’s called

t-connectedness amid v0 and vn in C.

(ii) : max{P is a path from v0 to vn }\{P :v0 vn } Sc (P ) is denoted by Cα (v0 , vn ) it’s

called α−connectedness v0 and vn in C where v0 vn is an edge, if
Cα (v0 , vn ) > µ(v0 vn ).

(iii) : max{P is a path from v0 to vn }\{P :v0 vn } Sc (P ) is denoted by Cα (v0 , vn ) it’s

called β−connectedness v0 and vn in C where v0 vn is an edge, if
Cα (v0 , vn ) = µ(v0 vn ).

(iv) : max{P is a path from v0 to vn }\{P :v0 vn } Sc (P ) is denoted by Cα (v0 , vn ) it’s

called δ−connectedness v0 and vn in C where v0 vn is an edge, if
Cα (v0 , vn ) < µ(v0 vn ).

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Definition 7.3.58. Let C = (V, E) be a crisp graph which isn’t crisp path. For
any given couple of vertices v0 and vn ,

(i) : max{P is a path from v0 to vn } Sc (P ) = c ∈ Q is denoted by Ct and it’s called

t-crisp.

(ii) : max{P is a path from v0 to vn }\{P :v0 vn } Sc (P ) > µ(v0 vn ) is denoted by Cα

it’s called α−crisp where v0 vn is an edge.

(iii) : max{P is a path from v0 to vn }\{P :v0 vn } Sc (P ) = µ(v0 vn ) is denoted by Cβ

it’s called β−crisp where v0 vn is an edge.

(iv) : max{P is a path from v0 to vn }\{P :v0 vn } Sc (P ) < µ(v0 vn ) is denoted by Cδ

it’s called δ−crisp where v0 vn is an edge.

Definition 7.3.59. Let F = (σ, µ) be a fuzzy graph which isn’t fuzzy path. For
any given couple of vertices v0 and vn ,

(i) : max{P is a path from v0 to vn } Sf (P ) is denoted by F(v0 , vn ) and it’s called

t-connectedness amid v0 and vn in F.

(ii) : max{P is a path from v0 to vn }\{P :v0 vn } Sf (P ) is denoted by Fα (v0 , vn ) it’s

called α−connectedness v0 and vn in F where v0 vn is an edge, if
Fα (v0 , vn ) > µ(v0 vn ).

(iii) : max{P is a path from v0 to vn }\{P :v0 vn } Sf (P ) is denoted by Fα (v0 , vn ) it’s

called β−connectedness v0 and vn in F where v0 vn is an edge, if
Fα (v0 , vn ) = µ(v0 vn ).

(iv) : max{P is a path from v0 to vn }\{P :v0 vn } Sf (P ) is denoted by Fα (v0 , vn ) it’s

called δ−connectedness v0 and vn in F where v0 vn is an edge, if
Fα (v0 , vn ) < µ(v0 vn ).

Definition 7.3.60. Let F = (σ, µ) be a fuzzy graph which isn’t fuzzy path. For
any given couple of vertices v0 and vn ,

(i) : max{P is a path from v0 to vn } Sf (P ) = c ∈ Q is denoted by Ft and it’s

called t-fuzzy.

(ii) : max{P is a path from v0 to vn }\{P :v0 vn } Sf (P ) > µ(v0 vn ) is denoted by Fα

it’s called α−fuzzy where v0 vn is an edge.

(iii) : max{P is a path from v0 to vn }\{P :v0 vn } Sf (P ) = µ(v0 vn ) is denoted by Fβ

it’s called β−fuzzy where v0 vn is an edge.

(iv) : max{P is a path from v0 to vn }\{P :v0 vn } Sf (P ) < µ(v0 vn ) is denoted by Fδ

it’s called δ−fuzzy where v0 vn is an edge.

Definition 7.3.61. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph which isn’t

neutrosophic path. For any given couple of vertices v0 and vn ,

(i) : max{P is a path from v0 to vn } Sn (P ) is denoted by N (v0 , vn ) and it’s called

t-connectedness amid v0 and vn in N.

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 7.3. Definitions

(ii) : max{P is a path from v0 to vn }\{P :v0 vn } Sn (P ) is denoted by Nα (v0 , vn ) it’s

called α−connectedness v0 and vn in N where v0 vn is an edge, if
Nα (v0 , vn ) > µ(v0 vn ).
(iii) : max{P is a path from v0 to vn }\{P :v0 vn } Sn (P ) is denoted by Nα (v0 , vn ) it’s
called β−connectedness v0 and vn in N where v0 vn is an edge, if
Nα (v0 , vn ) = µ(v0 vn ).
(iv) : max{P is a path from v0 to vn }\{P :v0 vn } Sn (P ) is denoted by Nα (v0 , vn ) it’s
called δ−connectedness v0 and vn in N where v0 vn is an edge, if
Nα (v0 , vn ) < µ(v0 vn ).
Definition 7.3.62. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph which isn’t
neutrosophic path. For any given couple of vertices v0 and vn ,
(i) : max{P is a path from v0 to vn } Sn (P ) = c ∈ Q. Then N = (σ, µ) is denoted
by Nt and it’s called t-neutrosophic.
(ii) : max{P is a path from v0 to vn }\{P :v0 vn } Sn (P ) > µ(v0 vn ). Then N = (σ, µ)
is denoted by Nα it’s called α−neutrosophic where v0 vn is an edge.
(iii) : max{P is a path from v0 to vn }\{P :v0 vn } Sn (P ) = µ(v0 vn ). Then N = (σ, µ)
is denoted by Nβ it’s called β−neutrosophic where v0 vn is an edge.
(iv) : max{P is a path from v0 to vn }\{P :v0 vn } Sn (P ) < µ(v0 vn ). Then N = (σ, µ)
is denoted by Nδ it’s called δ−neutrosophic where v0 vn is an edge.
Example 7.3.63. In Figures (9.1), (7.2), (7.3), (7.4), (7.5), (7.6), (7.7),
neutrosophic graphs and all possible edges are characterized.
(a) : Consider Figure (9.1).
(i) : The edge n1 n2 is α−connectedness and Nα (v0 , vn ) =
(0.74, 0.47, 0.31).
(ii) : The edge n1 n3 is α−connectedness and Nα (v0 , vn ) =
(0.55, 0.64, 0.26).
(iii) : The edge n2 n3 is neither of t−connectedness α−connectedness
β−connectedness and δ−connectedness. Since for path P :
n2 , n1 , n3 , Sn (P ) isn’t computable. So
max Sn (P )
{P is a path from v2 to v3 }\{P :v2 v3 }

isn’t computable.
(iv) : N = (σ, µ) is neither of t−neutrosophic, Nt , α−neutrosophic, Nα ,
β−neutrosophic, Nβ , and δ−connectedness, Nδ .
(b) : Consider Figure (7.2).
(i) : The edge n1 n2 is neither of t−connectedness, α−connectedness,
β−connectedness and δ−connectedness. Since for path P :
n1 , n2 , n2 , Sn (P ) isn’t computable. So
max Sn (P )
{P is a path from v1 to v2 }\{P :v1 v2 }

isn’t computable.

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7. Neutrosophic Graphs

(ii) : The edge n1 n3 is neither of t−connectedness, α−connectedness,

β−connectedness and δ−connectedness. Since for path P :
n1 , n2 , n3 , Sn (P ) isn’t computable. So

max Sn (P )
{P is a path from v1 to v3 }\{P :v1 v3 }

isn’t computable.
(iii) : The edge n2 n3 is neither of t−connectedness, α−connectedness,
β−connectedness and δ−connectedness. Since for path P :
n2 , n1 , n3 , Sn (P ) isn’t computable. So

max Sn (P )
{P is a path from v2 to v3 }\{P :v2 v3 }

isn’t computable.
(iv) : N = (σ, µ) is neither of t−neutrosophic, Nt , α−neutrosophic,
Nα , β−neutrosophic, Nβ and δ−connectedness, Nδ .
(c) : Consider Figure (7.3).
(i) : It’s neutrosophic path. Thus the notion couldn’t be applied.
(d) : Consider Figure (7.4).
(i) : The edge n1 n2 is t−connectedness and α−connectedness and
Nα (v1 , v2 ) = (0.74, 0.64, 0.46).
(ii) : The edge n1 n3 is t−connectedness and α−connectedness and
Nα (v1 , v3 ) = (0.74, 0.64, 0.46).
(iii) : The edge n1 n3 is t−connectedness and α−connectedness and
Nα (v1 , v3 ) = (0.74, 0.64, 0.46).
(iv) : N = (σ, µ) is neither of α−neutrosophic, Nα , and δ−connectedness,
Nδ .
(v) : N = (σ, µ) is both t−neutrosophic, Nt , and β−neutrosophic, Nβ .
(e) : Consider Figure (7.5).
(i) : The edge n1 n2 is t−connectedness and α−connectedness and
Nα (v1 , v2 ) = (0.74, 0.64, 0.46).
(ii) : The edge n1 n3 is t−connectedness and α−connectedness and
Nα (v1 , v3 ) = (0.74, 0.64, 0.46).
(iii) : The edge n1 n3 is t−connectedness and α−connectedness and
Nα (v1 , v3 ) = (0.74, 0.64, 0.46).
(iv) : N = (σ, µ) is neither of α−neutrosophic, Nα , and δ−connectedness,
Nδ .
(v) : N = (σ, µ) is both t−neutrosophic, Nt , and β−neutrosophic, Nβ .
(f ) : Consider Figure (7.6).
(i) : It’s neutrosophic path. Thus the notion couldn’t be applied.
(g) : Consider Figure (7.7).

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 7.3. Definitions

(i) : It’s neutrosophic path. Thus the notion couldn’t be applied.

Proposition 7.3.64. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic complete. Then it’s

β−neutrosophic.

Proof. Suppose xy is a given neutrosophic edge. For any given neut-

rosophic path P : x = v0 , v1 , · · · , vn = y, neutrosophic strength
is min{σ(x), σ(v1 ), · · · , σ(y)} ≤ min{σ(x), σ(y)}. It implies Sn (P ) ≤
min{σ(x), σ(y)}. In other hand, by xy is an edge, P 0 : x, y is a path thus
Sn (P ) ≥ min{σ(x), σ(y)}. Thus Sn (P ) = min{σ(x), σ(y)}. It means every edge
is β−neutrosophic. It induces N = (σ, µ) is β−neutrosophic. So N = (σ, µ) is
Nβ . 

Proposition 7.3.65. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph such that for every
neutrosophic edges xy and uv, µ(xy) = µ(uv). Then it’s β−neutrosophic.

Proof. Suppose xy is a given neutrosophic edge. Consider µ(xy) = c, c ∈ Q. For

any given neutrosophic path P : x = v0 , v1 , · · · , vn = y, neutrosophic strength
is min{µ(xv1 ), µ(v1 v2 ), · · · , µ(vn−1 y)} = min{c, c, · · · , c}. It implies Sn (P ) ≤ c.
In other hand, by xy is an edge, P 0 : x, y is a path thus Sn (P ) ≥ µ(xy) = c. Thus
Sn (P ) = c. It means every edge is β−neutrosophic. It induces N = (σ, µ) is
β−neutrosophic. So N = (σ, µ) is Nβ . 

Proposition 7.3.66. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph. Then it’s neither

α−neutrosophic nor δ−neutrosophic.

Proof. If all edges have same values, then every given edge isn’t neither
α−neutrosophic nor δ−neutrosophic. Otherwise, if there’s an edge which
has different value, then there’s one edge which has minimum value so it isn’t
neither α−neutrosophic nor δ−neutrosophic. 

Definition 7.3.67. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph. Coloring number

is minimum number of distinct colors which are used to color the vertices which
are neighbors.
Example 7.3.68. In Figures (9.1), (7.2), (7.3), (7.4), (7.5), (7.6), (7.7),
neutrosophic graphs and all possible edges are characterized.

(a) : Consider Figure (9.1). Coloring number is three.

(b) : Consider Figure (7.2). Coloring number is three.

(c) : Consider Figure (7.3). Coloring number is two.

(d) : Consider Figure (7.4). Coloring number is three.

(e) : Consider Figure (7.5). Coloring number is three.

(f ) : Consider Figure (7.6). Coloring number is two.

(g) : Consider Figure (7.7). Coloring number is two.

Proposition 7.3.69. In complete neutrosophic, coloring number is n.

Proof. Every vertex has n − 1 neighbors. Thus the number of colors are n. 

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7. Neutrosophic Graphs

Proposition 7.3.70. In path neutrosophic, coloring number is 2.

Proof. Every vertex has two different neighbors. Thus coloring number is 2. 

Proposition 7.3.71. In even cycle neutrosophic, coloring number is 2.

Proof. Every vertex has two different neighbors. Thus coloring number is 2. 

Proposition 7.3.72. In odd cycle neutrosophic, coloring number is 3.

Proof. Every vertex has two different neighbors but one vertex has two neighbors
which have different colors. Thus coloring number is 3. 

Definition 7.3.73. A fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph is called fuzzy(neutrosophic)

t-partite if V is partitioned to t parts, V1 , V2 , · · · , Vt and the edge xy implies
x ∈ Vi and y ∈ Vj where i 6= j. If it’s fuzzy(neutrosophic) complete, then
it’s denoted by Kσ1 ,σ2 ,··· ,σt where σi is σ on Vi instead V which mean x 6∈ Vi
induces σi (x) = 0. If t = 2, then it’s called fuzzy(neutrosophic) complete
bipartite and it’s denoted by Kσ1 ,σ2 especially, if |V1 | = 1, then it’s called
fuzzy(neutrosophic) star and it’s denoted by S1,σ2 . In this case, the vertex
in V1 is called center and if a vertex joins to all vertices of fuzzy(neutrosophic),
it’s called fuzzy(neutrosophic) wheel and it’s denoted by W1,σ2 .

Table 7.2: Crisp-fying, Fuzzy-fying and Neutrosophic-fying tbl2

Crisp Graphs Fuzzy Graphs Neutrosophic Graphs

Crisp Complete Fuzzy Complete Neutrosophic Complete
Crisp Strong Fuzzy Strong Neutrosophic Strong
Crisp Path Fuzzy Path Neutrosophic Path
Crisp Cycle Fuzzy Cycle Neutrosophic Cycle
Crisp t-partite Fuzzy t-partite Neutrosophic t-partite
Crisp Bipartite Fuzzy Bipartite Neutrosophic Bipartite
Crisp Star Fuzzy Star Neutrosophic Star
Crisp Wheel Fuzzy Wheel Neutrosophic Wheel

Example 7.3.74. In Figures (9.1), (7.2), (7.3), (7.4), (7.5), (7.6), (7.7),
neutrosophic graphs and all possible edges are characterized.

(a) : Consider Figure (9.1).

(i) : Neutrosophic graph is neutrosophic wheel.

(b) : Consider Figure (7.2).

(i) : Neutrosophic graph is neutrosophic wheel.

(c) : Consider Figure (7.3).

(i) : Neutrosophic graph is neutrosophic star.

(ii) : Neutrosophic graph is neutrosophic bipartite.
(iii) : Neutrosophic graph is neutrosophic t-partite.

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 7.3. Definitions

(iv) : Neutrosophic graph is neutrosophic complete.

(d) : Consider Figure (7.4).
(i) : Neutrosophic graph is neutrosophic wheel.
(e) : Consider Figure (7.5).
(i) : Neutrosophic graph is neutrosophic wheel.
(f ) : Consider Figure (7.6).
(i) : Neutrosophic graph is neutrosophic wheel.
(ii) : Neutrosophic graph is neutrosophic star.
(iii) : Neutrosophic graph is neutrosophic bipartite.
(iv) : Neutrosophic graph is neutrosophic t-partite.
(v) : Neutrosophic graph is neutrosophic complete.
(g) : Consider Figure (7.7).
(i) : Neutrosophic graph is neutrosophic wheel.
(ii) : Neutrosophic graph is neutrosophic star.
(iii) : Neutrosophic graph is neutrosophic bipartite.
(iv) : Neutrosophic graph is neutrosophic t-partite.
(v) : Neutrosophic graph is neutrosophic complete.
Proposition 7.3.75. In star neutrosophic, coloring number is 2.

Proof. The center has n − 1 different neighbors and its neighbors have no
neighbor instead of center. So the neighbors have same color and center has
different color. Thus coloring number is 2. 

Proposition 7.3.76. In wheel neutrosophic, coloring number is 4.

Proof. The center has n − 1 different neighbors and its neighbors have two
neighbors which are distinct from center. So the neighbors have same color and
center has different color. Thus coloring number is 4. 

Proposition 7.3.77. In bipartite neutrosophic such that it’s neutrosophic

complete, coloring number is 2.

Proof. There are two parts and in every part, there’s no neighbor. Thus coloring
number is 2. 

Proposition 7.3.78. In t-partite neutrosophic such that it’s neutrosophic

complete, coloring number is t.

Proof. There are t parts and in every part, there’s no neighbor. Thus coloring
number is t. 

Definition 7.3.79. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph. Dominating

number is minimum number of vertices which has at least one edge with the
vertices out of this set.

301
7. Neutrosophic Graphs

Example 7.3.80. In Figures (9.1), (7.2), (7.3), (7.4), (7.5), (7.6), (7.7),
neutrosophic graphs and all possible edges are characterized.

(a) : Consider Figure (9.1). Dominating number is one.

(b) : Consider Figure (7.2). Dominating number is one.

(c) : Consider Figure (7.3). Dominating number is one.

(d) : Consider Figure (7.4). Dominating number is one.

(e) : Consider Figure (7.5). Dominating number is one.

(f ) : Consider Figure (7.6). Dominating number is one.

(g) : Consider Figure (7.7). Dominating number is one.

Proposition 7.3.81. In complete neutrosophic, dominating number is 1.

Proof. Every vertex has n − 1 neighbors. Thus dominating number of is 1. 

Proposition 7.3.82. In path neutrosophic, dominating number is b n3 c.

Proof. Every vertex has two different neighbors. One vertex has edge with its
neighbors and the next vertex is the vertex has two vertices amid itself and the
last vertex in the set. Since the minimum number is on demand, one vertex
dominates its neighbors and every of these neighbors has one neighbor which is
dominated by the vertex which is coming up after it. Thus dominating number
is b n3 c. 

Proposition 7.3.83. In cycle neutrosophic, dominating number is b n3 c.

Proof. Every vertex has two different neighbors. One vertex has edge with its
neighbors and the next vertex is the vertex has two vertices amid itself and the
last vertex in the set. Since the minimum number is on demand, one vertex
dominates its neighbors and every of these neighbors has one neighbor which is
dominated by the vertex which is coming up after it. Thus dominating number
is b n3 c. 

Proposition 7.3.84. In star neutrosophic, dominating number is 1.

Proof. The center has n − 1 different neighbors and its neighbors have no
neighbor instead of center. So the neighbors are only dominated by center as
singleton. Since the minimum number is on demand, center is 1-set which is on
demand. Thus dominating number is 1. 

Proposition 7.3.85. In wheel neutrosophic, dominating number is 1.

Proof. The center has n − 1 different neighbors and its neighbors but neighbors
have two neighbors instead of center. So the neighbors are only dominated by
center as singleton. Since the minimum number is on demand, center is 1-set
which is on demand. Thus dominating number is 1. 

Proposition 7.3.86. In bipartite neutrosophic such that it’s neutrosophic

complete, dominating number is 2.

302
 7.4. New Ideas

Proof. There are two parts and in every part, there’s no neighbor. Every vertex
from one part, dominates all vertex from different part. Thus dominating
number is 2. 

Proposition 7.3.87. In t-partite neutrosophic such that it’s neutrosophic

complete, dominating number is 2.

Proof. There are t parts and in every part, there’s no neighbor. Every vertex
from one part, dominates all vertices from different parts. Since minimum
number is on demand, one vertex x, dominates all vertices from other parts and
one vertex y, from different part, dominates all vertices which have common
part with first vertex x. Thus dominating number is 2. 

7.4 New Ideas

New ideas are applied on these
models to explore behaviors of
these models in the mathematical
perspective. Another ways to
make sense about them, are used
by relatively comparable results
to conclude analysis.

he reference [Ref6] is used to write the contents of this chapter and next
chapter.

Abstract
New notion of dimension as set, as two optimal numbers including metric
number, dimension number and as optimal set are introduced in individual
framework and in formation of family. Behaviors of twin and antipodal are
explored in fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs. Fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs, under
conditions, fixed-edges, fixed-vertex and strong fixed-vertex are studied. Some
classes as path, cycle, complete, strong, t-partite, bipartite, star and wheel in
the formation of individual case and in the case, they form a family are studied
in the term of dimension. Fuzzification (neutrosofication) of twin vertices but
using crisp concept of antipodal vertices are another approaches of this study.
Thus defining two notions concerning vertices which one of them is
fuzzy(neutrosophic) titled twin and another is crisp titled antipodal to study
the behaviors of cycles which are partitioned into even and odd, are concluded.
Classes of cycles according to antipodal vertices are divided into two classes as
even and odd. Parity of the number of edges in cycle causes to have two
subsections under the section is entitled to antipodal vertices. In this study,
the term dimension is introduced on fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs. The locations
of objects by a set of some junctions which have distinct distance from any
couple of objects out of the set, are determined. Thus it’s possible to have the
locations of objects outside of this set by assigning partial number to any
objects. The classes of these specific graphs are chosen to obtain some results
based on dimension. The types of crisp notions and fuzzy(neutrosophic)

303
7. Neutrosophic Graphs

notions are used to make sense about the material of this study and the outline
of this study uses some new notions which are crisp and fuzzy(neutrosophic).
Some questions and problems are posed concerning ways to do further studies
on this topic. Basic familiarities with fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph theory and
graph theory are proposed for this article.

Keywords: Fuzzy Graphs, Neutrosophic Graphs, Dimension

AMS Subject Classification: 05C17, 05C22, 05E45

7.5 Background
Fuzzy set, neutrosophic set, related definitions of other sets, graphs and new
notions on them, neutrosophic graphs, studies on neutrosophic graphs, relevant
definitions of other graphs based on fuzzy graphs, related definitions of other
graphs based on neutrosophic graphs, are proposed.
In this section, I use two subsections to illustrate a perspective about the
background of this study.

Motivation and Contributions

In this study, there’s an idea which could be considered as a motivation.
Question 7.5.1. Is it possible to use mixed versions of ideas concerning
“crisp”, “fuzzy” and “neutrosophic” to define some notions which are applied to
fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs?
It’s motivation to find notions to use in any classes of fuzzy(neutrosophic)
graphs. Real-world applications about locating the item, are another thoughts
which lead to be considered as motivation. Distance and path amid two items
have key roles to locate. Thus they’re used to define new ideas which conclude
to the structure of metric dimension. The concept of connectedness inspire to
study the behavior of path and distance in the way that, both individual
fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs and family of them are the cases of study.
The framework of this study is as follows. In section (9.4), I introduce main
definitions alongside some examples to clarify about them. In section (9.4), one
idea titled fuzzy(neutrosophic) twin about specific fuzzy(neutrosophic) vertices,
is used to form the results for fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs and family of them
but in this section, there’re some results concerning largest metric number
since fuzzy(neutrosophic) twin forms largest metric number as possible. In
section (9.4), one idea titled antipodal vertices about specific crisp vertices, is
used to form the results for fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs and family of them
especially fuzzy(neutrosophic) cycles as two subsections. Fuzzy(neutrosophic)
cycles form smallest metric number but In section (7.9), the results are
extended and they’re inclusive and especific for fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs and
family of them in the way that, the classification is done in the terms of
smallest metric number and largest metric number. In section (7.11), two
applications are posed for fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs and family of them. In
section (7.12), some problems and questions for further studies are proposed.
In section (7.13), gentle discussion about results and applications are featured.
In section (7.13), a brief overview concerning advantages and limitations of this
study alongside conclusions are formed.

304
 7.5. Background

Preliminaries

To clarify about the models, I use some definitions and results, and in this way,
results have a key role to make sense about the definitions and to introduce
new ways to use on these models in the terms of new notions. For instance, the
concept of complete is used to specialize a graph in every environment. To
differentiate, I use an adjective or prefix in every definition. Two adjectives
“fuzzy” and “neutrosophic” are used to distinguish every graph or classes of
graph or any notion on them.
G : (V, E) is called a crisp graph where V is a set of objects and E is a
subset of V × V such that this subset is symmetric. A crisp graph G : (V, E) is
called a fuzzy graph G : (σ, µ) where σ : V → [0, 1] and µ : E → [0, 1] such
that µ(xy) ≤ σ(x) ∧ σ(y) for all xy ∈ E. A crisp graph G : (V, E) is called a
neutrosophic graph G : (σ, µ) where σ = (σ1 , σ2 , σ3 ) : V → [0, 1] and
µ = (µ1 , µ2 , µ3 ) : E → [0, 1] such that µ(xy) ≤ σ(x) ∧ σ(y) for all xy ∈ E. A
crisp graph G : (V, E) is called a crisp complete where
∀x ∈ V, ∀y ∈ V, xy ∈ E. A fuzzy graph G : (σ, µ) is called fuzzy complete
where it’s complete and µ(xy) = σ(x) ∧ σ(y) for all xy ∈ E. A neutrosophic
graph G : (σ, µ) is called a neutrosophic complete where it’s complete and
µ(xy) = σ(x) ∧ σ(y) for all xy ∈ E. An N which is a set of vertices, is called
fuzzy(neutrosophic) cardinality and it’s denoted by |N | such that
|N | = Σn∈N σ(n). A crisp graph G : (V, E) is called a crisp strong. A fuzzy
graph G : (σ, µ) is called fuzzy strong where µ(xy) = σ(x) ∧ σ(y) for all
xy ∈ E. A neutrosophic graph G : (σ, µ) is called a neutrosophic strong
where µ(xy) = σ(x) ∧ σ(y) for all xy ∈ E. A distinct sequence of vertices
v0 , v1 , · · · , vn in a crisp graph G : (V, E) is called crisp path with length n
from v0 to vn where vi vi+1 ∈ E, i = 0, 1, · · · , n − 1. If one edge is incident to a
vertex, the vertex is called leaf. A path v0 , v1 , · · · , vn is called fuzzy path
where µ(vi vi+1 ) > 0, i = 0, 1, · · · , n − 1. A path v0 , v1 , · · · , vn is called
neutrosophic path where µ(vi vi+1 ) > 0, i = 0, 1, · · · , n − 1. Let
P : v0 , v1 , · · · , vn be fuzzy(neutrosophic) path from v0 to vn such that it has
minimum number of vertices as possible, then d(v0 , vn ) is defined as
Σni=0 µ(vi−1 vi ). A path v0 , v1 , · · · , vn with exception of v0 and vn in a crisp
graph G : (V, E) is called crisp cycle with length n for v0 where v0 = vn . A
cycle v0 , v1 , · · · , v0 is called fuzzy cycle where there are two edges xy and uv
such that µ(xy) = µ(uv) = i=0,1,··· ,n−1 µ(vi vi+1 ). A cycle v0 , v1 , · · · , v0 is
V
called neutrosophic cycle where there are two edges xy and uv such that
µ(xy) = µ(uv) = i=0,1,··· ,n−1 µ(vi vi+1 ). A fuzzy(neutrosophic) cycle is called
V
odd if the number of its vertices is odd. Similarly, a fuzzy(neutrosophic) cycle
is called even if the number of its vertices is even. A fuzzy(neutrosophic)
graph is called fuzzy(neutrosophic) t-partite if V is partitioned to t parts,
V1 , V2 , · · · , Vt and the edge xy implies x ∈ Vi and y ∈ Vj where i 6= j. If it’s
fuzzy(neutrosophic) complete, then it’s denoted by Kσ1 ,σ2 ,··· ,σt where σi is σ
on Vi instead V which mean x 6∈ Vi induces σi (x) = 0. If t = 2, then it’s called
fuzzy(neutrosophic) complete bipartite and it’s denoted by Kσ1 ,σ2
especially, if |V1 | = 1, then it’s called fuzzy(neutrosophic) star and it’s
denoted by S1,σ2 . In this case, the vertex in V1 is called center and if a vertex
joins to all vertices of fuzzy(neutrosophic), it’s called fuzzy(neutrosophic)
wheel and it’s denoted by W1,σ2 . A set is n-set if its cardinality is n. A fuzzy
vertex set is the subset of vertex set of (neutrosophic) fuzzy graph such that

305
 7. Neutrosophic Graphs

Table 7.3: Crisp-fying, Fuzzy-fying and Neutrosophic-fying T1

Crisp Graphs Fuzzy Graphs Neutrosophic Graphs

Crisp Complete Fuzzy Complete Neutrosophic Complete
Crisp Strong Fuzzy Strong Neutrosophic Strong
Crisp Path Fuzzy Path Neutrosophic Path
Crisp Cycle Fuzzy Cycle Neutrosophic Cycle
Crisp t-partite Fuzzy t-partite Neutrosophic t-partite
Crisp Bipartite Fuzzy Bipartite Neutrosophic Bipartite
Crisp Star Fuzzy Star Neutrosophic Star
Crisp Wheel Fuzzy Wheel Neutrosophic Wheel

the values of these vertices are considered. A fuzzy edge set is the subset of
edge set of (neutrosophic) fuzzy graph such that the values of these edges are
considered. Let G be a family of fuzzy graphs or neutrosophic graphs. This
family have fuzzy(neutrosophic) common vertex set if all graphs have
same vertex set and its values but edges set is subset of fuzzy edge set. A
(neutrosophic) fuzzy graph is called fixed-edge fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph
if all edges have same values. A (neutrosophic) fuzzy graph is called
fixed-vertex fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph if all vertices have same values.
A couple of vertices x and y is called crisp twin vertices if either N (x) = N (y)
or N [x] = N [y] where ∀x ∈ V, N (x) = {y| xy ∈ E}, N [x] = N (x) ∪ {x}. Two
vertices t and t0 are called fuzzy(neutrosophic) twin vertices if N (t) = N (t0 )
and µ(ts) = µ(t0 s), for all s ∈ N (t) = N (t0 ). maxx,y∈V (G) |E(P (x, y))| is called

Table 7.4: Crisp-fying, Fuzzy-fying and Neutrosophic-fying T1

Crisp Vertex Set Fuzzy Vertex Set Neutrosophic Vertex Set

Crisp Edge Set Fuzzy Edge Set Neutrosophic Edge Set
Crisp Common Fuzzy Common Neutrosophic Common
Crisp Fixed-edge Fuzzy Fixed-edge Neutrosophic Fixed-edge
Crisp Fixed-vertex Fuzzy Fixed-vertex Neutrosophic Fixed-vertex
Crisp Twin Fuzzy Twin Neutrosophic Twin

diameter of G and it’s denoted by D(G) where |E(P (x, y))| is the number of
edges on the path from x to y. For any given vertex x if there’s exactly one
vertex y such that minP (x,y) |E(P (x, y))| = D(G), then a couple of vertices x
and y are called antipodal vertices.

7.6 Definitions
sec2
I use the notion of vertex in fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs to define new notions
which state the relation amid vertices. In this way, the set of vertices are
distinguished by another set of vertices.
Definition 7.6.1. Let G = (V, σ, µ) be a fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph. A vertex m
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolves vertices f1 and f2 if d(m, f1 ) 6= d(m, f2 ). A set M
is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set if for every couple of vertices f1 , f2 ∈ V \ M,

306
 7.6. Definitions

there’s a vertex m ∈ M such that m fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolves f1 and f2 .

|M | is called fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number of G and

min Σs∈S σ(s) = Σm∈M σ(m)

S is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set

is called fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric dimension of G and if

min Σs∈S σ(s) = Σm∈M σ(m)

S is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set

where M is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set, then M is called

fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set of G.
Example 7.6.2. Let G be a fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph as figure (7.8). By
applying Table (7.5), the 1-set is explored which its cardinality is minimum.
{f6 } and {f4 } are 1-set which has minimum cardinality amid all sets of vertices
but {f4 } isn’t fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set and {f6 } is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-
resolving set. Thus there’s no fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set but {f6 }. f6
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolves all given couple of vertices. Therefore one is
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number of G and 0.13 is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric
dimension of G. By using Table (7.5), f4 doesn’t fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolve f2
and f6 . f4 doesn’t fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolve f1 and f5 , too.

Figure 7.8: Black vertex {f6 } is only fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set amid all
sets of vertices for fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph G. F1

Table 7.5: Distances of Vertices from sets of vertices {f6 } and {f4 } in
fuzzy(neutrosophic) Graph G. T1

Vertices f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6
f6 0.22 0.26 0.39 0.24 0.13 0
Vertices f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6
f4 0.11 0.24 0.37 0 0.11 0.24

Definition 7.6.3. Consider G as a family of fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs on

a fuzzy(neutrosophic) common vertex set V. A vertex m simultaneously

307
7. Neutrosophic Graphs

fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolves vertices f1 and f2 if dG (m, f1 ) 6= dG (m, f2 ), for all

G ∈ G. A set M is simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set if for every
couple of vertices f1 , f2 ∈ V \ M, there’s a vertex m ∈ M such that m resolves
f1 and f2 , for all G ∈ G. |M | is called simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric
number of G and

min Σs∈S σ(s) = Σm∈M σ(m)

S is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set

is called simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric dimension of G and if

min Σs∈S σ(s) = Σm∈M σ(m)

S is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set

where M is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set, then M is called simultaneously

fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set of G.
Example 7.6.4. Let G = {G1 , G2 , G3 } be a collection of fuzzy(neutrosophic)
graphs with common fuzzy(neutrosophic) vertex set and a subset of
fuzzy(neutrosophic) edge set as figure (7.9). By applying Table (7.6), the 1-set
is explored which its cardinality is minimum. {f2 } and {f4 } are 1-set which has
minimum cardinality amid all sets of vertices. {f4 } is as fuzzy(neutrosophic)-
resolving set as {f6 } is. Thus there’s no fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set but
{f4 } and {f6 }. f6 as fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolves all given couple of ver-
tices as f4 . Therefore one is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number of G and
0.13 is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric dimension of G. By using Table (7.6), f4
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolves all given couple of vertices.

Figure 7.9: Black vertex {f4 } and the set of vertices {f2 } are simultan-
eously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set amid all sets of vertices for family of
fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs G. F2

Table 7.6: Distances of Vertices from set of vertices {f6 } in Family of

fuzzy(neutrosophic) Graphs G. T2

Vertices of G1 f1 f2 f3 f4
f4 0.37 0.26 0.13 0
Vertices of G2 f1 f2 f3 f4
f4 0.11 0.22 0.13 0
Vertices of G3 f1 f2 f3 f4
f4 0.24 0.26 0.13 0

308
 7.7. Fuzzy(Neutrosophic) Twin Vertices

7.7 Fuzzy(Neutrosophic) Twin Vertices

sec4
prp2 Proposition 7.7.1. Let G be a fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph. An (k − 1)-set from
an k-set of fuzzy(neutrosophic) twin vertices is subset of a fuzzy(neutrosophic)-
resolving set.

Proof. If t and t0 are fuzzy(neutrosophic) twin vertices, then N (t) = N (t0 ) and
µ(ts) = µ(t0 s), for all s ∈ N (t) = N (t0 ). 

cor2 Corollary 7.7.2. Let G be a fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph. The number of

fuzzy(neutrosophic) twin vertices is n − 1. Then fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric
number is n − 2.

Proof. Let f and f 0 be two vertices. By supposition, the cardinality of set of

fuzzy(neutrosophic) twin vertices is n − 2. Thus there are two cases. If both
are fuzzy(neutrosophic) twin vertices, then N (f ) = N (f 0 ) and µ(f s) = µ(f 0 s0 ),
∀s ∈ N (f ), ∀s0 ∈ N (f 0 ). It implies d(f, t) = d(f, t) for all t ∈ V. Thus suppose
if not, then let f be a vertex which isn’t fuzzy(neutrosophic) twin vertices
with any given vertex and let f 0 be a vertex which is fuzzy(neutrosophic) twin
vertices with any given vertex but not f. By supposition, it’s possible and this
is only case. Therefore, any given distinct vertex fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolves
f and f 0 . Then V \ {f, f 0 } is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set. It implies
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is n − 2. 

Corollary 7.7.3. Let G be a fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph. The number of

fuzzy(neutrosophic) twin vertices is n. Then G is fixed-edge fuzzy(neutrosophic)
graph.

Proof. Suppose f and f 0 are two given edges. By supposition, every couple
of vertices are fuzzy(neutrosophic) twin vertices. It implies µ(f ) = µ(f 0 ). f
and f 0 are arbitrary so every couple of edges have same values. It induces G is
fixed-edge fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph. 

cor1 Corollary 7.7.4. Let G be a fixed-vertex fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph. The number

of fuzzy(neutrosophic) twin vertices is n − 1. Then fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric
number is n − 2, fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric dimension is (n − 2)σ(m) where m
is fuzzy(neutrosophic) twin vertex with a vertex. Every (n − 2)-set including
fuzzy(neutrosophic) twin vertices is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set.

Proof. By Corollary (7.7.2), fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is n−2. By G is

a fixed-vertex fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph, fuzzy metric dimension is (n − 2)σ(m)
where m is fuzzy(neutrosophic) twin vertex with a vertex. One vertex doesn’t
belong to set of fuzzy(neutrosophic) twin vertices and a vertex from that set, are
out of fuzzy metric set. It induces every (n−2)-set including fuzzy(neutrosophic)
twin vertices is fuzzy metric set. 

Proposition 7.7.5. Let G be a fixed-vertex fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph such that

it’s fuzzy(neutrosophic) complete. Then fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is
n − 1, fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric dimension is (n − 1)σ(m) where m is a given
vertex. Every (n − 1)-set is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set.

309
 7. Neutrosophic Graphs

Proof. In fuzzy(neutrosophic) complete, every couple of vertices are twin vertices.

By G is a fixed-vertex fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph and it’s fuzzy(neutrosophic)
complete, every couple of vertices are fuzzy(neutrosophic) twin vertices. Thus
by Proposition (7.7.1), the result follows. 

prp3 Proposition 7.7.6. Let G be a family of fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs

with fuzzy(neutrosophic) common vertex set. Then simultaneously
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number of G is n − 1.

Proof. Consider (n − 1)-set. Thus there’s no couple of vertices to be

fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolved. Therefore, every (n−1)-set is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-
resolving set for any given fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph. Then it holds for any
fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph. It implies it’s fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set
and its cardinality is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number. (n − 1)-set has
the cardinality n − 1. Then it holds for any fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph. It
induces it’s simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set and its cardinality
is simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number. 

prp4 Proposition 7.7.7. Let G be a family of fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs

with fuzzy(neutrosophic) common vertex set. Then simultaneously
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number of G is greater than the maximum
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number of G ∈ G.

Proof. Suppose t and t0 are simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric num-

ber of G and fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number of G ∈ G. Thus t is
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number for any G ∈ G. Hence, t ≥ t0 . So simultan-
eously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number of G is greater than the maximum
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number of G ∈ G. 

prp5 Proposition 7.7.8. Let G be a family of fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs

with fuzzy(neutrosophic) common vertex set. Then simultaneously
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number of G is greater than simultaneously
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number of H ⊆ G.

Proof. Suppose t and t0 are simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number

of G and H. Thus t is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number for any G ∈ G. It
implies t is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number for any G ∈ H. So t is simultan-
eously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number of H. By applying Definition about
being the minimum number, t ≥ t0 . So simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-
metric number of G is greater than simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric
number of H ⊆ G. 

thm1 Theorem 7.7.9. Fuzzy(neutrosophic) twin vertices aren’t fuzzy(neutrosophic)-

resolved in any given fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph.

Proof. Let t and t0 be fuzzy(neutrosophic) twin vertices. Then N (t) = N (t0 )

and µ(ts) = µ(t0 s), for all s, s0 ∈ V such that ts, t0 s ∈ E. Thus for every given
vertex s0 ∈ V, dG (s0 , t) = dG (s, t) where G is a given fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph.
It means that t and t0 aren’t resolved in any given fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph. t
and t0 are arbitrary so fuzzy(neutrosophic) twin vertices aren’t resolved in any
given fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph. 

310
 7.7. Fuzzy(Neutrosophic) Twin Vertices

prp6 Proposition 7.7.10. Let G be a fixed-vertex fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph.

If G is fuzzy(neutrosophic) complete, then every couple of vertices are
fuzzy(neutrosophic) twin vertices.

Proof. Let t and t0 be couple of given vertices. By G is fuzzy(neutrosophic)

complete, N (t) = N (t0 ). By G is a fixed-vertex fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph,
µ(ts) = µ(t0 s), for all edges ts, t0 s ∈ E. Thus t and t0 are fuzzy(neutrosophic)
twin vertices. t and t0 are arbitrary couple of vertices, hence every couple of
vertices are fuzzy(neutrosophic) twin vertices. 

thm17 Theorem 7.7.11. Let G be a family of fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs with

fuzzy(neutrosophic) common vertex set and G ∈ G is a fixed-vertex
fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph such that it’s fuzzy(neutrosophic) complete. Then
simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is n − 1, simultaneously
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric dimension is (n − 1)σ(m) where m is a given vertex.
Every (n − 1)-set is simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set for G.

Proof. G is fixed-vertex fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph and it’s fuzzy(neutrosophic)

complete. So by Theorem (7.7.10), I get every couple of vertices in
fuzzy(neutrosophic) complete are fuzzy(neutrosophic) twin vertices. So every
couple of vertices, by Theorem (7.7.9), aren’t resolved. 

Corollary 7.7.12. Let G be a family of fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs with

fuzzy(neutrosophic) common vertex set and G ∈ G is a fuzzy(neutrosophic)
complete. Then simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is n − 1,
simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric dimension is (n − 1)σ(m) where m is
a given vertex. Every (n − 1)-set is simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric
set for G.

Proof. By fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs with fuzzy(neutrosophic) common vertex

set, G is fixed-vertex fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph. It’s fuzzy(neutrosophic)
complete. So by Theorem (7.7.11), I get intended result. 

Theorem 7.7.13. Let G be a family of fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs with

fuzzy(neutrosophic) common vertex set and for every given couple of vertices,
there’s a G ∈ G such that in that, they’re fuzzy(neutrosophic) twin vertices.
Then simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is n − 1, simultaneously
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric dimension is (n − 1)σ(m) where m is a given vertex.
Every (n − 1)-set is simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set for G.

Proof. By Proposition (7.7.6), simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric num-

ber is n − 1. By Theorem (7.7.9), simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric
dimension is (n − 1)σ(m) where m is a given vertex. Also, every (n − 1)-set is
simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set for G. 

thm19 Theorem 7.7.14. Let G be a family of fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs with

fuzzy(neutrosophic) common vertex set. If G contains three fixed-
vertex fuzzy(neutrosophic) stars with different center, then simultaneously
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is n − 2, simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-
metric dimension is (n − 2)σ(m) where m is a given vertex. Every (n − 2)-set
is simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set for G.

311
 7. Neutrosophic Graphs

Proof. The cardinality of set of fuzzy(neutrosophic) twin vertices is n − 1. Thus

by Corollary (7.7.4), the result follows. 

Corollary 7.7.15. Let G be a family of fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs with

fuzzy(neutrosophic) common vertex set. If G contains three fuzzy(neutrosophic)
stars with different center, then simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric
number is n − 2, simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric dimension is
(n − 2)σ(m) where m is a given vertex. Every (n − 2)-set is simultaneously
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set for G.

Proof. By fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs with fuzzy(neutrosophic) common vertex

set, G is fixed-vertex fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph. It’s fuzzy(neutrosophic)
complete. So by Theorem (7.7.14), I get intended result. 

7.8 Antipodal Vertices

sec5
Even Fuzzy(Neutrosophic) Cycle
prp5.1 Proposition 7.8.1. Consider two antipodal vertices x and y in any given fixed-
edge even fuzzy(neutrosophic) cycle. Let u and v be given vertices. Then
d(x, u) 6= d(x, v) if and only if d(y, u) 6= d(y, v).

Proof. (⇒). Consider d(x, u) 6= d(x, v). By d(x, u) + d(u, y) = d(x, y) =

D(G), D(G) − d(x, u) 6= D(G) − d(x, v). It implies d(y, u) 6= d(y, v).
(⇐). Consider d(y, u) 6= d(y, v). By d(y, u) + d(u, x) = d(x, y) = D(G), D(G) −
d(y, u) 6= D(G) − d(y, v). It implies d(x, u) 6= d(x, v). 

Proposition 7.8.2. Consider two antipodal vertices x and y in any given fixed-
edge even fuzzy(neutrosophic) cycle. Let u and v be given vertices. Then
d(x, u) = d(x, v) if and only if d(y, u) = d(y, v).

Proof. (⇒). Consider d(x, u) = d(x, v). By d(x, u) + d(u, y) = d(x, y) =

D(G), D(G) − d(x, u) = D(G) − d(x, v). It implies d(y, u) = d(y, v).
(⇐). Consider d(y, u) = d(y, v). By d(y, u) + d(u, x) = d(x, y) = D(G), D(G) −
d(y, u) = D(G) − d(y, v). It implies d(x, u) = d(x, v). 

Proposition 7.8.3. The set contains two antipodal vertices, isn’t

fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set in any given fixed-edge even fuzzy(neutrosophic)
cycle.

Proof. Let x and y be two given antipodal vertices in any given even
fuzzy(neutrosophic) cycle. By Proposition (7.8.1), d(x, u) 6= d(x, v) if and
only if d(y, u) 6= d(y, v). It implies that if x fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolves a
couple of vertices, then y fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolves them, too. Thus either
x is in fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set or y is. It induces the set contains
two antipodal vertices, isn’t fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set in any given even
fuzzy(neutrosophic) cycle. 

Proposition 7.8.4. Consider two antipodal vertices x and y in any given fixed-
edge even fuzzy(neutrosophic) cycle. x fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolves a given
couple of vertices, z and z 0 , if and only if y does.

312
 7.8. Antipodal Vertices

Proof. (⇒). x fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolves a given couple of vertices, z and z 0 ,

then d(x, z) 6= d(x, z 0 ). By Proposition (7.8.1), d(x, z) 6= d(x, z 0 ) if and only if
d(y, z) 6= d(y, z 0 ). Thus y fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolves a given couple of vertices
z and z 0 .
(⇐). y fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolves a given couple of vertices, z and z 0 , then
d(y, z) 6= d(y, z 0 ). By Proposition (7.8.1), d(y, z) 6= d(y, z 0 ) if and only if
d(x, z) 6= d(x, z 0 ). Thus x fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolves a given couple of vertices
z and z 0 . 

Proposition 7.8.5. There are two antipodal vertices aren’t fuzzy(neutrosophic)-

resolved by other two antipodal vertices in any given fixed-edge even
fuzzy(neutrosophic) cycle.

Proof. Suppose x and y are a couple of vertices. It implies d(x, y) = D(G).

Consider u and v are another couple of vertices such that d(x, u) = D(G) 2 .
D(G)
It implies d(y, u) = 2 . Thus d(x, u) = d(y, u). Therefore, u doesn’t
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolve a given couple of vertices x and y. By D(G) =
d(u, v) = d(u, x) + d(x, v) = D(G) 2 + d(x, v), d(x, v) = D(G)
2 . It implies
D(G)
d(y, v) = 2 . Thus d(x, v) = d(y, v). Therefore, v doesn’t fuzzy(neutrosophic)-
resolve a given couple of vertices x and y. 

Proposition 7.8.6. For any two antipodal vertices in any given fixed-edge
even fuzzy(neutrosophic) cycle, there are only two antipodal vertices don’t
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolve them

Proof. Suppose x and y are a couple of vertices such that they’re antipodal
vertices. Let u be a vertex such that d(x, u) = D(G)
2 . It implies d(y, u) =
D(G)
2 .
Thus d(x, u) = d(y, u). Therefore, u doesn’t fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolve a given
couple of vertices x and y. Let v be a antipodal vertex for u such that u and
v are antipodal vertices. Thus v d(x, v) = D(G) 2 . It implies d(y, v) =
D(G)
2 .
Therefore, v doesn’t fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolve a given couple of vertices x and
y. If u is a vertex such that d(x, u) 6= D(G)
2 and v is a vertex such that u and v
D(G)
are antipodal vertices. Thus d(x, v) 6= 2 It induces either d(x, u) 6= d(y, u) or
d(x, v) 6= d(y, v). It means either u fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolves a given couple
of vertices x and y or v fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolves a given couple of vertices
x and y. 

Proposition 7.8.7. In any given fixed-edge even fuzzy(neutrosophic) cycle, for

any vertex, there’s only one vertex such that they’re antipodal vertices.

Proof. If d(x, y) = D(G), then x and y are antipodal vertices. 

prp5.8 Proposition 7.8.8. Let G be a fixed-edge even fuzzy(neutrosophic) cycle. Then

every couple of vertices are fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set if and only if they
aren’t antipodal vertices.

Proof. If x and y are antipodal vertices, then they don’t fuzzy(neutrosophic)-

resolve a given couple of vertices u and v such that they’re antipodal vertices
and d(x, u) = D(G)
2 . Since d(x, u) = d(x, v) = d(y, u) = d(y, v) =
D(G)
2 . 

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 7. Neutrosophic Graphs

cor5.9 Corollary 7.8.9. Let G be a fixed-edge even fuzzy(neutrosophic) cycle. Then

fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is two.

Proof. A set contains one vertex x isn’t fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set. Since

it doesn’t fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolve a given couple of vertices u and v such
that d(x, u) = d(x, v) = 1. Thus fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number ≥ 2. By
Proposition (7.8.8), every couple of vertices such that they aren’t antipodal
vertices, are fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set. Therefore, fuzzy(neutrosophic)-
metric number is 2. 

cor5.10 Corollary 7.8.10. Let G be a fixed-edge even fuzzy(neutrosophic) cycle. Then

fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set contains couple of vertices such that they aren’t
antipodal vertices.

Proof. By Corollary (7.8.9), fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is two. By

Proposition (7.8.8), every couple of vertices such that they aren’t antipodal
vertices, are fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set. Therefore, fuzzy(neutrosophic)-
metric set contains couple of vertices such that they aren’t antipodal vertices. 

cor4.11 Corollary 7.8.11. Let G be a family of fixed-edge odd fuzzy(neutrosophic)

cycles with fuzzy(neutrosophic) common vertex set. Then simultaneously
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set contains couple of vertices such that they aren’t
antipodal vertices and fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is two.

Odd Fuzzy(Neutrosophic) Cycle

prp5.11 Proposition 7.8.12. In any given fixed-edge odd fuzzy(neutrosophic) cycle, for
any vertex, there’s no vertex such that they’re antipodal vertices.

Proof. Let G be a fixed-edge odd fuzzy(neutrosophic) cycle. if x is a given

vertex. Then there are two vertices u and v such that d(x, u) = d(x, v) = D(G).
It implies they aren’t antipodal vertices. 

prp5.12 Proposition 7.8.13. Let G be a fixed-edge odd fuzzy(neutrosophic) cycle. Then

every couple of vertices are fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set.

Proof. Let l and l0 be couple of vertices. Thus, by Proposition (7.8.12), l and

l0 aren’t antipodal vertices. It implies for every given couple of vertices fi and
fj , I get either d(l, fi ) 6= d(l, fj ) or d(l0 , fi ) 6= d(l0 , fj ). Therefore, fi and fj
are fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolved by either l or l0 . It induces the set {l, l0 } is
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set. 

prp5.13 Proposition 7.8.14. Let G be a fixed-edge odd fuzzy(neutrosophic) cycle. Then

fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is two.

Proof. Let l and l0 be couple of vertices. Thus, by Proposition (7.8.12), l and

l0 aren’t antipodal vertices. It implies for every given couple of vertices fi and
fj , I get either d(l, fi ) 6= d(l, fj ) or d(l0 , fi ) 6= d(l0 , fj ). Therefore, fi and fj
are fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolved by either l or l0 . It induces the set {l, l0 } is
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set. 

Corollary 7.8.15. Let G be a fixed-edge odd fuzzy(neutrosophic) cycle. Then

fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set contains couple of vertices.

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 7.9. Extended Results

Proof. By Proposition (7.8.14), fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is two. By

Proposition (7.8.13), every couple of vertices are fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving
set. Therefore, fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set contains couple of vertices. 

Corollary 7.8.16. Let G be a family of fixed-edge odd fuzzy(neutrosophic)

cycles with fuzzy(neutrosophic) common vertex set. Then simultan-
eously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set contains couple of vertices and
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is two.

7.9 Extended Results

sec6
Smallest Metric Number
prp1 Proposition 7.9.1. Let G be a fuzzy(neutrosophic) path. Then every leaf is
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set.

Proof. Let l be a leaf. For every given a couple of vertices fi and fj , I get
d(l, fi ) 6= d(l, fj ). Since if I reassign indexes to vertices such that every vertex
fi and l have i vertices amid themselves, then d(l, fi ) = Σj≤i µ(fj fi ) ≤ i. Thus
j ≤ i implies

Σt≤j µ(ft fj )+Σj≤s≤i µ(fs fi ) > Σj≤i µ(f fi ) ≡ d(l, fj )+c = d(l, fi ) ≡ d(l, fj ) < d(l, fi ).

Therefore, by d(l, fj ) < d(l, fi ), I get d(l, fi ) 6= d(l, fj ). fi and fj are arbitrary
so l fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolves any given couple of vertices fi and fj which
implies {l} is a fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set. 

Corollary 7.9.2. Let G be a fixed-edge fuzzy(neutrosophic) path. Then every

leaf is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set.

Proof. Let l be a leaf. For every given couple of vertices, fi and fj , I get
d(l, fi ) = ci 6= d(l, fj ) = cj. It implies l fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolves any given
couple of vertices fi and fj which implies {l} is a fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving
set. 

Corollary 7.9.3. Let G be a fixed-vertex fuzzy(neutrosophic) path. Then every

leaf is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set, fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is one
and fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric dimension is c where c = σ(f ), f ∈ V.

Proof. By Proposition (7.9.1), every leaf is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving

set. By c = σ(f ), ∀f ∈ V, every leaf is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set,
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is one and fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric
dimension is c. 

prp7 Proposition 7.9.4. Let G be a fuzzy(neutrosophic) path. Then a set including

every couple of vertices is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set.

Proof. Let f and f 0 be a couple of vertices. For every given a couple of vertices
fi and fj , I get either d(f, fi ) 6= d(f, fj ) or d(f 0 , fi ) 6= d(f 0 , fj ). 

Corollary 7.9.5. Let G be a fixed-edge fuzzy(neutrosophic) path. Then every

set containing couple of vertices is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set.

315
 7. Neutrosophic Graphs

Proof. Consider G is a fuzzy(neutrosophic) path. Thus by Proposition (7.9.4),

every set containing couple of vertices is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set. So
it holds for any given fixed-edge path fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph. 

Proposition 7.9.6. If I use fixed-vertex strong fuzzy(neutrosophic) cycles instead

of fixed-edge fuzzy(neutrosophic) cycles, then all results of Section (9.4) hold.

Proof. Let G be a fixed-vertex strong fuzzy(neutrosophic) cycles. By

G is fuzzy(neutrosophic) strong and it’s fixed-vertex, G is fixed-edge
fuzzy(neutrosophic). 

prp6.2 Proposition 7.9.7. Let G be a fixed-vertex strong fuzzy(neutrosophic) path.

Then an 1-set contains leaf, is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set. An 1-set
contains leaf, is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set. Fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric
number is one. Fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric dimension is σ(m) where m is a
given vertex.

Proof. There are two leaves. Consider l is a given leaf. By G is a fixed-vertex

strong fuzzy(neutrosophic) path, there’s only one number to be seen. Thus if v
and e are a given vertex and given edge, then σ(v) = σ(e) = c where c ∈ [0, 1].
Further, for every given vertices v and v 0 , σ(v) = σ(v 0 ). With analogous, for
every given edges e and e0 , σ(e) = σ(e0 ). With rearranging the indexes of
vertices, d(l, vi ) = ci. Further more, d(l, vi ) = ci 6= cj = d(l, vj ). Therefore, l
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolves every given couple of vertices x and v. It induces
1-set containing leaf, is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set. By G is a fixed-vertex,
for every given vertices v and v 0 , σ(v) = σ(v 0 ). It implies 1-set containing leaf,
is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set. Also, fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is
one. Hence, fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric dimension is σ(m) where m is a given
vertex. 

cor6.3 Corollary 7.9.8. Let G be a family of fuzzy(neutrosophic) paths with

fuzzy(neutrosophic) common vertex set such that they’ve a common leaf.
Then simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is 1, simultaneously
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric dimension is σ(m) where m is a given vertex. 1-set
contains common leaf, is simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set for G.

Proof. By Proposition (7.9.7), common leaf fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolves every

given couple of vertices x and v, simultaneously. Thus 1-set containing
common leaf, is simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set. Also, sim-
ultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is one. Hence, simultaneously
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric dimension is σ(m) where m is a given vertex. 

prp6.4 Proposition 7.9.9. Let G be a fixed-vertex strong fuzzy(neutrosophic) path.

Then an 2-set contains every couple of vertices, is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving
set. An 2-set contains every couple of vertices, is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric
set. Fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is two. Fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric
dimension is 2σ(m) where m is a given vertex.

Proof. Suppose v is a given vertex. If there are two vertices x and y such
that d(x, v) 6= d(y, v), then x fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolves x and y and the
proof is done. If not, d(x, v) = d(y, v), but for every given vertex v 0 ,
d(x, v 0 ) 6= d(y, v 0 ). 

316
 7.9. Extended Results

Corollary 7.9.10. Let G be a family of fuzzy(neutrosophic) paths with

fuzzy(neutrosophic) common vertex set such that they’ve no common leaf. Then
an 2-set is simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set, simultaneously
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is 2, simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-
metric dimension is minm,m0 ∈V σ(m) + σ(m0 ). Every 2-set is simultaneously
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set for G.

Proof. By Corollary (7.9.8), common leaf forms a simultaneously

fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set but in this case, there’s no common leaf.
Thus by Proposition (7.9.9), an 2-set is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set for
any fuzzy(neutrosophic). Then an 2-set is simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-
resolving set. It induces simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number
is 2. It also implies simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric dimension is
minm,m0 ∈V σ(m) + σ(m0 ). So every 2-set is simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-
metric set for G. 

Largest Metric Number

Fuzzy(neutrosophic) t-partite(bipartite/star/wheel) is also studied but by
adding one restriction on these models. Fuzzy(neutrosophic) t-partite gets us
two results as individual and family when they’re either fixed-edge or strong
fixed-vertex.
prp55.11 Proposition 7.9.11. Let G be a fixed-edge fuzzy(neutrosophic) t-partite. Then
every set excluding couple of vertices in different parts whose cardinalities of
them are strictly greater than one, is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set.

Proof. Consider two vertices x and y. Suppose m has same part with either x
or y. Without loosing the generality, suppose m has same part with x thus it
doesn’t have common part with y. Therefore, d(m, x) = 2 6= 1 = d(m, y). 

cor55.12 Corollary 7.9.12. Let G be a fixed-vertex strong fuzzy(neutrosophic) t-partite.

Let n ≥ 3. Then every (n − 2)-set excludes two vertices from different parts
whose cardinalities of them are strictly greater than one, is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-
resolving set. Every (n − 2)-set excludes two vertices from different parts whose
cardinalities of them are strictly greater than one, is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric
set. Fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is n − 2. Fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric
dimension is (n − 2)σ(m) where m is a given vertex.

Proof. By Proposition (7.9.11), every (n − 2)-set excludes two vertices from

different parts whose cardinalities of them are strictly greater than one, is
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set. It means that every (n − 2)-set excludes two
vertices from different parts whose cardinalities of them are strictly greater than
one, is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set. Since if x and y are either in same part
or in different parts, then, by any given vertex w, d(w, x) = d(w, y). Thus 1-set
isn’t fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set. There are same arguments for a set with
cardinality ≤ n − 3 when pigeonhole principle implies at least two vertices have
same conditions concerning either being in same part or in different parts. 

cor55.13 Corollary 7.9.13. Let G be a fixed-vertex strong fuzzy(neutrosophic) bipartite.

Let n ≥ 3. Then every (n − 2)-set excludes two vertices from different parts, is
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set. Every (n − 2)-set excludes two vertices from

317
 7. Neutrosophic Graphs

different parts, is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set. Fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric

number is n − 2. Fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric dimension is (n − 2)σ(m) where
m is a given vertex.

Proof. Consider x and y are excluded by a (n − 2)-set. Let m be a given

vertex which is distinct from them. By G is bipartite, m has a common part
with either x or y and not with both of them. It implies d(x, m) 6= d(y, m).
Since if m has a common part with x, then d(x, m) = 1 6= 2 = d(y, m). And
if m has a common part with y, then d(x, m) = 2 6= 1 = d(y, m). Thus m
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolves x and y. If w is another vertex which is distinct
from them, then pigeonhole principle induces at least two vertices have same
conditions concerning either being in same part or in different parts. It implies
(n − 3)-set isn’t fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set. Therefore, every (n − 2)-set
excludes two vertices from different parts, is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set.
Fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is n − 2. By G is fixed-vertex, for any given
vertices m and m0 , σ(m) = σ(m0 ). So fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric dimension is
(n − 2)σ(m) where m is a given vertex. 

cor55.14 Corollary 7.9.14. Let G be a fixed-vertex strong fuzzy(neutrosophic) star. Then

every (n − 2)-set excludes center and a given vertex, is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-
resolving set. An (n − 2)-set excludes center and a given vertex, is
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set. Fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is (n − 2).
Fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric dimension is (n − 2)σ(m) where m is a given vertex.

Proof. Consider x and y are excluded by a (n − 2)-set. Let m be a given

vertex which is distinct from them. By G is star, m has a common part
with either x or y and not with both of them. It implies d(x, m) 6= d(y, m).
Since if m has a common part with x, then d(x, m) = 1 6= 2 = d(y, m). And
if m has a common part with y, then d(x, m) = 2 6= 1 = d(y, m). Thus m
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolves x and y. If w is another vertex which is distinct
from them, then pigeonhole principle induces at least two vertices have same
conditions concerning either being in same part or in different parts. It implies
(n − 3)-set isn’t fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set. Therefore, every (n − 2)-set
excludes two vertices from different parts, is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set.
Fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is n − 2. By G is fixed-vertex, for any given
vertices m and m0 , σ(m) = σ(m0 ). So fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric dimension is
(n − 2)σ(m) where m is a given vertex. 

cor55.15 Corollary 7.9.15. Let G be a fixed-vertex strong fuzzy(neutrosophic) wheel.

Let n ≥ 3. Then every (n − 2)-set excludes center and a given vertex, is
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set. Every (n − 2)-set excludes center and a given
vertex, is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set. Fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number
is n − 2. Fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric dimension is (n − 2)σ(m) where m is a
given vertex.

Proof. Consider x and y are excluded by a (n − 2)-set. Let m be a given

vertex which is distinct from them. By G is wheel, m has a common part
with either x or y and not with both of them. It implies d(x, m) 6= d(y, m).
Since if m has a common part with x, then d(x, m) = 1 6= 2 = d(y, m). And
if m has a common part with y, then d(x, m) = 2 6= 1 = d(y, m). Thus m
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolves x and y. If w is another vertex which is distinct

318
 7.9. Extended Results

from them, then pigeonhole principle induces at least two vertices have same
conditions concerning either being in same part or in different parts. It implies
(n − 3)-set isn’t fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set. Therefore, every (n − 2)-set
excludes two vertices from different parts, is fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set.
Fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is n − 2. By G is fixed-vertex, for any given
vertices m and m0 , σ(m) = σ(m0 ). So fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric dimension is
(n − 2)σ(m) where m is a given vertex. 

Fuzzy(neutrosophic) t-partite(bipartite/star/wheel) is also studied but by

adding one restriction on these models. Fuzzy(neutrosophic) t-partite gets us
one result involving family of them when they’re either fixed-edge or strong
fixed-vertex.
Corollary 7.9.16. Let G be a family of fixed-vertex strong fuzzy(neutrosophic)
t-partite with fuzzy(neutrosophic) common vertex set. Let n ≥ 3. Then
simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is n − 2, simultaneously
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric dimension is (n − 2)σ(m). Every (n − 2)-set excludes
two vertices from different parts, is simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving
set for G. There’s an (n − 2)-set which is simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-
metric set for G.

Proof. By Corollary (7.9.12), every result hold for any given fixed-vertex strong
fuzzy(neutrosophic) t-partite. Thus every result hold for any given fixed-vertex
strong fuzzy(neutrosophic) t-partite, simultaneously. Therefore, simultaneously
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is n − 2, simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-
metric dimension is (n − 2)σ(m). Every (n − 2)-set excludes two vertices from
different parts, is simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set for G. There’s
an (n − 2)-set which is simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set for G. 

Corollary 7.9.17. Let G be a family of fixed-vertex strong fuzzy(neutrosophic)

bipartite with fuzzy(neutrosophic) common vertex set. Let n ≥ 3. Then
simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is n − 2, simultaneously
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric dimension is (n − 2)σ(m) Every (n − 2)-set excludes
two vertices from different parts, is simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving
set for G. There’s an (n − 2)-set which is simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-
metric set for G.

Proof. By Corollary (7.9.13), every result hold for any given fixed-vertex strong
fuzzy(neutrosophic) bipartite. Thus every result hold for any given fixed-vertex
strong fuzzy(neutrosophic) bipartite, simultaneously. Therefore, simultaneously
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is n − 2, simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-
metric dimension is (n − 2)σ(m). Every (n − 2)-set excludes two vertices from
different parts, is simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set for G. There’s
an (n − 2)-set which is simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set for G. 

Corollary 7.9.18. Let G be a family of fixed-vertex strong fuzzy(neutrosophic)

star with fuzzy(neutrosophic) common vertex set. Let n ≥ 3. Then
simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is n − 2, simultaneously
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric dimension is (n − 2)σ(m) Every (n − 2)-set excludes
center and a given vertex, is simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set
for G. There’s an (n − 2)-set which is simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric
set for G.

319
 7. Neutrosophic Graphs

Proof. By Corollary (7.9.14), every result hold for any given fixed-vertex strong
fuzzy(neutrosophic) star. Thus every result hold for any given fixed-vertex
strong fuzzy(neutrosophic) star, simultaneously. Therefore, simultaneously
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is n − 2, simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-
metric dimension is (n − 2)σ(m). Every (n − 2)-set excludes two vertices from
different parts, is simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set for G. There’s
an (n − 2)-set which is simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set for G. 

Corollary 7.9.19. Let G be a family of fixed-vertex strong fuzzy(neutrosophic)

wheel with fuzzy(neutrosophic) common vertex set. Let n ≥ 3. Then
simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is n − 2, simultaneously
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric dimension is (n − 2)σ(m) Every (n − 2)-set excludes
center and a given vertex, is simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set
for G. There’s an (n − 2)-set which is simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric
set for G.

Proof. By Corollary (7.9.15), every result hold for any given fixed-vertex strong
fuzzy(neutrosophic) wheel. Thus every result hold for any given fixed-vertex
strong fuzzy(neutrosophic) wheel, simultaneously. Therefore, simultaneously
fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric number is n − 2, simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-
metric dimension is (n − 2)σ(m). Every (n − 2)-set excludes two vertices from
different parts, is simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-resolving set for G. There’s
an (n − 2)-set which is simultaneously fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set for G. 

7.10 Applications

In this chapter, I introduce some

applications concerning new ideas
and in this ways, the results make
sense more about their impacts on
different models.
m

7.11 Applications
sec7
Two applications are posed as follow.

Located Places
A program is devised for a robot to locate every couple of given places,
separately. The number which this program assigns to any place from a given
couple of places are unique. Thus every place has an unique number when a
couple of places are given. Three numbers are assigned to a place. First
number is about a model concerning attributes which titled to be obstacle for
locating the place, second number is about a model concerning attributes
which titled to be indeterminate for locating the place and sometimes, they’re
obstacle but sometimes, they’re determinate to locate that place. Third
number is about a model concerning attributes which titled to be determinate
for locating the place. For example, (0.2, 0.5, 0.8) is assigned to a place v as

320
 7.11. Applications

information about its location. This is a brief outline of this application. To

get it more precisely, I use some steps to clarify about them.

Step 1. (Definition) Located place is a term to categorize places into two

classes. Applications for this function are too many but they’ve noticed
to some parameters like decreasing costs, precise analysis, decreasing the
ranges of analysis, restrictions on cases, low amount of selective data as
possible, et cetera. Selective points as possible to distinguish about every
couple of points out of them, are optimal case as possibilities allow.
Step 2. (Issue) A train has some stops which every stop has some attributes.
A couple of stops are given but they’re impossible to locate by their
attributes.
Step 3. (Model) I use attributes of stops to get a model with three numbers
chosen from real numbers amid zero and one. Every number illustrates
every aspect of their attributes. The first number is obstacle means
bad attributes, the second number is indeterminate and third number is
determinate means good attributes. But to use sensible clarification, I use
a fuzzy model as Figure (7.10). To get it more precisely, consider Table
(7.7) as a fuzzy model which assigns to every stations and connections a
value, separately. In fact, set of stations and set of connections are used
to make fuzzy sets from them.

Figure 7.10: Black vertex {s1 } is only fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set amid all
sets of vertices for fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph T. F3

Table 7.7: A Train concerning its Stations and its Connections as a Fuzzy
Graph in a Model. T3

Stations of T s1 s2 s3 s4 s5 s6 s7 s8 s9 , s10
Values 0.1 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.1 0.3 0.6 0.5 0.2
Connections of T s1 s2 s2 s3 s3 s4 s4 s5 s5 s6 s6 s7 s7 s8 s8 s9 s9 s10
Values 0.1 0.6 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.1

Step 4. (Solution) As figure (7.10) shows, I study this fuzzy model. By

Proposition (7.9.1), the stop s1 locates every given couple of stations.
To get beyond this result, If I’ve a family of fuzzy(neutrosophic) paths
excerpt from family of trains with fuzzy(neutrosophic) common and s1 in
common, then by Corollary (7.9.8), the stop s1 locates every given couple
of stations in every fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph excerpt from any trains,
simultaneously.

321
7. Neutrosophic Graphs

Covid-19 and Identifying Infected People

Dark network is description for infected people who are anonymous in the
matter of Covid-19. Virus and its anonymously style to transmit the virus
from one person to another person, could make a dark network involving
people. Consider everyone as network titled fuzzy(neutrosophic). It means that
the person and his networks containing his connections make two models,
fixed-edge fuzzy(neutrosophic) and fixed-vertex strong fuzzy(neutrosophic).
Now, I have a family of people which everyone is a model in the terms of
Covid-19.
Step 1. (Definition) Covid-19 is well-known disease which like every disease
has general parameters. Parameters are intensity of symptom, decreasing
impacts, relatively treatments, complete treatments and et cetera. But
Covid-19 has specific ways which they transmit this disease. It’s coming
up with finding impressive networks of people to identify infected people.
People and their connections are important cases to develop this notion.
Step 2. (Issue) A person has been infected and I try to find the connections
and the people which transmit this disease.
Step 3. (Model) A person and his connections are a network which are a fuzzy
model. Two numbers are assigned to a person and his connections. To do
this, I need to identify a couple of people which are given in a network
of this person. I proposed two fuzzy models. Firstly, as Figure (7.11), a
fuzzy graph containing the people who connect to this person, is proposed
in Table (7.8). Secondly, as Figure (7.11), a fuzzy model including person
with his two selective connections and other people with two selective
connections of them, is posed in Table (7.9). The attributes are like the
iterations of connections, the intensity of infected people, serious symptom,
locations of people and et cetera, are used to have couple of people who
are selected. Capable for being infected and infected people are used to
make these models.

Table 7.8: An Infected Person concerning his two selective Connections and his
Partners With their two selective Connections as a Fuzzy Graph T in a Model. T4

People of T i1 i2 c1 c2 c3 i3
Values 0.7 0.8 0.6 0.8 0.6 0.9
Connections of T i1 i2 i2 c1 c1 c2 c2 c3 c3 i3 i3 i1
Values 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6

Table 7.9: An Infected Person concerning his Connections and his Partners as
a Fuzzy Graph T 0 in a Model. T5

People of T 0 i1 c1 c2 c3
Values 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.9
Connections of T 0 i1 c1 i1 c2 i1 c3 c3 i1
Values 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6

322
 7.12. Open Problems

Figure 7.11: Black vertices {i1 , i2 } are only fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set

amid all sets of vertices for fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph T. Black vertices
V \ {c1 , c2 } are only fuzzy(neutrosophic)-metric set amid all sets of vertices for
fuzzy(neutrosophic) graph T 0 . F4

Step 4. (Solution) By Corollary (7.8.10), a person i1 and his partner i2 identify

every given couple of partners which are in Figure (7.11) as T . To get
beyond this result, if a person i1 and the partner i2 aren’t antipodal vertices
in every fuzzy cycles are contained in a family of person’s networks, then
by Corollary (7.8.11), a person i1 and the partner i2 identify every given
couple of partners in every fuzzy cycles, simultaneously. By Corollary
(7.9.14), {c1 , c2 } identify couple of person i1 and his partner c3 , in Figure
(7.11) as T 0 in optimal way and this set is unique.

7.12 Open Problems

sec8
The crisp notion of dimension is defined on fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs. Thus
Question 7.12.1. Is it possible to define fuzzy(neutrosophic) notion of dimen-
sion on fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs?
There are too many limitations on the classes of fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs by
using fixed-edge fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs and fixed-vertex strong
fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs.
Question 7.12.2. Is an approach existed to compute current dimension for
specific classes of fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs?
Question 7.12.3. What are basic attributes of current dimension for general
classes of fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs?
Finding other classes of fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs has an ordinary approach
to develop this study.
Question 7.12.4. Which new classes of fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs are existed
to develop this notion of current dimension?
Question 7.12.5. Which new classes of fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs are existed
to compute this notion of current dimension?

323
 7. Neutrosophic Graphs

Question 7.12.6. Which general approaches are existed to study this notion of
current dimension in fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs?
Question 7.12.7. Which specific approaches are existed to study this notion of
current dimension in fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs?
Problem 7.12.8. Are there special crisp sets of vertices, e.g. antipodal vertices
for fuzzy(neutrosophic) cycles, which have key role to study this notion of current
dimension in fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs?
Problem 7.12.9. Are there fuzzy(neutrosophic) special sets of vertices, e.g.
fuzzy(neutrosophic) twin vertices for general classes, which have key role to
study this notion of current dimension in fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs?

7.13 Conclusion and Closing Remarks

sec10
This study uses mixed combinations of fuzzy concepts and crisp concepts to
explore new notion of crisp dimension in fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs as
individual and as family. In this way, some crisp notions like antipodal vertices
are defined to use as a tool to study fuzzy(neutrosophic) cycles as individual
and as family. Also, some fuzzy(neutrosophic) notions like fuzzy(neutrosophic)
twin vertices are defined to use as a tool to study general classes of
fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs as individual and as family. Mixed family of
fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs are slightly studied by using fuzzy(neutrosophic)
twin vertices and other ideas as individual and as family. In Table (7.10), I
mention some advantages and limitations concerning this article and its
proposed notions.

Table 7.10: A Brief Overview about Advantages and Limitations of this study tbl5

Advantages Limitations
1. Using crisp and fuzzy(neutrosophic) 1. The most usages of fixed-edge
notions in one framework fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs
together simultaneously. and fixed-vertex strong
2. Study on fuzzy(neutrosophic) fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs.
as individual and as family.
3. Involved classes as complete, 2. Study on family of different models
strong, path, cycle, t-partite,
bipartite, star, wheel.
4. Characterizing classes of 3. Characterizing classes of
fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs fuzzy(neutrosophic) graphs
with smallest metric number with smallest dimension number
and largest metric number. and largest dimension number.

324
 Bibliography

Ref1 [1] Henry Garrett, Big Sets Of Vertices, Preprints 2021, 2021060189 (doi:
10.20944/preprints202106.0189.v1).
Ref2 [2] Henry Garrett, Locating And Location Number, Preprints 2021,
2021060206 (doi: 10.20944/preprints202106.0206.v1).
Ref3 [3] Henry Garrett, Metric Dimension in Fuzzy Graphs and Neutro-
sophic Graphs, Preprints 2021, 2021110142 (doi: 10.20944/pre-
prints202111.0142.v1).
Ref4 [4] Henry Garrett, Metric Dimension in fuzzy (neutrsophic) Graphs-II,
Preprints 2021, 2021110142 (doi: 10.20944/preprints202111.0142.v2).
Ref5 [5] Henry Garrett, Metric Dimensions Of Graphs #12, ResearchGate 2021
(doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.20690.48322).
Ref6 [6] Henry Garrett, Metric Dimensions Of Graphs, Preprints 2021, 2021060392
(doi: 10.20944/preprints202106.0392.v1).
Ref7 [7] Henry Garrett, New Graph Of Graph, Preprints 2021, 2021060323 (doi:
10.20944/preprints202106.0323.v1).
Ref8 [8] Henry Garrett, Numbers Based On Edges, Preprints 2021, 2021060315
(doi: 10.20944/preprints202106.0315.v1).
Ref9 [9] Henry Garrett, Matroid And Its Outlines, Preprints 2021, 2021060146
(doi: 10.20944/preprints202106.0146.v1).
Ref10 [10] Henry Garrett, Matroid And Its Relations, Preprints 2021, 2021060080
(doi: 10.20944/preprints202106.0080.v1).

325
 CHAPTER 8

Simple Ideas

8.1 Abstract

Simple ideas work indirectly to

make structural thinking and
extracting ways to make the brain
to do deep ideas.

imple ideas are the topic which get some ideas concerning different parts of
mathematics. Introducing new definitions and after that, study on the
definitions to obtain some results are the common ways to do research. In this
book, by using definitions, some ideas are obtained which are simple but they
could get open ways to think deeply around definitions and the ways which
they forms. Connections amid different principles, definitions, and other ideas,
strength us to get scrutiny and discernment about producing deep ideas from
simple ideas. Simple ideas work indirectly to make structural thinking and
extracting ways to make the brain to do deep ideas.

8.2 Acknowledgements

The words of mind and the minds

of words, are too eligible to be in
the stage of acknowledgements

he author is going to say his gratitude and his appreciation about the brains
and their hands which are showing the importance of words in the framework
of every wisdom, knowledge, arts and emotions which are streaming in the
lines from the words, notions, ideas and approaches to have the material which
is only the way to flourish the minds, the growing the notions, advancing ways
and making the stable ways to be amid the events and storms of minds for
surviving from them and making the outstanding experiences about the tools
and ideas to be on the star lines of words and shining like stars, forever.

327
 8. Simple Ideas

8.3 Metric and Dimension

Some concepts concerning
matroid and dimension is
introduced in specific way.

he contents of this chapter are provided by references [Ref3], [Ref4], [Ref6].

8.4 Matroid And Its Outlines

Abstract
In this article, there’s an effort to make sense about the new versions of
matroid. I believe that there’s new idea on the background of. matroid. Two
styles of matroid is defined in the background of fixed graphs and after that
the attributes of these new notion on the graph and its parameters have been
studied. The focus of this article is on the version of matroid which has the
basis on the cycles as if there’s gentle discussion on the results which are based
on the set of independent vertices as matroid-x. The relation amid
fundamental parameters and specific set like independent set and minimal set
in the terminology of graph theory have been considered. Matroid is the word
to use in the study on the parameters of graph theory as if set theory and its
terminology are also recorded. The terms of word in various terminology have
been relatively used. There are open ways to use hypergraphs or some serious
relations amid these two types.

Keywords: Graph theory, Complete graph, Independent set, Power set.

AMS Subject Classification: 05C17, 05C22, 05E45, 05E14

Definition And Its Clarification

The kind of numbers have been used to differentiate amid vertices. There’s the
same condition for edges so {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} is the set of vertices and the set
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} is the set of edges. Let B is the set of subsets of E which are
cycles so as an example, {{1}, {2, 3}, {4, 5, 6}} where the singleton is the loop
and set with couple of numbers is the parallel cycles. To capture the details,
the upcoming paragraph is up.

R1 Definition 8.4.1. (Matroid)

Let G : (V, E) be a graph. Let B be the set of some cycles. If there’s three
conditions for these two sets, then there’s matroid which is corresponded to
(E, B). So (E, B) is the characteristic of the matroid. Three conditions are the
following:

• The set which has no member, belongs to B.

• If b ∈ B, then any of subset of b, belongs to B.

• If b1 , b2 ∈ B and b1 has more members than b2 then there’s the member

of b1 , when it’s added to b2 , it makes the new member of B.

328
 8.4. Matroid And Its Outlines

Relationships And Its illustrations

Theorem 8.4.2. Let (E, P(E)) be a matroid. Then

(i) Size(G) = C(n, 2) + 2n;

|B|
(ii) Order(G) = log2 ;

(iii) |B| = 2n ;

(iv) ∆(G) = δ(G) = n;

(v) Background’s graph is complete;

(vi) Order(G) is Size(G) − C(n, 2) half.

Proof. Obvious. 

Results And Its Beyond

Theorem 8.4.3. Let (E, B) be a matroid. Then

(i) Size(G) ≤ C(n, 2) + 2n;

|B|
(ii) Order(G) ≤ log2 ;

(iii) |B| ≤ 2n ;

(iv) ∆(G) ≤ n;

(v) δ(G) ≤ n;

(vi) Order(G) is lower than Size(G) − C(n, 2) half.

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.4.4. Let (E, B) be a matroid and B has one member. Then
Background’s graph is empty.

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.4.5. Let (E, B) be a matroid. Then 1 ≤ |B| ≤ 2n .

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.4.6. Let (E, B) be a matroid. If B = {bi |i = 1, 2, · · · , n} then

{P(b1 ), P(b2 ), · · · , P(bn )} ⊆ B.

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.4.7. Let (E, B) be a matroid. If b1 , b2 ∈ B such that |b1 | < |b2 | then

• P(b1 ) < P(b2 );

• P(b1 ), P(b2 ) ∈ B;

• there’s e ∈ b2 − b1 such that P(b1 ∪ {e}), P(b2 ) ∈ B;

329
8. Simple Ideas

• P(b1 ) ∪ P(b2 ) ∈ B;
• if b1 ⊆ b2 , then b1 ∈ P(b2 );
• if b1 ∪ b2 = E, then B = P(E).

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.4.8. Let (E, B) be a matroid. If all members of B are singleton if

and only if |B| equals order of G.

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.4.9. Let (E, B) be a matroid. If all members of B are singleton. and
|B| equals order of G. Then G is neither complete graph nor B = P(G).

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.4.10. Let (E, B) be a matroid. If ∀b ∈ B, |b| ≤ 2. Then |B| equals

2C(Order(G), 2) + Order(G).

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.4.11. Let (E, B) be a matroid. If all members of B, |b| ≤ 2. And

|B| equals 2C(order(G), 2)+order(G). Then G is neither complete graph nor
B = P(G).

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.4.12. Let (E, B) be a matroid. If there’s b ∈ B such that |b| = c.

Then G has a complete subgraph from the order c.

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.4.13. Let (E, B) be a matroid. If there’s b ∈ B such that |b| =

Order(G). Then G is a complete graph.

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.4.14. Let (E, B) be a matroid. If there’s b ∈ B such that |b| =

Order(G). Then B = P(E).

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.4.15. Let (E, B) be a matroid. If for all b ∈ B, |b| = 2 or 1 and B

has two partitions. Then G has a complete bipartite graph.

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.4.16. Let (E, B) be a matroid. If there’s b ∈ B, |b| > 1. Then b

isn’t a minimal sets in the terms of having membership of B.

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.4.17. Let (E, B) be a matroid. If there’s b ∈ B, |b| > 1. Then

subsets of b which are singleton, are the minimal sets in the terms of having
membership of B.

330
 8.4. Matroid And Its Outlines

Proof. Obvious. 

R2 Definition 8.4.18. (Matroid-x)

Let G : (V, E) be a graph. Let B be the set of some sets of independent vertices.
If there’s three conditions for these two sets, then there’s matroid-x which is
corresponded to (V, B). So (V, B) is the characteristic of the matroid-x. Three
conditions are the following:
• The set which has no member, belongs to B.
• If b ∈ B, then any of subset of b, belongs to B.
• If b1 , b2 ∈ B and b1 has more members than b2 then there’s the member
of b1 , when it’s added to b2 , it makes the new member of B.
Theorem 8.4.19. Let (V, B) be a matroid-x. If there’s b ∈ B, |b| > 1. Then
subsets of b which are singleton, are the minimal sets in the terms of having
membership of B.

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.4.20. Let (V, B) be a matroid-x. If there’s b ∈ B, |b| > 1. Then b

isn’t a minimal sets in the terms of having membership of B.

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.4.21. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. Consider V ∈ B. If (V, B) is a

0
matroid-x, then (E, B ) isn’t a matroid.

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.4.22. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. Consider E ∈ B. If (E, B) is a

0
matroid-x, then (V, B ) isn’t a matroid.

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.4.23. Let (E, B) be a matroid. Then the following statements are
equiavalent:
• E ∈B
• P(E) = B
• G : (V, E) is complete graph.

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.4.24. Let (V, B) be a matroid-x. Then the following statements are
equiavalent:
• V∈B
• P(V) = B
• G : (V, E) is empty graph.

Proof. Obvious. 

331
 8. Simple Ideas

Theorem 8.4.25. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. Consider E ∈ B. If (E, B) is a

0
matroid, then (V, B ) isn’t a matroid-x.

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.4.26. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. If I is an independent set of vertices

in the term of having edges amid them, then B = I and (V, B) is a matroid-x
where singleton b ∈ I is considered as {b} in the set B or I ∈ B.

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.4.27. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. If M is a minimal set of cycles

in the term of having membership of B, then either B = M and (V, B) is a
matroid-x where singleton b ∈ M is considered as {b} in the set B or M 6∈ B.

Proof. Obvious. 

8.5 Matroid And Its Relations

Abstract
In this article, the connections amid matroid and other notions have been
studied. The structure of matroid could be a reflection of some other structure
in lattice theory, group theory, other algebraic structure, graph theory,
combinatorics and enumeration theory.

Keywords: Edge, Groupoid, Named and unnamed graphs, Matroid

AMS Subject Classification: 05C17, 05C22, 05E45, 05E14

Preliminary On The Concept

I’m going to refer to some books which are cited to the necessary and sufficient
material which are covering the introduction and the preliminary of this outlet
so look [Ref.[1], Ref.[2], Ref.[3], Ref.[4]] where Ref.[1] is about the
textbook, Ref.[2] is common, Ref.[3] has good ideas and Ref.[4] is kind of
disciplinary approaches in the good ways. Further references could be referred
and could be addressed in Refs. [5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11].

8.6 Definition And Its Clarification

R1 Definition 8.6.1. (Matroid)

Let E is a given set and B is an arbitrary set is including the some subsets of
E. If there’s three conditions for these two sets, then there’s matroid which is
corresponded to (E, B). So (E, B) is the characteristic of the matroid. Three
conditions are the following:

• The set which has no member, is belonging to B.

• If b ∈ B, then any of subset of b, is belonging to B.

• If b1 , b2 ∈ B and b1 has more members than b2 then there’s the member

of b1 , when it’s added to b2 , it makes the new member of B.

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 8.6. Definition And Its Clarification

Relationships And Its illustrations

Theorem 8.6.2. Let (E, B) be a matroid. Then there is a

(i) corresponded poset.

(ii) decreasing property.

(iii) power set.

(iv) chain.

(v) totally ordered set.

(vi) meet-lattice.

Proof.

(i) There is a corresponded poset (B, ⊆).

(ii) By second principle in the Definition (8.6.1), every member of a matroid

has the decreasing property when (B, ⊆). Because All subsets of a member
is the member so (B, ⊆) has the decreasing property on its members with
the relation of ⊆.

(iii) If E ∈ B, then B is power set of E.

(iv) Every member of B makes the chain.

(v) If E ∈ B, then B is power set of E. (B, ⊆) is totally ordered set in the

way that, all members are comparable.

(vi) Every subsets of members have the minimum in B which is ∅.

Results And Its Beyond

Theorem 8.6.3. Let (E, B) be a matroid and I is the maximum independent
set in the term of order ⊆. Then

(i) cardinality of I equals with components of its graph.

(ii) I has representatives which are the partitions for B.

(iii) I is the maximum minimal set.

(iv) I is neither poset nor totally ordered set.

(v) ⊆ on I is only reflexive.

(vi) I isn’t ∅.

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.6.4. Let (E, B) be a matroid and B is one chain. Then E ∈ B so

B is power set of E.

333
8. Simple Ideas

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.6.5. Let (E, B) be a matroid and |E| = n. Then 1 ≤ |B| ≤ 2n .

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.6.6. Let (E, B) be a matroid and |B| = 2n . Then B is power set
of E.

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.6.7. Let (E, B) be a matroid and |B| = 1. Then B is power set of
∅.

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.6.8. Let (E, B) be a matroid. Then (B, max, min) is an algebraic
structure.

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.6.9. Let (E, B) be a matroid. Then (B, max) is an abelian group.

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.6.10. Let (E, B) be a matroid. Then (B, min) is an abelian semi-
group.

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.6.11. Let (E, B) be a matroid. If B = E, then (B, min) is an

abelian monoid.

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.6.12. Let (E, B1 ) and (E, B2 ) be matroids. Then (E, B1 ∪ B2 ) and
(E, B1 ∩ B2 ) are matroids.

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.6.13. Let (E, B1 ) and (E, B2 ) be matroids. If B1 ⊆ B2 , then

(E, B2 − B1 ) is matroid.

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.6.14. Let (E, B1 ) be matroid. then (E, B c ) is matroid when B c is

complement of B in the matter of power set of E.

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.6.15. Let B be a set of all subsets of E which they construct matroid
on E. If E1 ⊆ E, then B1 ⊆ B.

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.6.16. Let B be a set of all B of E which they construct matroid on

E. Then P (E) ∈ B where P (E) is the power set of E.

334
 8.7. Metric Number In Dimension

Proof. Obvious. 

Theorem 8.6.17. Let B be a set of all B of E which they construct matroid on

E. If |E| = n, then |B| = nn .

Proof. Obvious. 

8.7 Metric Number In Dimension

Abstract
In this outlet, I’ve devised the concept of relation amid two points where these
points are coming up to make situation which in that the set of objects are
greed to represent the story of how to be in whatever situations when these
two points have the styles of being everywhere in the highlights of the concept
which are coming from the merits of these points where are eligible to make
capable situation to overcome every situation when they’re participant in the
hugely diverse situations which mean too styles of graphs with have the name
or the general results for the general situation as possible as are.

Keywords: Metric, Dimension, named graphs, unnamed graphs

AMS Subject Classification: 05C17, 05C22, 05E45, 05E14

New Ideas As Definitions

Definition 8.7.1. Let G : (E, B) be the graph.

• (Metric) The METRIC is the dynamic space when the metric has been
increased, the number has no seen changes.

• (Number) The NUMBER is the type of parameter which in that, the

number of objects in resolving sets, has the peers in the dimension.

• (In) The IN is the kind of inside number as the optimal.

• (Dimension) The DIMENSION is the space which in that, there are some
classes of graphs.

Definition 8.7.2. Let G : (E, B) be the graph. Then METRIC NUMBER IN

DIMENSION is the graph which its reminded number in that notion, is two.

New Approaches As Results

Theorem 8.7.3. (Complete Bipartite Graph)
The complete bipartite graph is the metric number in dimension.

Proof. Every vertex from any part couldn’t resolve the vertex in its peer in the
opponent part. So the given set from one vertex in one part and one vertex in
another part, make the number two as reminder so the graph is metric number
in dimension. To capture it precise, there’s two given vertices so there’s four
cases,

335
8. Simple Ideas

• two vertices belong to same part. So the vertex in the set, which is
corresponded to this part has the distance two and the vertex in the
next to part, has the distance one. So in this case, two vertices aren’t
resolvable.

• one vertex in one part and one vertex in another part. These two given
vertices, could be solvable by any vertex which is given. Because there’s
the distance one and there’s the distance two so in the case which the
part for two vertices, is the same, the distance is two and in the case, two
vertices have the different parts, the distance is one.

• If two given vertices belong to same parts, then adding all vertices to
the resolved set in the way that, there’s one vertex in any part out of
the resolved set so there’s two vertices for resolving which are resolvable
because they aren’t in same part.

• Two given vertices have been left aside like there are isolated so these two
vertices is the complement of the resolving set.

Theorem 8.7.4. (Star Graph)

The star graph is the metric number in dimension.

Proof. The center of this graph is unique and other vertices have the same
positions so two vertices which one of them is center, are the only vertices which
could be resolved. Center and one given vertex which is different from center,
are two only objects for the process of resolving so the graph is metric number
in dimension. In other words, there are only two vertices for being resolved and
more than two vertices couldn’t be resolved. To capture the details, there are
four cases.

• If two vertices are non-center, then the distance from the center vertex is
one and the distance from non-center vertices are two. So the styles of
these two vertices are the same and there aren’t any vertices to resolve
them.

• If more than two vertices are on demand to be resolved, then at least, two
vertices are non-center so the discussion goes back to the previous case.

• One center vertex and one non-center vertex have been chosen to be
resolved. The center vertex is chosen so the latter are non-center vertices.
Any given non-center vertex has the distance one from center vertex and
has the distance two from non-center vertex so they’re resolved.

• Two vertices are relatively isolated in the matter of resolved set so this
set is the complement for resolved set.

Theorem 8.7.5. (Wheel Graph)

The wheel graph isn’t the metric number in dimension.

336
 8.8. Numbers And Graphs

Proof. The wheel graph is the graph in that, the distance amid all vertices or
precisely, the distance amid any two given set is one. So there’s no vertices out
of resolved set which means that the counterpart and complement of resolved
set is empty set. 

Theorem 8.7.6. (Path Graph, Cycle Graph and Ladder Graph)

The path graph, cycle graph and ladder graph isn’t the metric number in
dimension.

Proof. The resolved set for the path graph and the ladder graph, is singleton.
The resolved set for cycle graph, is two given vertices. So these graphs are
metric number in dimension if and only if they’ve three vertices for the case
path graph and ladder graph and four vertices for the case cycle graph. 

Open ways Of Results

Finding the ways in that, fundamental parameters of graphs are related to this
concept.

8.8 Numbers And Graphs

Ideas concerning new numbers in

graphs are represented and in this
way, for every idea, some results
in the formation of simple ideas
are proposed in the way that, the
most connections with other
aspects and notions are preferred.

he contents of this chapter are provided by references [Ref1], [Ref2], [Ref9],

[Ref5].

8.9 Big Sets Of Vertices

Abstract
In this article, some notions about set, weight of set, number, number’s
position, special vertex are introduced. Some classes of graph under these new
notions have been opted as if the study on the special attributes of these new
notion when they’ve acted amid each other is considered. Internal and external
relations amid these new notions have been obtained as if some classes of
graphs in the matter of these notions are been pointed out.

Keywords: Special Set, Set’s Weight, Special Number, Number’s Position.

AMS Subject Classification: 05C17, 05C22, 05E45, 05E14

337
8. Simple Ideas

Definition And Its Clarification

Definition 8.9.1. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. Then

• B is renamed to be BIG set if ∀x ∈ V, there is m ∈ B such that

N (x) ∩ N (m) 6= ∅;

• if B = {M1 , M2 , · · · , Mn } and ∀Mi ∈ B : N (x) ∩ N (Mi ) = Ni 6= ∅,

then the set of numbers (M1 M2 · · · Mn ) is BIG weight of B;

• the greatest number is renamed to BIG number;

• number’s position is renamed to BIG position;

• corresponded vertex is renamed to BIG vertex.

Relationships And Its illustrations

Theorem 8.9.2. Let G : (V, E) be a complete graph. Then

• B is renamed to be BIG set cause ∀x ∈ V, there is M ∈ B such that

N (x) ∩ N (M) 6= ∅;

• B = {M1 } and ∀Mi ∈ B : N (x) ∩ N (Mi ) = V(G) − {M1 } =

6 ∅, then the
set of numbers (M1 ) is BIG weight of B;

• BIG number is O(G) − 1;

• BIG position is one;

• BIG vertex is M1 .

Theorem 8.9.3. Let G : (V, E) be a complete bipartite graph. Then

• B is renamed to be BIG set cause ∀x ∈ V, there is M ∈ B such that

N (x) ∩ N (M) 6= ∅;

• B = {M1 , M2 } and ∀Mi ∈ B : N (x) ∩ N (Mi ) = V(G) − {M1 , M2 } =

6 ∅,
then the set of numbers (M1 M2 ) is BIG weight of B;

• BIG number is O(G) − 2;

• BIG position is one;

• BIG vertex is M1 .

Theorem 8.9.4. Let G : (V, E) be a star graph. Then

• B is renamed to be BIG set cause ∀x ∈ V, there is M ∈ B such that

N (x) ∩ N (M) 6= ∅;

• B = {M1 , M2 } and ∀Mi ∈ B : N (x) ∩ N (Mi ) = V(G) − {M1 , M2 } =

6 ∅,
then the set of numbers (M1 M2 ) is BIG weight of B;

• BIG number is O(G) − 2;

• BIG position is one;

338
 8.10. Locating And Location Number

• BIG vertex is M1 .
Theorem 8.9.5. Let G : (V, E) be a path graph. Then
• B is renamed to be BIG set cause ∀x ∈ V, there is M ∈ B such that
N (x) ∩ N (M) 6= ∅;
• B = {M2 , M4 , · · · , M n2 } and ∀Mi ∈ B : N (x) ∩ N (Mi ) = V(G) −
{M2 , M4 , · · · , M n2 } =
6 ∅, then the set of numbers (M2 M4 · · · , M n2 ) is
BIG weight of B;
• BIG number is O(G) − n2 ;
• BIG position is two;
• BIG vertex is M2 .
Theorem 8.9.6. Let G : (V, E) be a cycle graph. Then
• B is renamed to be BIG set cause ∀x ∈ V, there is M ∈ B such that
N (x) ∩ N (M) 6= ∅;
• B = {M2 , M4 , · · · , M n2 } and ∀Mi ∈ B : N (x) ∩ N (Mi ) = V(G) −
{M2 , M4 , · · · , M n2 } =
6 ∅, then the set of numbers (M2 M4 · · · , M n2 ) is
BIG weight of B;
• BIG number is O(G) − n2 ;
• BIG position is two;
• BIG vertex is M2 .

Results And Its Beyond

Theorem 8.9.7. Let G : (V, E) be a graph and A1 , A2 . If B3 = B1 ∩ B2 , then
A1 = B1 , A2 = B2 .
Theorem 8.9.8. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. Then B3 = B1 ∪ B2 .
Theorem 8.9.9. Let G : (V, E) be a graph B. If B ⊆ A then B3 = A.
Theorem 8.9.10. Let G : (V, E) be a graph B is minimal set. If B ⊆ A then
B3 = A.

8.10 Locating And Location Number

Abstract
In this article, some notions about set, weight of set, number, number’s
position, special vertex are introduced. Some classes of graph under these new
notions have been opted as if the study on the special attributes of these new
notion when they’ve acted amid each other is considered. Internal and external
relations amid these new notions have been obtained as if some classes of
graphs in the matter of these notions are been pointed out.

Keywords: Special Set, Set’s Weight, Special Number, Number’s Position.

AMS Subject Classification: 05C17, 05C22, 05E45, 05E14

339
8. Simple Ideas

Definition And Its Clarification

Definition 8.10.1. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. Then

• B is renamed to be LOCATING SET if ∀x ∈ V, there is m ∈ B such

that x ∩ N (m) 6= ∅ or N (B) = V;

• Minimum cardinality B is renamed to LOCATION NUMBER;

• B’s member is renamed to LOCATING MEMBER;

• Cardinality of B is renamed to LOCATING NUMBER.

Relationships And Its illustrations

Theorem 8.10.2. Let G : (V, E) be a complete graph. Then

• B = {m} is renamed to be LOCATING SET because ∀x ∈ V, there is

m ∈ B such that x ∩ N (m) 6= ∅ and N (B) = V.

• Minimum cardinality B, 1 is renamed to LOCATION NUMBER.

• B’s member m ∈ V is renamed to LOCATING MEMBER;

• Cardinality of B, 1, 2, · · · O(G) is renamed to LOCATING NUMBER.

Theorem 8.10.3. Let G : (V, E) be a complete bipartite graph. Then

• B = {m1 ∈ V1 , m2 ∈ V2 } is renamed to be LOCATING SET because

∀x ∈ V there is m1 ∈ V1 ⊆ B, m2 ∈ V2 ⊆ B such that x ∩ N (m) 6= ∅ and
N (B) = V.

• Minimum cardinality B, 2 is renamed to LOCATION NUMBER.

• B’s member m1 , m2 ∈ V is renamed to LOCATING MEMBER;

• Cardinality of B, 2, · · · O(G) is renamed to LOCATING NUMBER.

Theorem 8.10.4. Let G : (V, E) be a star graph. Then

• B = {m ∈ V} is renamed to be LOCATING SET because ∀x ∈ V there

is m = C(G) ⊆ B such that x ∩ N (m) 6= ∅ and N (B) = V.

• Minimum cardinality B, 1 is renamed to LOCATION NUMBER.

• B’s member m, {m, m1 , m2 · · · , mi−1 }i=n

i=1 } is renamed to LOCATING
MEMBER;

• Cardinality of B, 1, 2, · · · O(G) is renamed to LOCATING NUMBER.

Theorem 8.10.5. Let G : (V, E) be a wheel graph. Then

• B = {m ∈ V} is renamed to be LOCATING SET because ∀x ∈ V there

is m = C(G) ⊆ B such that x ∩ N (m) 6= ∅ and N (B) = V.

• Minimum cardinality B, 1 is renamed to LOCATION NUMBER.

340
 8.10. Locating And Location Number

• B’s member m, {m, m1 , m2 · · · , mi−1 }i=n

i=1 } is renamed to LOCATING
MEMBER;
• Cardinality of B, 1, 2, · · · O(G) is renamed to LOCATING NUMBER.
Theorem 8.10.6. Let G : (V, E) be a path graph. Then
• B = {m2 , m4 , · · · } is renamed to be LOCATING SET because ∀x ∈ V
there is m ∈ B such that x ∩ N (m) 6= ∅ and N (B) = V.
O(G)
• Minimum cardinality B, 2 is renamed to LOCATION NUMBER.
• B’s member {m2 , m4 , · · · } and {m2 , m4 , · · · } ∪ {m1 , m3 , · · · , mi }i=1 is
renamed to LOCATING MEMBER;
O(G)
• Cardinality of B, 2 ,··· , O(G) is renamed to LOCATING NUM-
BER.
Theorem 8.10.7. Let G : (V, E) be a cycle graph. Then
• B = {m2 , m4 , · · · } is renamed to be LOCATING SET because ∀x ∈ V
there is m ∈ B such that x ∩ N (m) 6= ∅ and N (B) = V.
O(G)
• Minimum cardinality B, 2 is renamed to LOCATION NUMBER.
• B’s member {m2 , m4 , · · · } and {m2 , m4 , · · · } ∪ {m1 , m3 , · · · , mi }i=1 is
renamed to LOCATING MEMBER;
O(G)
• Cardinality of B, 2 ,··· , O(G) is renamed to LOCATING NUM-
BER.

Results And Its Beyond

Theorem 8.10.8. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. If LOCATING MEMBER is
one, then one is LOCATION NUMBER.
Theorem 8.10.9. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. If LOCATION NUMBER is
two, then G is complete bipartite graph.
Theorem 8.10.10. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. If LOCATION NUMBER is
one, then G is either complete graph or star graph.
Theorem 8.10.11. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. Then O(G) is LOCATING
NUMBER.
Theorem 8.10.12. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. Then V is LOCATING SET.
Theorem 8.10.13. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. If there is LOCATING SET
then the cardinality of its minimal set is LOCATION NUMBER.
Theorem 8.10.14. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. Then 1 ≤ LOCATION
NUMBER ≤ O(G).
Theorem 8.10.15. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. ∀m ∈ V, m is LOCATING
MEMBER if and only if G is complete graph.
Theorem 8.10.16. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. LOCATION NUMBER of G
is greater than LOCATION NUMBER of its subgraphs.

341
8. Simple Ideas

Theorem 8.10.17. LOCATION NUMBER of union of some graphs equals

summation of LOCATION NUMBER of individual graphs.
Theorem 8.10.18. Every LOCATING SET of a graph is subset of V.
Theorem 8.10.19. LOCATING SET of a graph is V if and only if graph is
empty graph.
Theorem 8.10.20. LOCATING SET of a graph with two partitions as two
independent sets is one vertex from each of its partitions as representative if
and only if graph is complete bipartite graph.

8.11 Numbers Based On Edges

Abstract
Number is based in special edges, is introduced. The kind of natural extension
from edges toward vertex and the set of vertices in the way that, the final
notion is number, is studied. The result is obtained which is about the study
on the classes of graphs in the matter of new notions. There is the extended
notion about having edge amid two vertices toward having some edges in the
word of neighbor and in another stage going into the atmosphere of having
consecutive edges in the terminology of path and in the upper vision going on
the notion about path with jargon and buzzword of distance as if the minimal
vertices has concluded the new notions with the word, number.

Keywords: Special Edges, Neighbors, Distances, Numbers.

AMS Subject Classification: 05C17, 05C22, 05E45, 05E14

Definition And Its Clarification

Definition 8.11.1. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. Then

• an edge e = xy is renamed to be

– EDGE-TYPE1 if N (x) = N (y);

– EDGE-TYPE2 if N (x) ⊆ N (y);
– EDGE-TYPE3 if N (y) ⊆ N (x);
– EDGE-TYPE4 if ∀z ∈ V : D(x, z) = D(y, z);
– EDGE-TYPE5 if ∀z ∈ V : D(x, z) ≥ D(y, z);
– EDGE-TYPE6 if ∀z ∈ V : D(x, z) ≤ D(y, z);

• a vertex x is renamed to be

– VERTEX-TYPE1 if there’s the vertex y such that xy is EDGE-

TYPE1.
– VERTEX-TYPE2 if there’s the vertex y such that xy is EDGE-
TYPE2.
– VERTEX-TYPE3 if there’s the vertex y such that xy is EDGE-
TYPE3.

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 8.11. Numbers Based On Edges

– VERTEX-TYPE4 if there’s the vertex y such that xy is EDGE-

TYPE4.
– VERTEX-TYPE5 if there’s the vertex y such that xy is EDGE-
TYPE5.
– VERTEX-TYPE6 if there’s the vertex y such that xy is EDGE-
TYPE6.

• a set B is renamed to be

– SET-TYPE1 if for every vertex y ∈ V, there’s VERTEX-TYPE1

in B;
– SET-TYPE2 if for every vertex y ∈ V, there’s VERTEX-TYPE2
in B;
– SET-TYPE3 if for every vertex y ∈ V, there’s VERTEX-TYPE3
in B;
– SET-TYPE4 if for every vertex y ∈ V, there’s VERTEX-TYPE4
in B;
– SET-TYPE5 if for every vertex y ∈ V, there’s VERTEX-TYPE5
in B;
– SET-TYPE6 if for every vertex y ∈ V, there’s VERTEX-TYPE6
in B;

• a number N is renamed to be

– NUMBER-TYPE1 if there’s SET-TYPE1 with minimum cardin-

ality;
– NUMBER-TYPE2 if there’s SET-TYPE2 with minimum cardin-
ality;
– NUMBER-TYPE3 if there’s SET-TYPE3 with minimum cardin-
ality;
– NUMBER-TYPE4 if there’s SET-TYPE4 with minimum cardin-
ality;
– NUMBER-TYPE5 if there’s SET-TYPE5 with minimum cardin-
ality;
– NUMBER-TYPE6 if there’s SET-TYPE6 with minimum cardin-
ality;

Relationships And Its illustrations

Theorem 8.11.2. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. G is complete graph if and only if
any of edge/vertex/set/number is renamed

• TYPE1;

• TYPE4.

Theorem 8.11.3. Let Km,n be a complete graph. Then all edges in same parts
are renamed to

343
8. Simple Ideas

• EDGE-TYPE1 and EDGE-TYPE4 if m = n;

• either EDGE-TYPE2 and EDGE-TYPE5 or EDGE-TYPE3 and EDGE-
TYPE6 if m ≥ n or m ≤ n.
Theorem 8.11.4. Let S1,n be a star graph. Then all edges are renamed to
• either EDGE-TYPE2 and EDGE-TYPE5 or EDGE-TYPE3 and EDGE-
TYPE6 if m ≥ n or m ≤ n.
Theorem 8.11.5. Let W1,n be a wheel graph. Then all edges are renamed to
• EDGE-TYPE1 and EDGE-TYPE4 if edges aren’t incident to center;
• either EDGE-TYPE2 and EDGE-TYPE5 or EDGE-TYPE3 and EDGE-
TYPE6 if edges are incident to center;
Theorem 8.11.6. Let Km,n be a complete graph. Then all vertices in same
parts are renamed to
• VERTEX-TYPE1 and VERTEX-TYPE4 if m = n;
• either VERTEX-TYPE2 and VERTEX-TYPE5 or VERTEX-TYPE3 and
VERTEX-TYPE6 if m ≥ n or m ≤ n.
Theorem 8.11.7. Let S1,n be a star graph. Then all vertices are renamed to
• either VERTEX-TYPE2 and VERTEX-TYPE5 or VERTEX-TYPE3 and
VERTEX-TYPE6.
Theorem 8.11.8. Let W1,n be a wheel graph. Then all vertices are renamed to
• VERTEX-TYPE1 and VERTEX-TYPE4 if edges aren’t incident to center;
• either VERTEX-TYPE2 and VERTEX-TYPE5 or VERTEX-TYPE3 and
VERTEX-TYPE6 if edges are incident to center;
Theorem 8.11.9. Let Km,n be a complete graph. Then all Bs have two members
from each part and their extensions where Bs are renamed to in same parts are
renamed to
• SET-TYPE1 and SET-TYPE4 if m = n;
• either SET-TYPE2 and SET-TYPE5 or SET-TYPE3 and SET-TYPE6
if m ≥ n or m ≤ n.
Theorem 8.11.10. Let S1,n be a star graph. Then all Bs are singleton and their
extensions where Bs are renamed to
• either SET-TYPE2 and SET-TYPE5 or SET-TYPE3 and SET-TYPE6.
Theorem 8.11.11. Let W1,n be a wheel graph. Then all Bs are singleton and
their extensions where Bs are renamed to
• SET-TYPE1 and SET-TYPE4 if edges aren’t incident to center;
• either SET-TYPE2 and SET-TYPE5 or SET-TYPE3 and SET-TYPE6
if edges are incident to center;

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 8.11. Numbers Based On Edges

Results And Its Beyond

Theorem 8.11.12. G is a complete graph or a star graph if and only if one is
renamed to
• NUMBER-TYPE1;
• NUMBER-TYPE4.
Theorem 8.11.13. G is a star graph if and only if one is renamed to either
• NUMBER-TYPE2 and NUMBER-TYPE5;
• or NUMBER-TYPE3, NUMBER-TYPE6.
Theorem 8.11.14. Km,n is a complete bipartite graph if and only if two is
renamed to either
• NUMBER-TYPE1 and NUMBER-TYPE4 if m = n;
• or NUMBER-TYPE2, NUMBER-TYPE3, NUMBER-TYPE5 and
NUMBER-TYPE6 if m ≥ n or m ≤ n.
Theorem 8.11.15. Let Km,n be a complete graph. Then two are renamed to
• NUMBER-TYPE1 and NUMBER-TYPE4 if m = n;
• either NUMBER-TYPE2 and NUMBER-TYPE5 or NUMBER-TYPE3
and NUMBER-TYPE6 if m ≥ n or m ≤ n.
Theorem 8.11.16. Let S1,n be a star graph. Then one renamed to
• either NUMBER-TYPE2 and NUMBER-TYPE5 or NUMBER-TYPE3
and NUMBER-TYPE6.
Theorem 8.11.17. Let W1,n be a wheel graph. Then one is renamed to
• NUMBER-TYPE1 and NUMBER-TYPE4 if edges aren’t incident to
center;
• either NUMBER-TYPE2 and NUMBER-TYPE5 or NUMBER-TYPE3
and NUMBER-TYPE6 if edges are incident to center;
Theorem 8.11.18. Let W1,n be a wheel graph. Then one is renamed to
• NUMBER-TYPE1 and NUMBER-TYPE4 if edges aren’t incident to
center;
• either NUMBER-TYPE2 and NUMBER-TYPE5 or NUMBER-TYPE3
and NUMBER-TYPE6 if edges are incident to center;
Theorem 8.11.19. Let G be a path graph or cycle graph or acyclic graph or tree.
Then any of edge/vertex/set/number is renamed to either TYPE5 or TYPE6
as if there isn’t any of TYPE1, TYPE2, TYPE3, TYPE4.
Theorem 8.11.20. Let G be a graph. Then number which is renamed to any of
TYPE1, TYPE2, TYPE3, TYPE4, TYPE5 and TYPE6, is ≤ O(G).
Theorem 8.11.21. Consider a graph and its subgraph. Then graph’s number
which is renamed to any of TYPE1, TYPE2, TYPE3, TYPE4, TYPE5 and
TYPE6, is greater than subgraph’s corresponded number.

345
8. Simple Ideas

8.12 New Graph Of Graph

Abstract
Constructing new graph from the graph’s parameters and related notions in
the way that, the study on the new graph and old graph in their parameters
could be facilitated. As graph, new graph has some characteristics and results
which are related to the structure of this graph. For this purpose, regular
graph is considered so the internal relation and external relation on this new
graph are studied. The kind of having same number of edges when this number
is originated by common number of graphs like maximum degree, minimum
degree, domination number, coloring number and clique number, is founded in
the word of having regular graph.

Keywords: Regular Graph, Vertex, Degree, Numbers

AMS Subject Classification: 05C17, 05C22, 05E45, 05E14

Definition And Its Clarification

Definition 8.12.1. Let G : (V, E) be old graph. ∆-REGULAR on G is a new
graph in the way that, the set of vertices is the same as if every vertex has ∆
edges where ∆ is about old graph.

Relationships And Its illustrations

Theorem 8.12.2. Let G : (V, E) be an old graph and ∆-REGULAR is a graph
on G. Then ∆ ≤ O(G) − 1.
Theorem 8.12.3. Let G : (V, E) be an old graph and ∆-REGULAR is a new
graph on G. If ∆ = O(G) − 1, then new graph is complete graph.
Theorem 8.12.4. Let G : (V, E) be an old complete graph and ∆-REGULAR
is a new graph on G. Then new graph is also complete graph and is old graph.
Theorem 8.12.5. Let G : (V, E) be an old star graph and ∆-REGULAR is a
new graph on G. Then new graph is also complete graph.
Theorem 8.12.6. Let G : (V, E) be an old wheel graph and ∆-REGULAR is
a new graph on G. Then new graph is also complete graph.
Theorem 8.12.7. Let G : (V, E) be an old wheel graph and ∆-REGULAR is
a new graph on G. If δ = ∆, then new graph is old graph.
Theorem 8.12.8. Let G : (V, E) be an old wheel graph and ∆-REGULAR is
a new graph on G. If δ = ∆ = O(G) − 1, then new graph is old graph. And both
are complete.
Theorem 8.12.9. Let G : (V, E) be an old cycle graph and ∆-REGULAR is
a new graph on G. Then new graph is old graph. And both are cycle.
Theorem 8.12.10. Consider an old graph and its ∆-REGULAR. Then new
graph’s parameters are as follows:

• New Order=Old Order;

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 8.12. New Graph Of Graph

• Size=∆×Order;
• Vertex-coloring number=∆;
• Edge-coloring number=∆ − 1;
• New domination number is ≤ old domination number;
• Clique number is ∆.

Results And Its Beyond

Definition 8.12.11. Consider an old graph. The new graph on it is defined as
follows and the same process to case (i):
• ∆-REGULAR
• (vertex-coloring)-REGULAR
• (edge-coloring)-REGULAR
• (domination)-REGULAR
• (clique)-REGULAR
• δ-REGULAR
Theorem 8.12.12. Consider an old graph and its (domination)-
REGULAR. If old graph is complete or star, then new graph is
• perfect matching
• with new ∆ = δ = 1;
• it isn’t connected graph and n
2 components of being connectedness;
• new number of edges is n
2.

Theorem 8.12.13. Consider an old graph and its (vertex-coloring)-

REGULAR. If old graph is complete or star, then new graph is
• complete;
• with new ∆ = δ = n − 1;
• it’s connected graph;
n(n−1)
• new number of edges is 2 .
Theorem 8.12.14. Consider an old graph and its (clique)-REGULAR. If
old graph is complete or star, then new graph is
• complete;
• with new ∆ = δ = n − 1;
• it’s connected graph;
n(n−1)
• new number of edges is 2 .

347
8. Simple Ideas

Theorem 8.12.15. Consider an old graph and its (delta)-REGULAR and

its (Delta)-REGULAR. If old graph is path, then new graph is
• cycle; if it’s ∆-REGULAR
• perfect matching; if it’s δ-REGULAR
• it isn’t connected graph; if it’s δ-REGULAR
• it is connected graph; if it’s ∆-REGULAR
Theorem 8.12.16. Consider an old graph and its (delta)-REGULAR and
its (Delta)-REGULAR. If old graph is cycle, the following statements are
equivalent up to isomorphism in the matter of isomorphic graph:
• It’s ∆-REGULAR
• It’s δ-REGULAR
• It’s cycle
• It’s old graph

8.13 Sets and Graphs

Some definitions and ideas are

related to the set and its relation
with graphs. Different sets behave
in strange ways to get result in
graphs. The ideas, principles and
results concerning set and graph
are introduced in the way that
the most connections with other
ideas are preferred.

he contents of this chapter are provided by references [Ref5], [Ref10], [Ref8],

[Ref11].

8.14 Metric Dimensions Of Graphs

Abstract
In this article, some kinds of triple belongs to metric dimensions are defined.
Some classes of graphs in the matter of these kinds, are studied and the
relation amid these kinds are considered. The kind of having equivalency amid
these notions and some classes of graphs, is obtained. The kind of locating
some vertices by some vertices when the number of locating vertices is
increased, has the key role to analyze the classes of graphs, general graphs, and
graph’s parameters.

Keywords: Metric Dimension, Metric Number, Metric Set, Metric Vertex.

AMS Subject Classification: 05C17, 05C22, 05E45, 05E14

348
 8.14. Metric Dimensions Of Graphs

Definition And Its Clarification

Definition 8.14.1. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. The n-METRIC DIMEN-
SIONS of graph are the triple n-METRIC VERTEX, n-METRIC SET
and n-METRIC NUMBER (bn , Bn , Bn ) in the way that, the n-metric num-
ber is smallest cardinality of n-metric set and n-set has n-metric vertex which
for all two given vertices of V, there’s one n-metric vertex from n-metric set in
the way that, two given vertices have different distance from

• n-metric vertex and n is said one.

• two n-metric vertices and n is said two.

• three n-metric vertices and n is said three.

• n n-metric vertices and n is said n where n is order of graph.

• δ(∆) n-metric vertices and n is said δ(∆).

• some n-metric vertices of embedding graph and n is said G.

Relationships And Its illustrations

Theorem 8.14.2. Let G : (V, E) be a complete graph if and only if it only has
(n-1)-METRIC DIMENSION.
Theorem 8.14.3. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. Then it has (n-1)-METRIC
DIMENSION, n-METRIC DIMENSION, and G-METRIC DIMENSION.
Theorem 8.14.4. Let G : (V, E) be a star graph. Then it only has (n-2)-
METRIC DIMENSION.
Theorem 8.14.5. Let G : (V, E) be a path graph. Then it only has n-METRIC
DIMENSION where n = 1, 2, · · · , O(G).
Theorem 8.14.6. Let G : (V, E) be a cycle graph. Then it only has n-METRIC
DIMENSION where n = 2, 3, · · · , O(G).
Theorem 8.14.7. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. If it has ∆-METRIC DIMENSION,
then it isn’t complete graph complete
Theorem 8.14.8. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. If 1-METRIC NUMBER is one,
then it is a path graph.
Theorem 8.14.9. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. If 1-METRIC NUMBER is two,
then it is a cycle graph.
Theorem 8.14.10. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. If it is a cycle graph then there’s
no 2-METRIC NUMBER which is two.
Theorem 8.14.11. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. If n-METRIC NUMBER is n,
then it is a path graph.
Theorem 8.14.12. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. If 1-METRIC NUMBER is n,
then it is a path graph.
Theorem 8.14.13. Let G : (V, E) be a path graph. Then the set including one
leaf is 1-METRIC SET.

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8. Simple Ideas

Theorem 8.14.14. Let G : (V, E) be a path graph. Then the set including two
leaves is 2-METRIC SET.
Theorem 8.14.15. Let G : (V, E) be a path graph. Then the set including two
leaves has 2-METRIC NUMBER which is also two.
Theorem 8.14.16. Let G : (V, E) be a path graph. Then V doesn’t has any of
2-METRIC NUMBER.

Results And Its Beyond

Theorem 8.14.17. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. Then union of every number of
n-METRIC SET is n-METRIC SET.
Theorem 8.14.18. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. Then intersection of every number
of n-METRIC SET is n-METRIC SET.
Theorem 8.14.19. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. Then minus amid every number
of n-METRIC SET is n-METRIC SET.
Theorem 8.14.20. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. Then n-METRIC NUMBER is ≤
order of G.
Theorem 8.14.21. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. Then n-METRIC SET is ⊆ V.
Theorem 8.14.22. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. Then n-METRIC VERTEX has
the n which is ≤ order of G.
Theorem 8.14.23. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. n-METRIC NUMBER is order of
G if and only if V is order(G)-METRIC SET.
Theorem 8.14.24. Let G : (V, E) be a graph. If there’s twin vertices, then
there’s only
• 1-METRIC NUMBER
• 1-METRIC SET
• 1-METRIC VERTEX
Theorem 8.14.25. Let G : (V, E) be a graph and there’s twin vertices. There’s
n-METRIC DIMENSIONS, (bn , Bn , Bn ), if and only if n = 1.
Theorem 8.14.26. Let G : (V, E) be an odd cycle graph. Then
• order(G)-METRIC NUMBER is one;
• order(G)-METRIC SET is any member of P(V);
• order(G)-METRIC VERTEX is any vertex.
Theorem 8.14.27. Let G : (V, E) be an even cycle graph. Then
• order(G)-METRIC NUMBER is two;
• order(G)-METRIC SET is any couple member of P(V) which make edge.
• order(G)-METRIC VERTEX is any two vertices which have edge which
its endpoints are them..

350
 8.15. Set And Its Operations

8.15 Set And Its Operations

Abstract
The kind of set which is based on edges, is introduced. The analysis on this set
is done in the matter of operation which are the classes of graphs. The general
notion which is related to this concept, is up. The set of edges is seen in the
matter of common vertex, entitled neighbor edges and the set of edges which
has specific condition on the vertices of graphs, entitled ghost set. The kind of
viewpoint when the edges are up so the kind of efforts to assign some notions
which get the sensible result of edges which make sense about these two types
of notions. Notions of having some attributes about vertices concerning edges
and edges’ attributes to get result about edges in the matter of vertices.

Keywords: Set, Ghost Set, Edge, Neighbor Edges.

AMS Subject Classification: 05C17, 05C22, 05E45, 05E14

Definition And Its Clarification

Definition 8.15.1. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. A set B ⊆ E is GHOST SET
if for any of vertex, there’s the edge belongs to B, which the vertex is one of its
endpoint.

Relationships And Its illustrations

Theorem 8.15.2. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. Then E is GHOST SET.
Theorem 8.15.3. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. If B is GHOST SET, then
A ⊆ B is GHOST SET.
Theorem 8.15.4. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. If A, B is GHOST SET, then
A ∪ B is GHOST SET.
Theorem 8.15.5. Let G = (V, E) be a complete graph. Then the set of vertex’s
all edges is GHOST SET.
Theorem 8.15.6. Let G = (V, E) be a complete bipartite graph. Then the set of
vertex’s all edges belongs to every part, is GHOST SET.
Theorem 8.15.7. Let G = (V, E) be a complete multipartite graph. Then the set
of vertex’s all edges belongs to every part, is GHOST SET.
Theorem 8.15.8. Let G = (V, E) be graph. If δ = ∆ = n − 1, then the set of
vertex’s all edges, is GHOST SET.
Theorem 8.15.9. Let G = (V, E) be a path graph. Then the set of non-neighbor
edges, is GHOST SET.
Theorem 8.15.10. Let G = (V, E) be a cycle graph. Then the set of non-neighbor
edges, is GHOST SET.

Results And Its Beyond

Definition 8.15.11. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. Edges belong to GHOST SET
are NEIGHBOR EDGES.

351
8. Simple Ideas

Theorem 8.15.12. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. If degree of a vertex is ∆, then

there’s ∆ number of NEIGHBOR EDGES.
Theorem 8.15.13. Let G = (V, E) be an even path graph. Then there’s n
2
number of NEIGHBOR EDGES.
Theorem 8.15.14. Let G = (V, E) be an odd path graph. Then there’s n−1
2
number of NEIGHBOR EDGES.
Theorem 8.15.15. Let G = (V, E) be an even cycle graph. Then there’s n
2
number of NEIGHBOR EDGES.
Theorem 8.15.16. Let G = (V, E) be an odd cycle graph. Then there’s n−1
2
number of NEIGHBOR EDGES.
Theorem 8.15.17. Let G = (V, E) be a wheel graph. Then there’s ∆ number of
NEIGHBOR EDGES and GHOST SET has ∆ elements.
Theorem 8.15.18. Let G = (V, E) be a star graph. Then there’s only ∆ number
of NEIGHBOR EDGES and GHOST SET has ∆ elements.
Theorem 8.15.19. Let G = (V, E) be a star graph. Then there’s only n − 1
number of NEIGHBOR EDGES and GHOST SET has n − 1 elements.
Theorem 8.15.20. Let G = (V, E) be a complete graph. Then for any vertex,
there’s only ∆ = n − 1 number of NEIGHBOR EDGES and GHOST SET
has ∆ = n − 1 elements.
Theorem 8.15.21. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. for any vertex, there’s only
∆ = n−1 number of NEIGHBOR EDGES and GHOST SET has ∆ = n−1
elements if and only if it’s complete.
Theorem 8.15.22. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. For any vertex, there’s only
∆ = n − 1 number of NEIGHBOR EDGES and there’s only one GHOST
SET has ∆ = n − 1 elements if and only if it’s star.
Theorem 8.15.23. Let G = (V, E) be a Peterson graph. For any vertex, there’s
only 3 number of NEIGHBOR EDGES and there’s GHOST SET has
∆ = 10.
Theorem 8.15.24. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. Then For any vertex, number of
NEIGHBOR EDGES ≤ n − 1 and there’s GHOST SET’s element is ≤ n2 .
Theorem 8.15.25. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. If GHOST SET’s element is
n
2 , then there’s matching.

Theorem 8.15.26. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. If GHOST SET’s element is

n
2 , then there’s embedding ladder graph.

Theorem 8.15.27. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. If GHOST SET’s element is

n n
2 , then there’s 2 numbers of path graph with 2 vertices and one edge.

Theorem 8.15.28. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. If GHOST SET’s element is

n − 1, then it’s star.
Theorem 8.15.29. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. If GHOST SET’s element is
n − 1, then it’s complete.

352
 8.16. Notion Of Valued Set

Theorem 8.15.30. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. If GHOST SET’s element is

n − 1, then it’s wheel.
Theorem 8.15.31. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. If A ∩ B is GHOST SET, then
A, B are GHOST SET.
Theorem 8.15.32. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. If A − B is GHOST SET, then
A is GHOST SET.

8.16 Notion Of Valued Set

Abstract
The aim of this article is to introduce the new notion on a given graph. The
notions of valued set, valued function, valued graph and valued quotient are
introduced. The attributes of these new notions are studied. Valued set is
about the set of vertices which have the maximum number of neighbors. The
kind of partition of the vertex set to the vertices of the valued set is introduced
and its attributes are studied. The behaviors of classes of graphs under these
new notions are studied and the algebraic operations on these sets in the
different situations get new result to understand the classes of graphs, these
notions and the general graphs better and more.

Keywords: Vertex’s Neighbors, Valued Set, Valued Function, Valued Quotient

AMS Subject Classification: 05C17, 05C22, 05E45, 05E14

Definition And Its Clarification

Definition 8.16.1. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. A set B ⊆ V is VALUED SET
if for any of vertex, there’s the vertex belongs to B, which cardinality of its
neighbors is greater than.

Relationships And Its illustrations

Theorem 8.16.2. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. Then vertices with degree ∆ are
the members of VALUED SET.
Theorem 8.16.3. Let G = (V, E) be a complete graph. Then the only VALUED
SET is V .
Theorem 8.16.4. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. If VALUED SET has the
cardinality one, then it isn’t complete graph and it isn’t empty graph.
Theorem 8.16.5. Let G = (V, E) be an empty graph. Then the only VALUED
SET is V .
Theorem 8.16.6. Let G = (V, E) be a complete bipartite graph. Then the
minimum part is VALUED SET.
Theorem 8.16.7. Let G = (V, E) be a complete multipartite graph. Then the
minimum part is VALUED SET.
Theorem 8.16.8. Let G = (V, E) be a complete multipartite graph. The infimum
part is VALUED SET if and only if it’s minimum part.

353
8. Simple Ideas

Theorem 8.16.9. Let G = (V, E) be a path graph. Then cardinality of

VALUED SET is all vertices with the exceptions of two leaves.
Theorem 8.16.10. Let G = (V, E) be a cycle graph. Then VALUED SET is
V.

Results And Its Beyond

Theorem 8.16.11. Let G = (V, E) be a wheel graph. Then VALUED SET is
the center of wheel.
Theorem 8.16.12. Let G = (V, E) be a star graph. Then VALUED SET is
the center of star.
Theorem 8.16.13. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. Then VALUED SET holds the
property of union and the property of intersection.
Theorem 8.16.14. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. Then VALUED SET is
increasing property.
Theorem 8.16.15. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. Then VALUED SET is
decreasing property if the set is considered up to be minimal.
Theorem 8.16.16. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. If there’s a VALUED SET,
then its complement is VALUED SET.
Theorem 8.16.17. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. If there’s an unique element of
VALUED SET which has the degree n−1, then the cardinality of a VALUED
SET is one.
Theorem 8.16.18. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. If there’s an unique element of
VALUED SET which has the degree n − 1, then it’s the only member of a
VALUED SET.
Definition 8.16.19. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. An unary operation from V to
a VALUED SET is said to be VALUED FUNCTION.
Definition 8.16.20. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. Then an induced graph of G is
called to be VALUED GRAPH and denoted by VG = (B, E) if B ⊆ V and B
is VALUED SET.
Definition 8.16.21. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. R is the relation amid
VALUED SET if they’ve same cardinality. And the quotient set P(V)
R is
said to be VALUED QUOTIENT.
Theorem 8.16.22. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. Then VALUED GRAPH
holds the property of union.
P(V)
Theorem 8.16.23. R ≤ ∆.

Theorem 8.16.24. ( P(V)

R , ∪) is a groupoid.

Theorem 8.16.25. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. Then VALUED GRAPH

holds the property ∆.
Theorem 8.16.26. A complete graph holds the property of VALUED
GRAPH.

354
 8.17. Valued Number And Set

Theorem 8.16.27. An empty graph holds the property of VALUED GRAPH.

Theorem 8.16.28. A star graph doesn’t hold the property of VALUED
GRAPH.
Theorem 8.16.29. A path graph doesn’t hold the property of VALUED
GRAPH.
Theorem 8.16.30. A cycle graph holds the property of VALUED GRAPH.
Theorem 8.16.31. A wheel graph doesn’t hold the property of VALUED
GRAPH.
Theorem 8.16.32. A VALUED GRAPH of star is empty graph from the
order one.
Theorem 8.16.33. A VALUED GRAPH of path graph is empty graph from
the order n − 2.
Theorem 8.16.34. A VALUED GRAPH holds the property of path graph.
Theorem 8.16.35. A VALUED GRAPH of wheel is empty graph from the
order one.
Theorem 8.16.36. A VALUED GRAPH of path graph from order three is
empty graph from the order one.
Theorem 8.16.37. A VALUED GRAPH of a cycle graph from order three
is empty graph from the order one.
Theorem 8.16.38. A VALUED GRAPH of any triangle of any graph from
order three is empty graph from the order one.
Theorem 8.16.39. A VALUED GRAPH of a star graph from order three is
empty graph from the order one.
Theorem 8.16.40. Let U(V) is the set of all graphs which have the vertex set V.
Then a set of all VALUED GRAPH has the star graph is identity function
amid these two sets.
Theorem 8.16.41. Let U(V) is the set of all graphs which have the vertex set V.
Then a set of all VALUED GRAPH has the star graph is identity function
amid these two sets for every given vertex.
Theorem 8.16.42. For every given vertex, the couple star graph on V with
the center of this vertex, and VALUED GRAPH on it, both are an identity
function on a given vertex.
Theorem 8.16.43. The combination of two functions star graph and VALUED
GRAPH are an identity function on any given vertex of any given graph.

8.17 Valued Number And Set

Abstract
In this essay, the new notion concerning longest path is introduced. Longest
path has a close relation with the notion of diameter in graph. The classes of
graph are studied in the terms of having the vertex with longest path. Valued

355
8. Simple Ideas

number is the number of edges belong to the longest path in the matter of
vertex. For every vertex, there’s a valued number and new notion of valued set
is the generalization of valued number for the vertex when all vertices of the
graphs are corresponded to a vertex which has the greater valued number. For
any positive integer, there’s one graph in that, there’s vertex which its valued
number is that. By deleting the vertices which don’t belong to valued set, new
notion of new graph is up. It’s called valued graph. The comparison amid
valued graph and initial graph is up, too.

Keywords: Valued Number, Valued Set, Longest Path, Valued Graph

AMS Subject Classification: 05C17, 05C22, 05E45, 05E14

Definition And Its Clarification

Definition 8.17.1. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. For any given vertex x, the
number σx is called VALUED NUMBER if there’s a vertex y such that it
has the longest xy-path where xy-path is a path from x to y.
Definition 8.17.2. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. A set B ⊆ V is VALUED SET
if for any of vertex y, there’s a vertex x belongs to B, which there’s a vertex
such that its valued number is greater than, i.e., σx ≥ σy .

Relationships And Its illustrations

Theorem 8.17.3. Let G = (V, E) be a complete graph. Thus every vertex is the
valued set.
Theorem 8.17.4. Let G = (V, E) be a complete graph. Thus the cardinality of
valued set is one.
Theorem 8.17.5. Let G = (V, E) be a complete bipartite graph. Thus the
cardinality of valued set is two.
Theorem 8.17.6. Let G = (V, E) be a complete bipartite graph. Thus every
couple of vertices is the valued set where one vertex belongs to one part and
another belongs to another part.
Theorem 8.17.7. Let G = (V, E) be a path graph. Thus the cardinality of valued
set is one .
Theorem 8.17.8. Let G = (V, E) be a path graph. Thus any of leaves is the
valued set.
Theorem 8.17.9. Let G = (V, E) be a cycle graph. Thus the cardinality of
valued set is one.
Theorem 8.17.10. Let G = (V, E) be a cycle graph. Thus any of vertices is the
valued set.
Theorem 8.17.11. Let G = (V, E) be a path graph. Thus the valued number of
a vertex is n − 1 if and only if it’s leaf.
Theorem 8.17.12. Let G = (V, E) be a cycle graph. Thus the valued number of
any given vertex is b n2 c.

356
 8.17. Valued Number And Set

Theorem 8.17.13. Let G = (V, E) be a cycle graph. Thus every vertex is the
valued set.
Theorem 8.17.14. Let G = (V, E) be a star graph. Thus every non-center vertex
is valued set.
Theorem 8.17.15. Let G = (V, E) be a star graph. Thus the valued number of
every non-center vertex is two.
Theorem 8.17.16. Let G = (V, E) be a wheel graph. Thus every vertex is valued
set.
Theorem 8.17.17. Let G = (V, E) be a wheel graph. Thus the valued number of
every vertex is one.

Results And Its Beyond

Theorem 8.17.18. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. Thus vertices which make
diameter belong to valued set.
Theorem 8.17.19. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. Thus every valued number is less
than diameter.
Theorem 8.17.20. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. Thus two given vertices which
make diameter has the mutual valued number which is diameter.
Theorem 8.17.21. n ∈ N. Thus there’s a graph including a vertex which its
valued number is n.
Theorem 8.17.22. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. Thus the property of valued set
is increasing monotone property.
Definition 8.17.23. Let G = (V, E) be a graph. For any set B ⊆ V which is
valued set, there’s a graph which is obtained by G via deleting the vertices
which don’t belong to B. It’s called valued graph.
Theorem 8.17.24. Let G = (V, E) be a complete graph. Thus the valued graph
is G.
Theorem 8.17.25. Let G = (V, E) be a star graph. Thus the valued graph is G
without its center.
Theorem 8.17.26. Let G = (V, E) be a wheel graph. Thus the valued graph is
G.
Theorem 8.17.27. Let G = (V, E) be a path graph. Thus the valued graph

• is disconnected;

• has two components;

• is from the order two;

• just includes leaves.

Theorem 8.17.28. Let G = (V, E) be a cycle graph. Thus the valued graph is G.
Theorem 8.17.29. Let G = (V, E) be an union of two graphs. Thus

357
8. Simple Ideas

• the valued graph is an union of two valued graphs;

• the valued set is an union of two valued set;
• the initial valued number of any vertex is without change.

Theorem 8.17.30. Let G = (V, E) be a complete bipartite graph. Thus the

valued graph is

• K2 ;
• P2 ;
• connected;
• from order two where any two given vertices are from different parts.

Theorem 8.17.31. Let G = (V, E) be a star graph. Thus the valued graph is
• center is deleted;
• Pn−1 ;
• connected;
• from order n − 1 where all vertices are non-center.
Theorem 8.17.32. Let G = (V, E) be a join of one vertex and Pn−1 . Thus the
valued graph is

• for any given vertex the valued number is two;

• G;
• connected;
• from order n where all vertices are.

Theorem 8.17.33. Let G = (V, E) be a join of one vertex and Kn . Thus the
valued graph is

• for any given vertex the valued number is one;

• G;
• connected;
• from order n where all vertices are.

Theorem 8.17.34. Let x be a vertex. Consider join of x and any given graph.
Thus valued number of x is one.
Theorem 8.17.35. Consider join of P1 and any given graph. Thus valued
number of vertex of P1 is one.

358
 Bibliography

Ref1 [1] Henry Garrett, Big Sets Of Vertices, Preprints 2021, 2021060189 (doi:
10.20944/preprints202106.0189.v1).
Ref2 [2] Henry Garrett, Locating And Location Number, Preprints 2021,
2021060206 (doi: 10.20944/preprints202106.0206.v1).
Ref3 [3] Henry Garrett, Matroid And Its Outlines, Preprints 2021, 2021060146
(doi: 10.20944/preprints202106.0146.v1).
Ref4 [4] Henry Garrett, Matroid And Its Relations, Preprints 2021, 2021060080
(doi: 10.20944/preprints202106.0080.v1).
Ref5 [5] Henry Garrett, Metric Dimensions Of Graphs, Preprints 2021, 2021060392
(doi: 10.20944/preprints202106.0392.v1).
Ref6 [6] Henry Garrett, Metric Number in Dimension, Preprints 2021, 2021060004
(doi: 10.20944/preprints202106.0004.v1).
Ref7 [7] Henry Garrett, New Graph Of Graph, Preprints 2021, 2021060323 (doi:
10.20944/preprints202106.0323.v1).
Ref8 [8] Henry Garrett, Notion of Valued Set, Preprints 2021, 2021070410 (doi:
10.20944/preprints202107.0410.v1).
Ref9 [9] Henry Garrett, Numbers Based On Edges, Preprints 2021, 2021060315
(doi: 10.20944/preprints202106.0315.v1).
Ref10 [10] Henry Garrett, Set And Its Operations, Preprints 2021, 2021060508 (doi:
10.20944/preprints202106.0508.v1).
Ref11 [11] Henry Garrett, Valued Number And Set, Preprints 2021, 2021080229 (doi:
10.20944/preprints202108.0229.v1).

359
 CHAPTER 9

Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

9.1 Abstract
This book is based on
neutrosophic graph theory which
is designed to study different
types of coloring in that graphs to
get new ideas and new results.
The results concern specific
classes of neutrosophic graphs.

ifferent edges define new form of connections amid vertices. Thus defining new
notion of coloring is possible when the connections of vertices which determine
new color and it’s decider whether using new color or not, have been considered
if they’ve special edges. The tools to define specific edges are studied. One
notion is to use the connectedness to have two different types of numbers which
are neutrosophic chromatic number and chromatic number. Other notion is to
use the idea of neutrosophic strong to get specific edges which are eligible to
define new numbers. Some classes of neutrosophic graphs are studied in the
the terms of different types of chromatic numbers and neutrosophic chromatic
numbers. This book is based on neutrosophic graph theory which is designed
to study different types of coloring in that graphs to get new ideas and new
results. The results concern specific classes of neutrosophic graphs.

9.2 Acknowledgements

The words of mind and the minds

of words, are too eligible to be in
the stage of acknowledgements

he author is going to say his gratitude and his appreciation about the brains
and their hands which are showing the importance of words in the framework
of every wisdom, knowledge, arts and emotions which are streaming in the
lines from the words, notions, ideas and approaches to have the material which
is only the way to flourish the minds, the growing the notions, advancing ways

361
9. Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

and making the stable ways to be amid the events and storms of minds for
surviving from them and making the outstanding experiences about the tools
and ideas to be on the star lines of words and shining like stars, forever.

9.3 Definitions
To clarify about the definitions, I
use some examples and in this
way, exemplifying has key role to
make sense about the definitions
and to introduce new ways to use
on these models in the terms of
new notions.

he reference [Ref4] is used to write the contents of this chapter. For further
studies, the references [Ref1; Ref2; Ref3; Ref4; Ref5; Ref6; Ref7; Ref8;
Ref9; Ref10] are suggested.
Definition 9.3.1. G : (V, E) is called a crisp graph where V is a set of objects
and E is a subset of V × V such that this subset is symmetric.
Definition 9.3.2. A crisp graph G : (V, E) is called a neutrosophic graph
G : (σ, µ) where σ = (σ1 , σ2 , σ3 ) : V → [0, 1] and µ = (µ1 , µ2 .µ3 ) : E → [0, 1]
such that µ(xy) ≤ σ(x) ∧ σ(y) for all xy ∈ E.
Definition 9.3.3. A neutrosophic graph is called neutrosophic empty if it
has no edge. It’s also called neutrosophic trivial. A neutrosophic graph
which isn’t neutrosophic empty, is called neutrosophic nontrivial.
Definition 9.3.4. A neutrosophic graph G : (σ, µ) is called a neutrosophic
complete where it’s complete and µ(xy) = σ(x) ∧ σ(y) for all xy ∈ E.
Definition 9.3.5. A neutrosophic graph G : (σ, µ) is called a neutrosophic
strong where µ(xy) = σ(x) ∧ σ(y) for all xy ∈ E.
Definition 9.3.6. A path v0 , v1 , · · · , vn is called neutrosophic path where
µ(vi vi+1 ) > 0, i = 0, 1, · · · , n − 1. i-path is a path with i edges, it’s also called
length of path.
Definition 9.3.7. A crisp cycle v0 , v1 , · · · , vn , v0 is called neutrosophic
cycle where there are two edges xy and uv such that µ(xy) = µ(uv) =
i=0,1,··· ,n−1 µ(vi vi+1 ).
V

Definition 9.3.8. A neutrosophic graph is called neutrosophic t-partite if

V is partitioned to t parts, V1 , V2 , · · · , Vt and the edge xy implies x ∈ Vi
and y ∈ Vj where i 6= j. If it’s neutrosophic complete, then it’s denoted by
Kσ1 ,σ2 ,··· ,σt where σi is σ on Vi instead V which mean x 6∈ Vi induces σi (x) = 0.
If t = 2, then it’s called neutrosophic complete bipartite and it’s denoted
by Kσ1 ,σ2 especially, if |V1 | = 1, then it’s called neutrosophic star and it’s
denoted by S1,σ2 . In this case, the vertex in V1 is called center and if a vertex
joins to all vertices of neutrosophic cycle, it’s called neutrosophic wheel and
it’s denoted by W1,σ2 .

362
 9.4. Chromatic Number and Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

Definition 9.3.9. Let G : (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph. For any given subset
N of V, Σn∈N σ(n) is called neutrosophic cardinality of N and it’s denoted
by |N |n .
Definition 9.3.10. Let G : (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph. Neutrosophic
cardinality of V is called neutrosophic order of G and it’s denoted by On (G).
Definition 9.3.11. Let G : (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph. The number of
vertices is denoted by n and the number of edges is denoted by m.
Definition 9.3.12. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph. It’s called
neutrosophic connected if for every given couple of vertices, there’s at
least one neutrosophic path amid them.
Definition 9.3.13. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph. Suppose a path
P : v0 , v1 , · · · , vn−1 , vn from v0 to vn . mini=0,1,2,··· ,n−1 µ(vi vi+1 ) is called
neutrosophic strength of P and it’s denoted by Sn (P ).
Definition 9.3.14. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph. The number of
maximum edges for a vertex, amid all vertices, is denoted by ∆(N ).
First case for the contents is to use the article from [Ref10]. The contents are
used in the way that, usages of new contents are preferences and the
preliminaries are passed in the beginning of this chapter.

9.4 Chromatic Number and Neutrosophic Chromatic

Number
Abstract
New setting is introduced to study chromatic number. Neutrosophic chromatic
number and chromatic number are proposed in this way, some results are
obtained. Classes of neutrosophic graphs are used to obtains these numbers
and the representatives of the colors. Using colors to assign to the vertices of
neutrosophic graphs is applied. Some questions and problems are posed
concerning ways to do further studies on this topic. Using strong edge to define
the relation amid vertices which implies having different colors amid them and
as consequences, choosing one vertex as a representative of each color to use
them in a set of representatives and finally, using neutrosophic cardinality of
this set to compute neutrosophic chromatic number. This specific relation
amid edges is necessary to compute both chromatic number concerning the
number of representative in the set of representatives and neutrosophic
chromatic number concerning neutrosophic cardinality of set of representatives.
If two vertices have no strong edge, then they can be assigned to same color
even they’ve common edge. Basic familiarities with neutrosophic graph theory
and graph theory are proposed for this article.

Keywords: Neutrosophic Strong, Neutrosophic Graphs, Chromatic Number

AMS Subject Classification: 05C17, 05C22, 05E45

Motivation and Contributions

In this study, there’s an idea which could be considered as a motivation.

363
 9. Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

Question 9.4.1. Is it possible to use mixed versions of ideas concerning

“neutrosophic strong edges”, “neutrosophic graphs” and “neutrosophic coloring”
to define some notions which are applied to neutrosophic graphs?
It’s motivation to find notions to use in any classes of neutrosophic graphs.
Real-world applications about time table and scheduling are another thoughts
which lead to be considered as motivation. Connections amid two items have
key roles to assign colors. Thus they’re used to define new ideas which
conclude to the structure of coloring. The concept of having strong edge
inspires to study the behavior of strong edge in the way that, both
neutrosophic chromatic number and chromatic number are the cases of study.
The framework of this study is as follows. In the beginning of chapter, I
introduced basic definitions to clarify about preliminaries. In subsection
“Chromatic Number and Neutrosophic Chromatic Number”, new notion of
coloring is applied to the vertices of neutrosophic graphs. Neutrosophic strong
edge has the key role in this way. Classes of neutrosophic graphs are studied
when the edges are neutrosophic strong. In subsection “Applications in Time
Table and Scheduling”, one application is posed for neutrosophic graphs
concerning time table and scheduling when the suspicions are about choosing
some subjects. In subsection “Open Problems”, some problems and questions
for further studies are proposed. In subsection “Conclusion and Closing
Remarks”, gentle discussion about results and applications are featured. In
subsection “Conclusion and Closing Remarks”, a brief overview concerning
advantages and limitations of this study alongside conclusions are formed.

Chromatic Number and Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

sec2
Definition 9.4.2. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph. Chromatic
number is minimum number of distinct colors which are used to color the
vertices which have neutrosophic strong edge. Neutrosophic cardinality of the
set of these distinct colors when it’s minimum amid all of these sets, is called
neutrosophic chromatic number with respect with first order.
Example 9.4.3. Consider Figure (9.1). The chromatic number is three and
neutrosophic chromatic number is 2.57 with respect to first order.
Neutrosophic chromatic number of some classes of neutrosophic graphs are
computed.
Proposition 9.4.4. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic complete. Then chromatic
number is n and neutrosophic chromatic number is neutrosophic order.

Proof. All edges are neutrosophic strong. Every vertex has edge with n − 1
vertices. Thus n is chromatic number. Since any given vertex has different color
in comparison to another vertex, neutrosophic cardinality of V is neutrosophic
chromatic number. Therefore, neutrosophic chromatic number is neutrosophic
order. 

Proposition 9.4.5. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic strong path. Then

chromatic number is two and neutrosophic chromatic number is

min {σ(x) + σ(y)}.

x and y have different colors

364
 9.4. Chromatic Number and Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

Figure 9.1: Neutrosophic Graph, N1 nsc1

Proof. With alternative colors, neutrosophic strong path has distinct color
for every vertices which have one edge in common. Thus if x and y are two
vertices which have one edge in common, then x and y have different color.
Therefore, chromatic number is two. The representative of colors are a vertex
with minimum value amid all vertices which have same color with it. Thus,

min {σ(x) + σ(y)}.

x and y have different colors

Proposition 9.4.6. Let N = (σ, µ) be an even neutrosophic strong cycle. Then

chromatic number is two and neutrosophic chromatic number is

min {σ(x) + σ(y)}.

x and y have different colors

Proof. All edges are neutrosophic strong. Since the cycle has even vertices,
with alternative coloring of vertices, the vertices which have common edge, have
different colors. So chromatic number is two. With every color, the vertex which
has minimum value amid vertices with same color with it, is representative of
that color. Thus,

min {σ(x) + σ(y)}.

x and y have different colors

Proposition 9.4.7. Let N = (σ, µ) be an odd neutrosophic strong cycle. Then

chromatic number is three and neutrosophic chromatic number is

min {σ(x) + σ(y) + σ(z)}.

x,y and z have different colors

365
9. Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

Proof. With alternative coloring on vertices, at end, two vertices have same
color, and they’ve same edge. So, chromatic number is three. Since the colors
are three, the vertices with minimum values in every color, are representatives.
Hence,
min {σ(x) + σ(y) + σ(z)}.
x,y and z have different colors

Proposition 9.4.8. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic strong star with c as

center. Then chromatic number is two and neutrosophic chromatic number is

min {σ(c) + σ(x)}.

x is non-center vertex

Proof. All edges are neutrosophic strong. Center vertex has common edge with
every given vertex. So it has different color in comparison to other vertices. So
one color has only one vertex which has that color. All non-center vertices have
no common edge amid each other. Then they’ve same color. The representative
of this color is a non-center vertex which has minimum value amid all non-center
vertices. Hence,
min {σ(c) + σ(x)}.
x is non-center vertex

Proposition 9.4.9. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic strong wheel with c as

center. Then chromatic number is three where neutrosophic cycle has even
number as its length and neutrosophic chromatic number is

min {σ(c) + σ(x) + σ(y)}.

x,y are non-center vertices and have different colors

Proof. Center vertex has unique color. So it’s only representative of this color.
Non-center vertices form a neutrosophic cycle which have distinct colors for the
vertices which have common edge with each other when the number of colors is
two. So a color for center vertex and two colors for non-center vertices, make
neutrosophic strong wheel has distinct colors for vertices which have common
edge. Hence, chromatic number is three when the non-center vertices form odd
cycle. Therefore,

min {σ(c) + σ(x) + σ(y)}.

x,y are non-center vertices and have different colors

Proposition 9.4.10. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic strong wheel with c as

center. Then chromatic number is four where neutrosophic cycle has odd number
as its length and neutrosophic chromatic number is

min {σ(c) + σ(x) + σ(y) + σ(z)}.

x,y,z are non-center vertices and have different colors

Proof. All edges are neutrosophic strong and non-center vertices form odd
neutrosophic strong cycles. Odd neutrosophic strong cycle have chromatic
number which is three. Non-center vertex has same edges with all non-center
vertices. Thus non-center vertex has different colors with non-center vertices.

366
 9.4. Chromatic Number and Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

Therefore, chromatic number is four. Four representatives of colors form

neutrosophic chromatic number where one representative is center vertex and
other three representatives are non-center vertices. So,

min {σ(c) + σ(x) + σ(y) + σ(z)}.

x,y,z are non-center vertices and have different colors

Proposition 9.4.11. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic complete bipartite. Then

chromatic number is two and neutrosophic chromatic number is

min {σ(x) + σ(y)}.

x and y are in different parts

Proof. Every given vertex has neutrosophic strong edge with all vertices from
another part. So the color of every vertex which is in a same part is same.
Hence, two parts implies two different colors. It induces chromatic number is
two. The minimum value of a vertex amid all vertices in every part, identify
the representative of every color. Therefore,

min {σ(x) + σ(y)}.

x and y are in different parts

Proposition 9.4.12. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic complete t−partite. Then

chromatic number is t and neutrosophic chromatic number is

min {σ(x1 ) + σ(x2 ) + · · · + σ(xt )}.

x1 ,x2 ,··· ,xt are in different parts

Proof. Every part has same color for its vertices. So chromatic number is
t. Every part introduces one vertex as a representative of its color. Thus,
neutrosophic chromatic number is

min {σ(x1 ) + σ(x2 ) + · · · + σ(xt )}.

x1 ,x2 ,··· ,xt are in different parts

Proposition 9.4.13. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic strong. Then chromatic

number is 1 if and only if N = (σ, µ) is neutrosophic empty.

Proof. (⇒). Let chromatic number be 1. It implies there’s no vertex which

has same edge with a vertex. So there’s no neutrosophic strong edge. Since
N = (σ, µ) is a neutrosophic strong, N = (σ, µ) is a neutrosophic empty.
(⇐). Let N = (σ, µ) be neutrosophic empty and neutrosophic strong. Hence
there’s no edge. It implies for every given vertex, there’s no common
neutrosophic strong edge. It induces there’s only one color for vertices. Hence
the representative of this color is chosen from n vertices. Thus chromatic
number is 1. 

Proposition 9.4.14. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic strong. Then chromatic

number is 2 if and only if N = (σ, µ) is neutrosophic complete bipartite.

367
9. Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

Proof. (⇒). Let chromatic number be two. So every vertex has either one
vertex or two vertices with a common edge. The number of colors are two so
there are two sets which each set has the vertices which same color. If two
vertices have same color, then they don’t have a common edge. So every set is
a part in that, no vertex has common edge. The number of these sets is two.
Hence there are two parts in each of them, every vertex has no common edge
with other vertices. Since N = (σ, µ) is a neutrosophic strong, N = (σ, µ) is
neutrosophic complete bipartite.
(⇐). Assume N = (σ, µ) is neutrosophic complete bipartite. Then all edges
are neutrosophic strong. Every part has the vertices which have no edge in
common. So they’re assigned to have same color. There are two parts. Thus
there are two colors to assign to the vertices in that, the vertices with common
edge, have different colors. It induces chromatic number is 2. 

Proposition 9.4.15. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic strong. Then chromatic

number is n if and only if N = (σ, µ) is neutrosophic complete.

Proof. (⇒). Let chromatic number be n. So any given vertex has n vertices
which have common edge with them and every of them have common edge with
each other. It implies every vertex has n vertices which have common edge with
them. Since N = (σ, µ) is a neutrosophic strong, N = (σ, µ) is neutrosophic
complete.
(⇐). Suppose N = (σ, µ) is neutrosophic complete. Every vertex has n vertices
which have common edge with them. Since all edges are neutrosophic strong,
the minimum number of colors are n. Thus chromatic number is n. 

General bounds for neutrosophic chromatic number are computed.

Proposition 9.4.16. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph. Then chromatic
number is at most the number of vertices and neutrosophic chromatic number is
at most neutrosophic order.

Proof. When every vertex is a representative of each color, chromatic number

is the number of vertices and it happens in chromatic number of neutrosophic
complete which is n. When all vertices have distinct colors, neutrosophic
chromatic number is neutrosophic order and it’s sharp for neutrosophic
complete. 

The relation amid neutrosophic chromatic number and main parameters of

neutrosophic graphs is computed.
Proposition 9.4.17. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic strong. Then chromatic
number is at most ∆ + 1 and at least 2.

Proof. Neutrosophic strong is neutrosophic nontrivial. So it isn’t neutrosophic

empty which induces there’s no edge. It implies chromatic number is two. Since
chromatic number is one if and only if N = (σ, µ) is neutrosophic empty if
and only if N = (σ, µ) is neutrosophic trivial. A vertex with degree ∆, has ∆
vertices which have common edges with them. If these vertices have no edge
amid each other, then chromatic number is two especially, neutrosophic star. If
not, then in the case, all vertices have edge amid each other, chromatic number
is ∆ + 1, especially, neutrosophic complete. 

368
 9.4. Chromatic Number and Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

Proposition 9.4.18. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic r−regular. Then

chromatic number is at most r + 1.

Proof. N = (σ, µ) is a neutrosophic r−regular. So any of vertex has r vertices

which have common edge with it. If these vertices have no common edge with
each other, for instance neutrosophic star, chromatic number is two. But since
the vertices have common edge with each other, chromatic number is r + 1, for
instance, neutrosophic complete. 

Applications in Time Table and Scheduling

sec3
Designing the programs to achieve some goals is general approach to apply on
some issues to function properly. Separation has key role in the context of this
style. Separating the duration of work which are consecutive, is the matter and
it has important to avoid mixing up.

Step 1. (Definition) Time table is an approach to get some attributes to do

the work fast and proper. The style of scheduling implies special attention
to the tasks which are consecutive.

Step 2. (Issue) scheduling of program has faced with difficulties to differ amid
consecutive section. Beyond that, sometimes sections are not the same.

Step 3. (Model) As Figure (9.2), the situation is designed as a model. The

model uses data to assign every section and to assign to relation amid
section, three numbers belong unit interval to state indeterminacy,
possibilities and determinacy. There’s one restriction in that, the numbers
amid two section is at least the number of the relation amid them. Table
(9.1), clarifies about the assigned numbers to these situation.

Figure 9.2: Black vertices are suspicions about choosing them. fgr1

Step 4. (Solution) As Figure (9.2) shows, neutrosophic model, propose to use

chromatic number 2 in the case with is titled T 0 . In this case, i1 and
c1 are representative of these two colors and neutrosophic chromatic
number is 1.4. The set {i1 , c1 } contains representatives of colors which
pose chromatic number and neutrosophic chromatic number. Thus the

369
 9. Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

Table 9.1: Scheduling concerns its Subjects and its Connections as a

Neutrosophic Graph in a Model. tbl1

Sections of T s1 s2 s3 s4 s5 s6 s7 s8 s9 , s10
Values 0.1 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.1 0.3 0.6 0.5 0.2
Connections of T s1 s2 s2 s3 s3 s4 s4 s5 s5 s6 s6 s7 s7 s8 s8 s9 s9 s10
Values 0.1 0.6 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.1

decision amid choosing the subject c1 an c2 is concluded to choose c1 . To

get brief overview, neutrosophic model uses one number for every array
so 0.9 means (0.9, 0.9, 0.9). In Figure (9.2), the neutrosophic model T
introduce the common situation. The representatives of colors are i2 and
c1 . Thus chromatic number is two and neutrosophic chromatic number is
1.4. Thus suspicion about choosing i1 and i2 is determined to be i2 . The
sets of representative for colors are {i2 , c1 }.

Open Problems
sec4
The two notions of coloring of vertices concerning neutrosophic chromatic
number and chromatic number are defined on neutrosophic graphs when
neutrosophic strong edges have key role to have these notions. Thus
Question 9.4.19. Is it possible to use other types edges to define chromatic
number and neutrosophic chromatic number?
Question 9.4.20. Is it possible to use other types of ways to make number to
define chromatic number and neutrosophic chromatic number?
Question 9.4.21. Which classes of neutrosophic graphs have the eligibility to
pursue independent study in this way?
Question 9.4.22. Which applications do make an independent study to define
chromatic number and neutrosophic chromatic number?
Problem 9.4.23. Which approaches do work to construct classes of neutrosophic
graphs to continue this study?
Problem 9.4.24. Which approaches do work to construct applications to create
independent study?
Problem 9.4.25. Which approaches do work to construct definitions which use
all three arrays and the relations amid them instead of one array of three arrays
to create independent study?

Conclusion and Closing Remarks

sec5
This study uses mixed combinations of neutrosophic chromatic number and
chromatic number to study on neutrosophic graphs. The connections of
vertices which are clarified by neutrosophic strong edges, differ them from each
other and and put them in different categories to represent one representative
for each color. Further studies could be about changes in the settings to
compare this notion amid different settings of graph theory. One way is finding

370
 9.5. Neutrosophic Chromatic Number Based on Connectedness

some relations amid array of vertices to make sensible definitions. In Table

(9.2), some limitations and advantages of this study is pointed out. Second

Table 9.2: A Brief Overview about Advantages and Limitations of this study tbl2

Advantages Limitations
1. Using neutrosophic strong edges 1. Using only one array of three arrays

2. Using neutrosophic cardinality

3. Using cardinality 2. Study on a few classes

4. Characterizing smallest number

5. Characterizing biggest number 3. Quality of Results

case for the contents is to use the article from [Ref11]. The contents are used
in the way that, usages of new contents are preferences and the preliminaries
are passed in the beginning of this chapter.

9.5 Neutrosophic Chromatic Number Based on

Connectedness
Abstract
New setting is introduced to study chromatic number. vital chromatic number
and n-vital chromatic number are proposed in this way, some results are
obtained. Classes of neutrosophic graphs are used to obtains these numbers
and the representatives of the colors. Using colors to assign to the vertices of
neutrosophic graphs is applied. Some questions and problems are posed
concerning ways to do further studies on this topic. Using vital edge from
connectedness to define the relation amid vertices which implies having
different colors amid them and as consequences, choosing one vertex as a
representative of each color to use them in a set of representatives and finally,
using neutrosophic cardinality of this set to compute vital chromatic number.
This specific relation amid edges is necessary to compute both vital chromatic
number concerning the number of representative in the set of representatives
and n-vital chromatic number concerning neutrosophic cardinality of set of
representatives. If two vertices have no vital edge, then they can be assigned to
same color even they’ve common edge. Basic familiarities with neutrosophic
graph theory and graph theory are proposed for this article.

Keywords: Neutrosophic Connctedness, Neutrosophic Graphs, Chromatic

Number
AMS Subject Classification: 05C17, 05C22, 05E45

Motivation and Contributions

In this study, there’s an idea which could be considered as a motivation.

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Question 9.5.1. Is it possible to use mixed versions of ideas concerning

“connectedness”, “neutrosophic graphs” and “neutrosophic coloring” to define
some notions which are applied to neutrosophic graphs?
It’s motivation to find notions to use in any classes of neutrosophic graphs.
Real-world applications about time table and scheduling are another thoughts
which lead to be considered as motivation. Connections amid two items have
key roles to assign colors. Thus they’re used to define new ideas which
conclude to the structure of coloring. The concept of having vital edge from
connectedness inspires me to study the behavior of vital edge in the way that,
both vital chromatic number and n-vital number are the cases of study.
The framework of this study is as follows. In the beginning of chapter, I
introduced basic definitions to clarify about preliminaries. In subsection
“Definitions and Clarification”, new notion of coloring is applied to the vertices
of neutrosophic graphs. Vital edge from connectedness has the key role in this
way. Classes of neutrosophic graphs are studied in the terms of vital edges. In
subsection “Applications in Time Table and Scheduling”, one application is
posed for neutrosophic graphs concerning time table and scheduling when the
suspicions are about choosing some subjects. In subsection “Open Problems”,
some problems and questions for further studies are proposed. In subsection
“Conclusion and Closing Remarks”, gentle discussion about results and
applications are featured. In subsection “Conclusion and Closing Remarks”, a
brief overview concerning advantages and limitations of this study alongside
conclusions are formed.

Definitions and Clarification

Definition 9.5.2. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph. A neutrosophic edge
xy is called vital if deletion of xy has no change on its connectedness which
is a maximum strength of paths amid them.
Definition 9.5.3. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph. A vertex which has
common vital edge with another vertex, has assigned different color from that
vertex. The number of different colors, is called vital chromatic number and
its neutrosophic cardinality is called n-vital chromatic number.
Example 9.5.4. Assume Figure (9.3) with respect to first order.

(i) : Only vital edge is n2 n3 . Other edges aren’t vital.

(ii) : The vertices n2 and n3 have different colors.

(iii) : The vertex n1 could get any color.

(iv) : The vertex n1 has no vital edge with any given vertex.

(v) : The set of representatives of colors is {n1 , n2 }.

(vi) : Amid n2 and n3 , n2 has minimum value.

(vii) : Deletion of edge n1 n2 has no change in the connectedness of obtained

neutrosophic graph.

(viii) : The vital number is two.

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 9.5. Neutrosophic Chromatic Number Based on Connectedness

(ix) : n-vital chromatic number is 2.57.

Figure 9.3: Neutrosophic graph N1 is considered with respect to first order. It’s
complete but it isn’t neutrosophic complete. It’s cycle but it isn’t neutrosophic
cycle. It’s neutrosophic 3-partite but it isn’t neutrosophic complete 3-partite. nsc1b

Basic Properties
prp5b Proposition 9.5.5. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic cycle. Then all edges are
vital.

Proof. Consider N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic cycle. Hence, there are at least

two edges which are weakest, it means there are xy, uv ∈ E such that

µ(uv) = µ(xy) = min µ(e).

e∈E

In other hand, for every given vertices x and y, there are two paths from x to
y. So for every given path,

S(P ) = min µ(e).

e∈E

Thus for every x, y ∈ V, xy ∈ E, the value µ(xy) forms the connectedness amid
x to y. Therefore connectedness amid any given couple of vertices, doesn’t
change when they form an edge and they’re deleted. It induces every edge is
vital. 

prp6b Proposition 9.5.6. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic complete which is neither

neutrosophic empty nor neutrosophic path. Then all edges are vital.

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Proof. Suppose N = (σ, µ) is a neutrosophic complete which is neither

neutrosophic empty nor neutrosophic path. If x, y ∈ V, then xy ∈ E. Thus
P : x, y is a path for every given couple of vertices. Hence

S(P ) = µ(xy).

Therefore, connectedness ≥ µ(xy). In other hands, assume P 0 : x, · · · , y is an

arbitrary path from x to y. By N = (σ, µ) is a neutrosophic complete, N = (σ, µ)
is a neutrosophic strong. By N = (σ, µ) is a neutrosophic strong,

S(P 0 ) ≤ µ(xy).

Then connectedness ≤ S(P ). It implies connectedness ≤ µ(xy). To sum it up,

connectedness = µ(xy). It induces xy is vital. 

Proposition 9.5.7. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph which is fixed-edge

and which is neither neutrosophic empty nor neutrosophic path. Then all edges
are vital.

Proof. Assume N = (σ, µ) is a neutrosophic graph which is fixed-edge and

which is neither neutrosophic empty nor neutrosophic path. ByN = (σ, µ) is a
fixed-edge,
∀e, e0 ∈ E, µ(e) = µ(e0 ).
It induces for every given edge e and every given paths P, P 0

S(P ) = S(P 0 ) = µ(e).

It implies connectedness is fixed and it equals to µ(e) where e ∈ E. Therefore,

the deletion of e has no change on connectedness amid every couple of vertices.
It means every edge is vital. 

prp8b Proposition 9.5.8. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph which is neither

neutrosophic empty nor neutrosophic path. Then there’s at least one vital edge.

Proof. Consider N = (σ, µ) is a neutrosophic graph which is neither

neutrosophic empty nor neutrosophic path. Assume N = (σ, µ) is a neutrosophic
graph which is either fixed-edge or fixed-vertex and neutrosophic strong. Hence,
all edges have same value. It means

∀e, e0 ∈ E, µ(e) = µ(e0 ).

It induces for every given edge e and every given paths P, P 0

S(P ) = S(P 0 ) = µ(e).

It implies connectedness is fixed and it equals to µ(e) where e ∈ E. Therefore,

the deletion of e has no change on connectedness amid every couple of vertices.
It means every edge is vital. In other hand, suppose otherwise. So by |E| > 2,
there’s one edge e such that for every edge e0 6= e,

µ(e) > µ(e0 ).

Let a number µ(e0 ) be

min µ(e).
e∈E

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 9.5. Neutrosophic Chromatic Number Based on Connectedness

Then connectedness is ≥ µ(e0 ). But there’s a cycle which implies |E| > 3.
It induces there are at least two paths corresponded to e0 . By µ(e) > µ(e0 ),
connectedness ≥ µ(e0 ). It implies corresponded connectedness to e0 isn’t changed
when the deletion of e0 is done. Thus the edge e0 ∈ E is vital. 

prp9b Proposition 9.5.9. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic strong which is fixed-vertex

and which is neither neutrosophic empty nor neutrosophic path. Then all edges
are vital.

Proof. Assume N = (σ, µ) is a neutrosophic strong which is fixed-vertex and

which is neither neutrosophic empty nor neutrosophic path. Thus by N = (σ, µ)
is a neutrosophic fixed-vertex, for all v, v 0 ∈ V,

σ(v) = σ(v 0 ).

By N = (σ, µ) is a neutrosophic strong, for all e, e0 ∈ V,

µ(e) = µ(e0 ).

It induces for every couple of vertices which form an edge, connectedness amid
them is same and equals µ(e) where e is a given edge. It implies at least there
are two paths with strength µ(e). Thus deletion of every edge has no change
on connectedness amid its vertices. Therefore, every edge is vital. 

Proposition 9.5.10. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph which is fixed-

vertex and complete. Then all edges are vital.

Proof. By N = (σ, µ) is neutrosophic complete, N = (σ, µ) is neutrosophic

strong. By N = (σ, µ) is a neutrosophic graph which is fixed-vertex, complete
and applying Proposition (9.5.9), all edges are vital. 

prp11b Proposition 9.5.11. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph which is fixed-edge.

Then all edges are vital.

Proof. Suppose N = (σ, µ) is a neutrosophic graph which is fixed-edge. Then

for every edges e and e0 ,
µ(e) = µ(e0 ).
It means all paths has same strength which is the value of an edge since all
edges have same values. It means the connectedness amid all given couple of
vertices is the same. There are at least two paths. So deletion any edge has no
change on the connectedness amid all given couple of vertices. 

Vital Chromatic Number

Proposition 9.5.12. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph which is neither
neutrosophic empty nor neutrosophic path. Then vital chromatic number is at
most n and at least 1.

Proof. These bounds are sharp and tight as they’ll be shown in upcoming
results. If there’s no edge, then vital chromatic number is 1 but if the number of
vertices are n and they’re connected to each other, then vital chromatic number
is n. 

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Largest Vital Chromatic Number

Proposition 9.5.13. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic complete which is neither
neutrosophic empty nor neutrosophic path. Then vital chromatic number is n.

Proof. Consider N = (σ, µ) is a neutrosophic complete which is neither

neutrosophic empty nor neutrosophic path. By Proposition (9.5.6), all edges
are vital. By N = (σ, µ) isn’t a neutrosophic path, there are at least two path
amid two given edges. In other words, there is at least one cycle. By N = (σ, µ)
is a neutrosophic complete, all vertices are connected to each other. It implies,

∀v, v 0 ∈ V, vv 0 ∈ E.

It induces all vertices have different colors. The number of vertices are n. So
vital chromatic number is n. 

Proposition 9.5.14. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic path. Then vital

chromatic number aren’t computable.

Proof. Assume N = (σ, µ) is a neutrosophic path. Then there’s only one path
amid two given vertices. So deletion of an edge makes the connectedness amid
its vertices, to be incomputable. 

Proposition 9.5.15. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic star. Then vital

chromatic number aren’t computable.

Proof. Consider N = (σ, µ) is a neutrosophic star. Hence there’s only one path
amid two given vertices. Thus deletion of an edge makes the connectedness
amid its vertices, to be incomputable. 

Smallest Vital Chromatic Number

Proposition 9.5.16. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic empty. Then vital
chromatic number is 1.

Proof. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic empty. Then there’s no edge. It

implies all vertices have same colors where the minimum number of colors are
applied. Thus vital chromatic number is 1. 

prp17b Proposition 9.5.17. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph which is neither

neutrosophic empty nor neutrosophic path. Then vital chromatic number isn’t 1.

Proof. Assume N = (σ, µ) is a neutrosophic graph which is neither neutrosophic

empty nor neutrosophic path. By Proposition (9.5.8), there’s at least one vital
edge. 

Proposition 9.5.18. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic cycle. Then vital

chromatic number is at least 2 and at most 3.

Proof. Suppose N = (σ, µ) is a neutrosophic cycle. There’s at least amid two

vertices. By Proposition (9.5.5), all edges are vital. So at least the colors
of two vertices are different. It implies vital chromatic number is at least 2.
By applying colors on vertices in alternative ways, at most two vertices have
common edges with same color. Hence vital chromatic number is at most 3. 

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Proposition 9.5.19. Let N = (σ, µ) be an even neutrosophic cycle. Then vital

chromatic number is 2.

Proof. Assume N = (σ, µ) is an even neutrosophic cycle. By Proposition

(9.5.17), vital chromatic number is at least 2. By applying coloring on vertices
in alternative ways, two vertices with common edge, has different colors. Since
the cycle has even number of edges. Thus vital chromatic number is 2. 

Proposition 9.5.20. Let N = (σ, µ) be an odd neutrosophic cycle. Then vital

chromatic number is 3.

Proof. Consider N = (σ, µ) is an odd neutrosophic cycle. By Proposition

(9.5.5), all edges are vital. So by using coloring in alternative way, there are two
vertices which have common edge and have same color. Thus vital chromatic
number is 3. 

prp21b Proposition 9.5.21. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic bipartite which is fixed-

edge and complete. Then vital chromatic number is 2.

Proof. Suppose N = (σ, µ) is a neutrosophic bipartite which is fixed-edge and

complete. Thus strength of every path is as same as connectedness amid two
vertices is. Thus all edges are vital. By N = (σ, µ) is complete, all vertices
from one part are connected to all vertices of another part. Every part has no
connection amid its vertices so all vertices from every part, have same color.
There are two parts. Thus vital chromatic number is 2. 

Proposition 9.5.22. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic bipartite which is fixed-

vertex and complete. Then vital chromatic number is 2.

Proof. By N = (σ, µ) is fixed-vertex and complete, N = (σ, µ) is fixed-edge and

complete. Therefore, by Proposition (9.5.21), vital chromatic number is 2. 

prp23b Proposition 9.5.23. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic t−partite which is fixed-

edge and complete. Then vital chromatic number is t.

Proof. By N = (σ, µ) is fixed-edge, all edges have same value. Thus all paths
have same strength. So connectedness amid two given vertices are same.
Therefore all edges are vital. Inside every part, there’s no edge amid two
vertices. It induces the vertices of every part have same color. There are t parts.
It implies t different colors are applied. Therefore vital chromatic number is
t. 

Proposition 9.5.24. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic t−partite which is fixed-

vertex and complete. Then vital chromatic number is t.

Proof. It’s fixed-vertex and complete. So It’s fixed-edge and complete. By

Proposition (9.5.23), vital chromatic number is t. 

Proposition 9.5.25. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic wheel which is fixed-

vertex and neutrosophic strong. Then vital chromatic number is 3 or 4.

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9. Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

Proof. Consider N = (σ, µ) is a neutrosophic wheel which is fixed-vertex and

neutrosophic strong. By it’s fixed-vertex and neutrosophic strong, it’s fixed-edge.
Every edges have same value. So strength of paths and connectedness are same
and equal to each other. Thus all edges are vital. Then the center has one
color and since it’s connected to all other vertices, the color of center is unique.
Therefore, vital chromatic number is at least 2. Non-center vertices form a path
which are colored by two colors when applying colors are in alternative ways.
Thus vital chromatic number is 3 if the non-center vertices form even color and
vital chromatic number is 4 if the non-center vertices form odd color. 

Proposition 9.5.26. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic wheel which is fixed-edge

and neutrosophic strong. Then vital chromatic number is 3 or 4.

Proof. Consider N = (σ, µ) is a neutrosophic wheel which is fixed-vertex and

neutrosophic strong. It’s fixed-edge. Every edges have same value. So strength
of paths and connectedness are same and equal to each other. Thus all edges
are vital. Then the center has one color and since it’s connected to all other
vertices, the color of center is unique. Therefore, vital chromatic number is at
least 2. Non-center vertices form a path which are colored by two colors when
applying colors are in alternative ways. Thus vital chromatic number is 3 if
the non-center vertices form even color and vital chromatic number is 4 if the
non-center vertices form odd color. 

n-Vital Chromatic Number

Proposition 9.5.27. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph which is neither
neutrosophic empty nor neutrosophic path. Then n-vital chromatic number is at
most order of N which is neutrosophic cardinality of V.

Proof. Assume N = (σ, µ) is a neutrosophic graph which is neither neutrosophic

empty nor neutrosophic path. If all edges are vital and all vertices are connected
to each other, then vital chromatic number is n. Thus n-vital chromatic number
is at most order of N which is neutrosophic cardinality of V. 

Largest n-Vital Chromatic Number

Proposition 9.5.28. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic complete which is neither
neutrosophic empty nor neutrosophic path. Then n-vital chromatic number is
order of N which is neutrosophic cardinality of V.

Proof. Suppose N = (σ, µ) is a neutrosophic complete which is neither

neutrosophic empty nor neutrosophic path. By it’s complete, then all vertices
are connected to each other and all edges are vital. Thus n colors are used. It
means n-vital chromatic number is order of N which is neutrosophic cardinality
of V. 

Proposition 9.5.29. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic path. Then n-vital

chromatic number aren’t computable.

Proof. Deletion of one edge, make N = (σ, µ) be in the situation where n-vital
chromatic number aren’t computable. Since there’s need to have at least two

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 9.5. Neutrosophic Chromatic Number Based on Connectedness

paths to compute n-vital chromatic number. In other words, this notion is

computable in neutrosophic graph which has at least one cycle. 

Proposition 9.5.30. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic star. Then n-vital

chromatic number aren’t computable.

Proof. Assume N = (σ, µ) is a neutrosophic star. Then there’s only one path
amid two given vertices. Deletion one edge causes the connectedness to be
incomputable. Thus n-vital chromatic number aren’t computable. 

Smallest n-Vital Chromatic Number

Proposition 9.5.31. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic empty. Then n-vital
chromatic number is
min σ(x).
x∈V

Proof. Suppose N = (σ, µ) is a neutrosophic empty. Then there’s no edge. It

induces there’s no vital edge. So all vertices are colored by one color. Hence
all vertices have same color. It means the number of color is one. It induces
the cardinality of set includes the representative of color is one. To find the
representative of color, we have 1 choice from n options. Thus n-vital chromatic
number is
min σ(x).
x∈V

Proposition 9.5.32. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph which is neither

neutrosophic empty nor neutrosophic path. Then n-vital chromatic number isn’t

min σ(x).
x∈V

Proof. Consider N = (σ, µ) is a neutrosophic graph which is neither

neutrosophic empty nor neutrosophic path. Then there’s at least one edge. By
Proposition (9.5.8), there’s at least one vital edge. It induces the number of
color is at least two. Therefore, the cardinality of set of representative is at
least two. It implies n-vital chromatic number isn’t

min σ(x).
x∈V

Proposition 9.5.33. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic cycle. Then n-vital

chromatic number is at least

min σ(x) + σ(y).

x,y∈V, xy∈E

And at most
min σ(x) + σ(y) + σ(z).
x,y,z∈V,xy,yz,xz∈E

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 9. Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

Proof. Suppose N = (σ, µ) is a neutrosophic cycle. By using alternative coloring

of vertices, two or three numbers of colors are used. So the cardinality of set
of representative is two or three. There are only these possibilities. Therefore
n-vital chromatic number is at least

min σ(x) + σ(y).

x,y∈V, xy∈E

And at most
min σ(x) + σ(y) + σ(z).
x,y,z∈V,xy,yz,xz∈E

Proposition 9.5.34. Let N = (σ, µ) be an even neutrosophic cycle. Then n-vital

chromatic number is
min σ(x) + σ(y).
x,y∈V, xy∈E

Proof. Assume N = (σ, µ) is an even neutrosophic cycle. If colors are applied

on vertices in alternative ways which cause two vertices with a common edge,
have different colors, then by it’s even neutrosophic cycle, the representatives of
colors are two. Since there are even edges which by Proposition (9.5.5), all are
vital. It induces the cardinality of set of representatives is two. Thus n-vital
chromatic number is n-vital chromatic number is

min σ(x) + σ(y).

x,y∈V, xy∈E

Proposition 9.5.35. Let N = (σ, µ) be an odd neutrosophic cycle. Then n-vital

chromatic number is

min σ(x) + σ(y) + σ(z).

x,y,z∈V, xy∈E

Proof. Consider N = (σ, µ) is an odd neutrosophic cycle. Then number of edges

are odd. By Proposition (9.5.5), all edges are vital. Using different colors on the
vertices which have common edges, implies usage of three colors. Hence the set
of representatives has the cardinality three. To choose, the representatives, in
every color, minimum value of vertices, introduces the representative of specific
color. Then n-vital chromatic number is

min σ(x) + σ(y) + σ(z).

x,y,z∈V, xy∈E

prp36b Proposition 9.5.36. Let N = (σ, µ) be neutrosophic bipartite which is fixed-edge

and complete. Then n-vital chromatic number is

min σ(x) + σ(y).

x,y∈V, xy∈E

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Proof. Assume N = (σ, µ) is neutrosophic bipartite which is fixed-edge and

complete. It’s fixed-edge so all edges have same value and as its consequences,
all paths have same strength and all connectedness are same. Hence all edges
are vital. By it’s complete, all vertices from one part are connected to all
vertices from another part. By it’s bipartite, there are two colors to use on
vertices such that every part has same color. So the set of representatives has
the cardinality two which implies n-vital chromatic number is

min σ(x) + σ(y).

x,y∈V, xy∈E

Proposition 9.5.37. Let N = (σ, µ) be neutrosophic bipartite which is fixed-

vertex and complete. Then n-vital chromatic number is

min σ(x) + σ(y).

x,y∈V, xy∈E

Proof. Assume N = (σ, µ) is neutrosophic bipartite which is fixed-vertex and

complete. By it’s fixed-vertex and complete, it’s fixed-edge and complete. By
Proposition (9.5.36), n-vital chromatic number is

min σ(x) + σ(y).

x,y∈V, xy∈E

prp38b Proposition 9.5.38. Let N = (σ, µ) be neutrosophic t−partite which is fixed-

edge and complete. Then n-vital chromatic number is

min σ(x1 ) + σ(x2 ) + · · · + σ(xt ).

x1 ,x2 ,··· ,xt ∈V, xi xj ∈E

Proof. Assume N = (σ, µ) is neutrosophic t−partite which is fixed-edge and

complete. All parts have same color on their vertices. By it’s fixed-edge and
applying Proposition (9.5.11), all edges are vital. Thus minimum number of
colors is t. And the set of representatives has the cardinality t. It means n-vital
chromatic number is

min σ(x1 ) + σ(x2 ) + · · · + σ(xt ).

x1 ,x2 ,··· ,xt ∈V, xi xj ∈E

Proposition 9.5.39. Let N = (σ, µ) be neutrosophic t−partite which is fixed-

vertex and complete. Then n-vital chromatic number is

min σ(x1 ) + σ(x2 ) + · · · + σ(xt ).

x1 ,x2 ,··· ,xt ∈V, xi xj ∈E

Proof. Assume N = (σ, µ) is neutrosophic t−partite which is fixed-vertex and

complete. Then by it’s fixed-vertex and complete, it’s it’s fixed-edge and
complete. By Proposition (9.5.38), n-vital chromatic number is

min σ(x1 ) + σ(x2 ) + · · · + σ(xt ).

x1 ,x2 ,··· ,xt ∈V, xi xj ∈E

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prp40b Proposition 9.5.40. Let N = (σ, µ) be neutrosophic wheel which is fixed-vertex

and neutrosophic strong. Then n-vital chromatic number is
min σ(c) + σ(y) + σ(z).
y,z∈V,yz∈E

Or
min σ(c) + σ(y) + σ(z) + σ(t).
y,z∈V,yz,zt∈E

Proof. Consider N = (σ, µ) is neutrosophic wheel which is fixed-vertex and

neutrosophic strong. By fixed-vertex and neutrosophic strong, it’s fixed-edge.
By it’s fixed-edge and applying Proposition (9.5.11), all edges are vital. Center
is connected to non-center vertices. So center uses unique color. Non-center
vertices form a cycle. If the cycle is even, then n-vital chromatic number is
min σ(c) + σ(y) + σ(z).
y,z∈V,yz∈E

If it’s odd, then n-vital chromatic number is

min σ(c) + σ(y) + σ(z).
y,z∈V,yz∈E

Or
min σ(c) + σ(y) + σ(z) + σ(t).
y,z∈V,yz,zt∈E

Proposition 9.5.41. Let N = (σ, µ) be neutrosophic wheel which is fixed-edge
and neutrosophic strong. Then n-vital chromatic number is
min σ(c) + σ(y) + σ(z).
y,z∈V,yz∈E

Proof. Assume N = (σ, µ) is neutrosophic wheel which is fixed-edge and

neutrosophic strong. By it’s fixed-edge and neutrosophic strong, it’s fixed-
vertex and neutrosophic strong. By Proposition (9.5.40),
min σ(c) + σ(y) + σ(z).
y,z∈V,yz∈E

Or
min σ(c) + σ(y) + σ(z) + σ(t).
y,z∈V,yz,zt∈E

The relation amid neutrosophic chromatic number and main parameters of
neutrosophic graphs is computed.
Proposition 9.5.42. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic strong. Then vital
chromatic number is at most ∆ + 1 and at least 2.
Proof. Neutrosophic strong is neutrosophic nontrivial. So it isn’t neutrosophic
empty which induces there’s no edge. It implies chromatic number is two. Since
chromatic number is one if and only if N = (σ, µ) is neutrosophic empty if
and only if N = (σ, µ) is neutrosophic trivial. A vertex with degree ∆, has ∆
vertices which have common edges with them. If these vertices have no edge
amid each other, then chromatic number is two especially, neutrosophic star. If
not, then in the case, all vertices have edge amid each other, chromatic number
is ∆ + 1, especially, neutrosophic complete. 

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 9.5. Neutrosophic Chromatic Number Based on Connectedness

Proposition 9.5.43. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic r−regular. Then vital

chromatic number is at most r + 1.

Proof. N = (σ, µ) is a neutrosophic r−regular. So any of vertex has r vertices

which have common edge with it. If these vertices have no common edge with
each other, for instance neutrosophic star, chromatic number is two. But since
the vertices have common edge with each other, chromatic number is r + 1, for
instance, neutrosophic complete. 

Applications in Time Table and Scheduling

sec3b
Designing the programs to achieve some goals is general approach to apply on
some issues to function properly. Separation has key role in the context of this
style. Separating the duration of work which are consecutive, is the matter and
it has important to avoid mixing up.

Step 1. (Definition) Time table is an approach to get some attributes to do

the work fast and proper. The style of scheduling implies special attention
to the tasks which are consecutive.

Step 2. (Issue) Scheduling of program has faced with difficulties to differ amid
consecutive section. Beyond that, sometimes sections are not the same.

Step 3. (Model) As Figure (9.4), the situation is designed as a model. The

model uses data to assign every section and to assign to relation amid
section, three numbers belong unit interval to state indeterminacy,
possibilities and determinacy. There’s one restriction in that, the numbers
amid two sections are at least the number of the relation amid them.
Table (9.3), clarifies about the assigned numbers to these situation.

Figure 9.4: Black vertices are suspicions about choosing them. fgr1b

Step 4. (Solution) As Figure (9.4) shows, neutrosophic model, proposes to

use vital chromatic number which is incomputable in the case which is
titled T 0 . In this case, i1 and c1 aren’t representative of these two colors
and n-vital chromatic number is incomputable. The set {i1 , c1 } doesn’t
contain representatives of colors which pose vital chromatic number and

383
 9. Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

Table 9.3: Scheduling concerns its Subjects and its Connections as a

Neutrosophic Graph in a Model. tbl1b

Sections of T s1 s2 s3 s4 s5 s6 s7 s8 s9 , s10
Values 0.1 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.1 0.3 0.6 0.5 0.2
Connections of T s1 s2 s2 s3 s3 s4 s4 s5 s5 s6 s6 s7 s7 s8 s8 s9 s9 s10
Values 0.1 0.6 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.1

n-vital chromatic number. Thus the decision amid choosing the subject
c1 an c2 isn’t concluded to choose c1 . To get brief overview, neutrosophic
model uses one number for every array so 0.9 means (0.9, 0.9, 0.9). In
Figure (9.4), the neutrosophic model T introduces the common situation.
The representatives of colors are i2 and c1 . Thus vital chromatic number
is two and n-vital chromatic number is 1.4. Thus suspicion about choosing
i1 and i2 is determined to be i2 . The sets of representative for colors are
{i2 , c1 }.

Open Problems
sec4b
The two notions of coloring of vertices concerning vital chromatic number and
n-vital chromatic number are defined on neutrosophic graphs when
connectedness and as its consequences, vital edges have key role to have these
notions. Thus
Question 9.5.44. Is it possible to use other types edges via connectedness to
define vital chromatic number and n-vital chromatic number?
Question 9.5.45. Are existed some connections amid the coloring from
connectedness inside this concept and external connections with other types
of coloring from other notions?
Question 9.5.46. Is it possible to construct some classes neutrosophic graphs
which have “nice” behavior?
Question 9.5.47. Which applications do make an independent study to apply
vital chromatic number and n-vital chromatic number?
Problem 9.5.48. Which parameters are related to this parameter?
Problem 9.5.49. Which approaches do work to construct applications to create
independent study?
Problem 9.5.50. Which approaches do work to construct definitions which use
all three arrays and the relations amid them instead of one array of three arrays
to create independent study?

Conclusion and Closing Remarks

sec5b
This study uses mixed combinations of vital chromatic number and n-vital
chromatic number to study on neutrosophic graphs. The connections of
vertices which are clarified by vital edges from connectedness, differ them from
each other and and put them in different categories to represent one

384
 9.6. New Ideas

representative for each color. Further studies could be about changes in the
settings to compare this notion amid different settings of graph theory. One
way is finding some relations amid array of vertices to make sensible definitions.
In Table (9.4), some limitations and advantages of this study is pointed out.

Table 9.4: A Brief Overview about Advantages and Limitations of this study tbl2b

Advantages Limitations
1. Using connectedness for vital edges 1. Acyclic neutrosophic graphs

2. Using neutrosophic cardinality

3. Using cardinality 2. Connections with parameters

4. Characterizing smallest number

5. Characterizing biggest number 3. Star and path

9.6 New Ideas

New ideas are applied on this
model to explore behaviors of
these models in the mathematical
perspective. Another ways to
make sense about them, are used
by relatively comparable results
to conclude analysis.

aving different colors when two vertices have common “connection”. Common
connection can only be an edge. An edge with special attribute can be
common “connection”. Using neutrosophic attributes are expected to make
sense about the study in this framework. In what follows, some definitions are
introduced to be in the form of common “connection”.

9.7 Different Types of Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

Third case for the contents is to use the article from [Ref12]. The contents are
used in the way that, usages of new contents are preferences and the
preliminaries are passed in the beginning of this chapter.

Abstract
New setting is introduced to study chromatic number. Different types of
chromatic numbers and neutrosophic chromatic number are proposed in this
way, some results are obtained. Classes of neutrosophic graphs are used to
obtains these numbers and the representatives of the colors. Using colors to
assign to the vertices of neutrosophic graphs is applied. Some questions and

385
9. Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

problems are posed concerning ways to do further studies on this topic. Using
different types of edges from connectedness in same neutrosophic graphs and in
modified neutrosophic graphs to define the relation amid vertices which implies
having different colors amid them and as consequences, choosing one vertex as
a representative of each color to use them in a set of representatives and finally,
using neutrosophic cardinality of this set to compute types of chromatic
numbers. This specific relation amid edges is necessary to compute both types
of chromatic number concerning the number of representative in the set of
representatives and types of neutrosophic chromatic number concerning
neutrosophic cardinality of set of representatives. If two vertices have no
intended edge, then they can be assigned to same color even they’ve common
edge. Basic familiarities with neutrosophic graph theory and graph theory are
proposed for this article.

Keywords: Neutrosophic Connctedness, Neutrosophic Graphs, Chromatic

Number
AMS Subject Classification: 05C17, 05C22, 05E45

Motivation and Contributions

In this study, there’s an idea which could be considered as a motivation.

Question 9.7.1. Is it possible to use mixed versions of ideas concerning

“connectedness”, “neutrosophic graphs” and “neutrosophic coloring” to define
some notions which are applied to neutrosophic graphs?

It’s motivation to find notions to use in any classes of neutrosophic graphs.

Real-world applications about time table and scheduling are another thoughts
which lead to be considered as motivation. Connections amid two items have
key roles to assign colors. Thus they’re used to define new ideas which
conclude to the structure of coloring. The concept of having specific edge from
connectedness inspires me to study the behavior of specific edge in the way
that, both types of chromatic numbers and types of neutrosophic chromatic
numbers are the cases of study.
The framework of this study is as follows. In the beginning, I introduced basic
definitions to clarify about preliminaries. In section “New Ideas”, new notion
of coloring is applied to the vertices of neutrosophic graphs. Specific edge from
connectedness has the key role in this way. Classes of neutrosophic graphs are
studied in the terms of different types of edges in section “New Results”. In
section “Applications in Time Table and Scheduling”, one application is posed
for neutrosophic graphs concerning time table and scheduling when the
suspicions are about choosing some subjects. In section “Open Problems”,
some problems and questions for further studies are proposed. In section
“Conclusion and Closing Remarks”, gentle discussion about results and
applications are featured. In section “Conclusion and Closing Remarks”, a
brief overview concerning advantages and limitations of this study alongside
conclusions are formed.

386
 9.7. Different Types of Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

New Ideas
Question 9.7.2. What-if the common “connection” is beyond having one
common edge?
The first step is the definition of common “connection”.
Definition 9.7.3. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph. A neutrosophic
edge xy is called type-I if value of xy is connectedness which is a maximum
strength of paths amid them.
Example 9.7.4. Consider Figure (9.5).
(i) : From n1 to n2 , there’s no edge which is type-I but n2 n3 .
(ii) : From n2 to n3 , there’s no edge which is type-I but n2 n3 .
(iii) : From n1 to n3 , there’s no edge which is type-I but n1 n3 .

Figure 9.5: Two edges aren’t type-I. ncs1c2

There’s a curious question.

Question 9.7.5. Is there a neutrosophic graph whose edges are type-I?
Yes but only one class. Two upcoming Propositions give simple answers about
a class of neutrosophic graphs. Other classes of neutrosophic graphs have at
least one edge which isn’t type-I.
Proposition 9.7.6. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph which is fixed-edge.
Then all edges are type-I.
Proposition 9.7.7. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph which is strong
fixed-vertex. Then N = (σ, µ) is fixed-edge.
Proposition 9.7.8. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph which is strong
fixed-vertex. Then all edges are type-I.

387
9. Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

Example 9.7.9. Consider Figure (9.6). All edges are type-I.

Figure 9.6: Neutrosophic graph which is fixed-edge but not strong fixed-vertex. ncs2c2

Definition 9.7.10. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph. A neutrosophic

edge xy is called type-II if value of xy is lower than connectedness which is
a maximum strength of paths amid them.
Example 9.7.11. The comparison amid the variant of edges which are either
type-I or type-II, is possible when common neutrosophic graphs are studied.

(a) : Consider Figure (9.5).

(i) : From n1 to n2 , there’s no edge which is type-II but n1 n2 .

(ii) : From n2 to n3 , there’s no edge which is type-II but n1 n2 .
(iii) : From n1 to n3 , there’s no edge which is type-II but n1 n2 and n2 n3 .

(b) : Consider Figure (9.6). There’s no edge which is type-II.

Definition 9.7.12. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph. A neutrosophic edge

xy is called type-III if value of xy is the only value which is connectedness
which is a maximum strength of paths amid them.
Example 9.7.13. The comparison amid the variant of edges which are either
type-I or type-II or type-III, is possible when common neutrosophic graphs are
studied.

(a) : Consider Figure (9.5).

(i) : From n1 to n2 , there’s no edge which is type-III but n2 n3 .

(ii) : From n2 to n3 , there’s no edge which is type-III but n2 n3 .
(iii) : From n1 to n3 , there’s no edge which is type-III but n1 n3 and n2 n3 .

388
 9.7. Different Types of Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

(b) : Consider Figure (9.6). There’s no edge which is type-III.

Definition 9.7.14. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph. A neutrosophic
edge xy is called type-IV if value of xy is connectedness which is a maximum
strength of paths amid them but in N = (σ, µ) doesn’t have xy.
Example 9.7.15. The comparison amid the variant of edges which are either
type-I or...or type-IV, is possible when common neutrosophic graphs are studied.
(a) : Consider Figure (9.5).
(i) : From n1 to n2 , there’s no edge which is type-IV.
(ii) : From n2 to n3 , there’s no edge which is type-IV.
(iii) : From n1 to n3 , there’s no edge which is type-IV.
(b) : Consider Figure (9.6). All edges are type-IV.
Definition 9.7.16. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph. A neutrosophic
edge xy is called type-V if value of xy is lower than connectedness which is
a maximum strength of paths amid them but in N = (σ, µ) doesn’t have xy.
Example 9.7.17. The comparison amid the variant of edges which are either
type-I or...or type-V, is possible when common neutrosophic graphs are studied.
(a) : Consider Figure (9.5).
(i) : From n1 to n2 , edge n1 n2 is type-V.
(ii) : From n2 to n3 , there’s no edge which is type-V.
(iii) : From n1 to n3 , there’s no edge which is type-V.
(b) : Consider Figure (9.6). There’s no edge which is type-V.
Definition 9.7.18. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph. A neutrosophic
edge xy is called type-VI if value of xy is greater than connectedness which
is a maximum strength of paths amid them but in N = (σ, µ) doesn’t have xy.
Example 9.7.19. The comparison amid the variant of edges which are either
type-I or...or type-VI, is possible when common neutrosophic graphs are studied.
(a) : Consider Figure (9.5).
(i) : From n1 to n2 , there’s no edge which is type-VI.
(ii) : From n2 to n3 , edges n2 n3 and n1 n3 are type-VI.
(iii) : From n1 to n3 , edges n2 n3 and n1 n3 are type-VI.
(b) : Consider Figure (9.6). There’s no edge which is type-VI.
Definition 9.7.20. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph. A neutrosophic edge
xy is called type-VII if value of xy is the only value which is connectedness
which is a maximum strength of paths amid them but in N = (σ, µ) doesn’t
have xy.
Example 9.7.21. The comparison amid the variant of edges which are either
type-I or...or type-VII, is possible when common neutrosophic graphs are
studied.

389
9. Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

(a) : Consider Figure (9.5).

(i) : From n1 to n2 , there’s no edge which is type-VII.
(ii) : From n2 to n3 , there’s no edge which is type-VII.
(iii) : From n1 to n3 , there’s no edge which is type-VII.
(b) : Consider Figure (9.6). There’s no edge which is type-VII.
Common way to define the number, could be twofold. One is about the
cardinality and another is about neutrosophic cardinality.
Definition 9.7.22. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph. A vertex which
has common type edge with another vertex, has assigned different color from
that vertex. The cardinality of the set of representatives of colors, is called
type chromatic number and its neutrosophic cardinality concerning the set
of representatives of colors is called n-type chromatic number.
Definition 9.7.23. It’s worthy to note that there are two types of definitions.
One is about the comparison amid edges and connectedness. Another is about
one edge when it’s deleted, new connectedness is compared to deleted edge.
Thus in first type, all edges are compared to connectedness but in second type,
for every edge, there’s a computation to have connectedness. So in first type,
connectedness is unique and there’s one number for all edges as connectedness
but in second type, for every edge, there’s a new connectedness to decide about
the edge whether has intended attribute or not. To avoid confusion, chromatic
number is computed with respect to n1 and n2 where second style is used and
all edges are labelled even they’re not deleted edges so third type is introduced
when deletion of one edge, is enough to label all edges. Also first order is used
to have these concepts.
In following example, third type of definitions which are except from
type-IV,V,VI,VII, are studied.
Example 9.7.24. The comparison amid the variant of numbers which are either
type-I or...or type-VII, is possible when common neutrosophic graphs are studied.
Chromatic number is computed with respect to n1 and n2 . Also first order is
used to have these concepts.
(a) : Consider Figure (9.5).
(i) : The set of representatives of colors is {n1 , n2 }. Thus type-I chromatic
number is 2 and n-type-I chromatic number is 1.73.
(ii) : The set of representatives of colors is {n1 , n2 }. Thus type-II chromatic
number is 2 and n-type-II chromatic number is 1.73.
(iii) : The set of representatives of colors is {n2 , n3 }. Thus type-III
chromatic number is 2 and n-type-III chromatic number is 1.28.
(iv) : The set of representatives of colors is {n2 , n3 }. Thus type-IV
chromatic number is 2 and n-type-IV chromatic number is 1.28.
(v) : The set of representatives of colors is {n1 , n2 }. Thus type-V chromatic
number is 2 and n-type-V chromatic number is 1.73.
(vi) : The set of representatives of colors is {n2 , n3 }. Thus type-VI
chromatic number is 2 and n-type-VI chromatic number is 1.28.

390
 9.8. New Results

(vii) : The set of representatives of colors is {n2 , n3 }. Thus type-VII

chromatic number is 2 and n-type-VII chromatic number is 1.28.
(b) : Consider Figure (9.6).
(i) : The set of representatives of colors is {n1 , n2 , n3 }. Thus type-I
chromatic number is 3 and n-type-I chromatic number is 3.01.
(ii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-II chromatic
number is 0 and n-type-II chromatic number is 0.
(iii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-III chromatic
number is 0 and n-type-III chromatic number is 0.
(iv) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-IV chromatic
number is 0 and n-type-IV chromatic number is 0.
(v) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-V chromatic
number is 0 and n-type-V chromatic number is 0.
(vi) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VI chromatic
number is 0 and n-type-VI chromatic number is 0.
(vii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VII chromatic
number is 0 and n-type-VII chromatic number is 0.

9.8 New Results

In this chapter, I introduce some
results concerning new ideas and
in this ways, the results make
sense more about their impacts on
different models.
m

9.9 Different Types of Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

Third case for the contents is to use the article from [Ref12]. The contents are
used in the way that, usages of new contents are preferences and the
preliminaries are passed in the beginning of this chapter.

New Results
Proposition 9.9.1. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph which is complete.
If it’s fixed-edge, then
(i) : The set of representatives of colors is {v1 , v2 , · · · , vn }. Thus type-I
chromatic number is n and n-type-I chromatic number is neutrosophic
cardinality of V.
(ii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-II chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-II chromatic number is 0.
(iii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-III chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-III chromatic number is 0.

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 9. Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

(iv) : The set of representatives of colors is {v1 , v2 , · · · , vn }. Thus type-IV

chromatic number is n and n-type-IV chromatic number is neutrosophic
cardinality of V.
(v) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-V chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-V chromatic number is 0.
(vi) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VI chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VI chromatic number is 0.
(vii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VII chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VII chromatic number is 0.
Proof. (i). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given
edges is the same. All edges are type-I. By it’s neutrosophic complete, every
vertex has n − 1 vertices which have common edges which are type-I. Thus the
set of representatives of colors is {v1 , v2 , · · · , vn }. The type-I chromatic number
is n and n-type-I chromatic number is neutrosophic cardinality of V.
(ii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-II. By it’s neutrosophic complete, every vertex
has n − 1 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-II. Thus the
set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-II chromatic number is 0 and
n-type-II chromatic number is 0.
(iii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-III. By it’s neutrosophic complete, every vertex
has n − 1 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-III. Thus the
set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-III chromatic number is 0 and
n-type-III chromatic number is 0.
(iv). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges are type-IV. By it’s neutrosophic complete, every vertex
has n − 1 vertices which have common edges which are type-IV. Thus the set
of representatives of colors is {v1 , v2 , · · · , vn }. The type-IV chromatic number
is n and n-type-IV chromatic number is neutrosophic cardinality of V.
(v). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-V. By it’s neutrosophic complete, every vertex
has n − 1 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-V. Thus the
set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-V chromatic number is 0 and
n-type-V chromatic number is 0.
(vi). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-VI. By it’s neutrosophic complete, every vertex
has n − 1 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-VI. Thus the
set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-VI chromatic number is 0 and
n-type-VI chromatic number is 0.
(vii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-VII. By it’s neutrosophic complete, every
vertex has n − 1 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-VII. Thus
the set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-VII chromatic number is 0
and n-type-VII chromatic number is 0.

Proposition 9.9.2. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph which is complete.
If it’s fixed-vertex, then

392
 9.9. Different Types of Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

(i) : The set of representatives of colors is {v1 , v2 , · · · , vn }. Thus type-I

chromatic number is n and n-type-I chromatic number is nσ(vi ).

(ii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-II chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-II chromatic number is 0.

(iii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-III chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-III chromatic number is 0.

(iv) : The set of representatives of colors is {v1 , v2 , · · · , vn }. Thus type-IV

chromatic number is n and n-type-IV chromatic number is nσ(vi ).

(v) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-V chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-V chromatic number is 0.

(vi) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VI chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VI chromatic number is 0.

(vii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VII chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VII chromatic number is 0.

Proof. (i). By it’s fixed-vertex and it’s neutrosophic complete, all edges have
same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is the same. All edges
are type-I. By it’s neutrosophic complete, every vertex has n − 1 vertices which
have common edges which are type-I. Thus the set of representatives of colors
is {v1 , v2 , · · · , vn }. The type-I chromatic number is n and n-type-I chromatic
number is nσ(vi ).
(ii). By it’s fixed-vertex and it’s neutrosophic complete, all edges have same
amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is the same. All edges aren’t
type-II. By it’s neutrosophic complete, every vertex has n − 1 vertices which
have common edges which aren’t type-II. Thus the set of representatives of
colors is {}. The type-II chromatic number is 0 and n-type-II chromatic number
is 0.
(iii). By it’s fixed-vertex and it’s neutrosophic complete, all edges have same
amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is the same. All edges
aren’t type-III. By it’s neutrosophic complete, every vertex has n − 1 vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-III. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {}. The type-III chromatic number is 0 and n-type-III chromatic
number is 0.
(iv). By it’s fixed-vertex and it’s neutrosophic complete, all edges have same
amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is the same. All edges are
type-IV. By it’s neutrosophic complete, every vertex has n − 1 vertices which
have common edges which are type-IV. Thus the set of representatives of colors
is {v1 , v2 , · · · , vn }. The type-IV chromatic number is n and n-type-IV chromatic
number is nσ(vi ).
(v). By it’s fixed-vertex and it’s neutrosophic complete, all edges have same
amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is the same. All edges aren’t
type-V. By it’s neutrosophic complete, every vertex has n − 1 vertices which
have common edges which aren’t type-V. Thus the set of representatives of
colors is {}. The type-V chromatic number is 0 and n-type-V chromatic number
is 0.

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 9. Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

(vi). By it’s fixed-vertex and it’s neutrosophic complete, all edges have same
amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is the same. All edges
aren’t type-VI. By it’s neutrosophic complete, every vertex has n − 1 vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-VI. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {}. The type-VI chromatic number is 0 and n-type-VI chromatic
number is 0.
(vii). By it’s fixed-vertex and it’s neutrosophic complete, all edges have same
amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is the same. All edges aren’t
type-VII. By it’s neutrosophic complete, every vertex has n − 1 vertices which
have common edges which aren’t type-VII. Thus the set of representatives of
colors is {}. The type-VII chromatic number is 0 and n-type-VII chromatic
number is 0.


Proposition 9.9.3. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph which is strong. If

it’s fixed-edge, then
(i) : The set of representatives of colors is {v1 , v2 , · · · , vt } where t = ∆(N ).
Thus type-I chromatic number is t and n-type-I chromatic number is
neutrosophic cardinality of {v1 , v2 , · · · , vt }.
(ii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-II chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-II chromatic number is 0.
(iii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-III chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-III chromatic number is 0.
(iv) : The set of representatives of colors is {v1 , v2 , · · · , vt } where t = ∆(N ).
Thus type-IV chromatic number is t and n-type-IV chromatic number is
neutrosophic cardinality of {v1 , v2 , · · · , vt }.
(v) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-V chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-V chromatic number is 0.
(vi) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VI chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VI chromatic number is 0.
(vii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VII chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VII chromatic number is 0.

Proof. (i). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given
edges is the same. All edges are type-I. By it’s neutrosophic strong, there’s
a vertex has t = ∆(N ) vertices which have common edges which are type-I.
Thus the set of representatives of colors is {v1 , v2 , · · · , vt }. The type-I chromatic
number is t and n-type-I chromatic number is neutrosophic cardinality of
{v1 , v2 , · · · , vt }.
(ii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-II. By it’s neutrosophic strong, there’s a vertex
has t = ∆(N ) vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-II. Thus
the set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-II chromatic number is 0 and
n-type-II chromatic number is 0.
(iii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-III. By it’s neutrosophic strong, there’s a

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 9.9. Different Types of Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

vertex has t = ∆(N ) vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-III.
Thus the set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-III chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-III chromatic number is 0.
(iv). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges are type-IV. By it’s neutrosophic strong, there’s a vertex
has t = ∆(N ) vertices which have common edges which are type-IV. Thus
the set of representatives of colors is {v1 , v2 , · · · , vt }. The type-IV chromatic
number is t and n-type-IV chromatic number is neutrosophic cardinality of
{v1 , v2 , · · · , vt }.
(v). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-V. By it’s neutrosophic strong, there’s a vertex
has t = ∆(N ) vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-V. Thus
the set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-V chromatic number is 0 and
n-type-V chromatic number is 0.
(vi). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-VI. By it’s neutrosophic strong, there’s a vertex
has t = ∆(N ) vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-VI. Thus
the set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-VI chromatic number is 0
and n-type-VI chromatic number is 0.
(vii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-VII. By it’s neutrosophic strong, there’s a
vertex has t = ∆(N ) vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-VII.
Thus the set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-VII chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VII chromatic number is 0. 

Proposition 9.9.4. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph which is strong. If

it’s fixed-vertex, then
(i) : The set of representatives of colors is {v1 , v2 , · · · , vt } where t = ∆(N ).
Thus type-I chromatic number is t and n-type-I chromatic number is tσ(vi ).
(ii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-II chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-II chromatic number is 0.
(iii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-III chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-III chromatic number is 0.
(iv) : The set of representatives of colors is {v1 , v2 , · · · , vt } where t = ∆(N ).
Thus type-IV chromatic number is t and n-type-IV chromatic number is
tσ(vi ).
(v) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-V chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-V chromatic number is 0.
(vi) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VI chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VI chromatic number is 0.
(vii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VII chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VII chromatic number is 0.

Proof. (i). By it’s fixed-vertex and it’s neutrosophic strong, all edges have same
amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is the same. All edges are
type-I. By it’s neutrosophic strong, there’s a vertex has t = ∆(N ) vertices which

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9. Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

have common edges which are type-I. Thus the set of representatives of colors
is {v1 , v2 , · · · , vt }. The type-I chromatic number is t and n-type-I chromatic
number is tσ(vi ).
(ii). By it’s fixed-vertex and it’s neutrosophic strong, all edges have same amount
so the connectedness amid two given edges is the same. All edges aren’t type-II.
By it’s neutrosophic strong, there’s a vertex has t = ∆(N ) vertices which have
common edges which aren’t type-II. Thus the set of representatives of colors is
{}. The type-II chromatic number is 0 and n-type-II chromatic number is 0.
(iii). By it’s fixed-vertex and it’s neutrosophic strong, all edges have same
amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is the same. All edges aren’t
type-III. By it’s neutrosophic strong, there’s a vertex has t = ∆(N ) vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-III. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {}. The type-III chromatic number is 0 and n-type-III chromatic
number is 0.
(iv). By it’s fixed-vertex and it’s neutrosophic strong, all edges have same
amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is the same. All edges are
type-IV. By it’s neutrosophic strong, there’s a vertex has t = ∆(N ) vertices
which have common edges which are type-IV. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {v1 , v2 , · · · , vt }. The type-IV chromatic number is t and n-type-IV
chromatic number is tσ(vi ).
(v). By it’s fixed-vertex and it’s neutrosophic strong, all edges have same amount
so the connectedness amid two given edges is the same. All edges aren’t type-V.
By it’s neutrosophic strong, there’s a vertex has t = ∆(N ) vertices which have
common edges which aren’t type-V. Thus the set of representatives of colors is
{}. The type-V chromatic number is 0 and n-type-V chromatic number is 0.
(vi). By it’s fixed-vertex and it’s neutrosophic strong, all edges have same
amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is the same. All edges aren’t
type-VI. By it’s neutrosophic strong, there’s a vertex has t = ∆(N ) vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-VI. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {}. The type-VI chromatic number is 0 and n-type-VI chromatic
number is 0.
(vii). By it’s fixed-vertex and it’s neutrosophic strong, all edges have same
amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is the same. All edges aren’t
type-VII. By it’s neutrosophic strong, there’s a vertex has t = ∆(N ) vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-VII. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {}. The type-VII chromatic number is 0 and n-type-VII chromatic
number is 0. 
Proposition 9.9.5. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph which is strong and
path. If it’s fixed-edge, then
(i) : The set of representatives of colors is {vi , vj }. Thus type-I chromatic
number is 2 and n-type-I chromatic number is σ(vi ) + σ(vj ).
(ii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-II chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-II chromatic number is 0.
(iii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-III chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-III chromatic number is 0.
(iv) : The set of representatives of colors, type-IV chromatic number and n-type-
IV chromatic number aren’t defined.

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 9.9. Different Types of Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

(v) : The set of representatives of colors, type-V chromatic number and n-type-V
chromatic number aren’t defined.

(vi) : The set of representatives of colors, type-VI chromatic number and n-type-
VI chromatic number aren’t defined.

(vii) : The set of representatives of colors, type-VII chromatic number and n-

type-VII chromatic number aren’t defined.

Proof. (i). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given
edges is the same. All edges are type-I. By it’s neutrosophic strong, there’s a
vertex has 2 vertices which have common edges which are type-I. Thus the set
of representatives of colors is {vi , vj }. The type-I chromatic number is 2 and
n-type-I chromatic number is neutrosophic cardinality of {vi , vj }.
(ii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-II. By it’s neutrosophic strong, there’s a vertex
has 2 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-II. Thus the set of
representatives of colors is {}. The type-II chromatic number is 0 and n-type-II
chromatic number is 0.
(iii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-III. By it’s neutrosophic strong, there’s a
vertex has 2 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-III. Thus the
set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-III chromatic number is 0 and
n-type-III chromatic number is 0.
(iv). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-IV. Since it’s impossible to define when there’s
no cycle in neutrosophic graph.
(v). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-V. Since it’s impossible to define when there’s
no cycle in neutrosophic graph.
(vi). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-VI. Since it’s impossible to define when there’s
no cycle in neutrosophic graph.
(vii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-VII. Since it’s impossible to define when there’s
no cycle in neutrosophic graph. 

Proposition 9.9.6. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph which is strong and

path. If it’s fixed-vertex, then

(i) : The set of representatives of colors is {vi , vj }. Thus type-I chromatic

number is 2 and n-type-I chromatic number is 2σ(vi ).

(ii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-II chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-II chromatic number is 0.

(iii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-III chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-III chromatic number is 0.

(iv) : The set of representatives of colors, type-IV chromatic number and n-type-
IV chromatic number aren’t defined.

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 9. Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

(v) : The set of representatives of colors, type-V chromatic number and n-type-V
chromatic number aren’t defined.

(vi) : The set of representatives of colors, type-VI chromatic number and n-type-
VI chromatic number aren’t defined.

(vii) : The set of representatives of colors, type-VII chromatic number and n-

type-VII chromatic number aren’t defined.

Proof. (i). By it’s fixed-vertex and it’s neutrosophic strong, all edges have same
amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is the same. All edges are
type-I. By it’s neutrosophic strong, there’s a vertex has 2 vertices which have
common edges which are type-I. Thus the set of representatives of colors is
{vi , vj }. The type-I chromatic number is 2 and n-type-I chromatic number is
2σ(vi ).
(ii). By it’s fixed-vertex and it’s neutrosophic strong, all edges have same amount
so the connectedness amid two given edges is the same. All edges aren’t type-II.
By it’s neutrosophic strong, there’s a vertex has 2 vertices which have common
edges which aren’t type-II. Thus the set of representatives of colors is {}. The
type-II chromatic number is 0 and n-type-II chromatic number is 0.
(iii). By it’s fixed-vertex and it’s neutrosophic strong, all edges have same
amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is the same. All edges aren’t
type-III. By it’s neutrosophic strong, there’s a vertex has 2 vertices which have
common edges which aren’t type-III. Thus the set of representatives of colors is
{}. The type-III chromatic number is 0 and n-type-III chromatic number is 0.
(iv). By it’s fixed-vertex and it’s neutrosophic strong, all edges have same
amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is the same. All edges aren’t
type-IV. Since it’s impossible to define when there’s no cycle in neutrosophic
graph.
(v). By it’s fixed-vertex and it’s neutrosophic strong, all edges have same amount
so the connectedness amid two given edges is the same. All edges aren’t type-V.
Since it’s impossible to define when there’s no cycle in neutrosophic graph.
(vi). By it’s fixed-vertex and it’s neutrosophic strong, all edges have same
amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is the same. All edges aren’t
type-VI. Since it’s impossible to define when there’s no cycle in neutrosophic
graph.
(vii). By it’s fixed-vertex and it’s neutrosophic strong, all edges have same
amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is the same. All edges aren’t
type-VII. Since it’s impossible to define when there’s no cycle in neutrosophic
graph. 

Proposition 9.9.7. Let N = (σ, µ) be an even cycle. If it’s fixed-edge, then

(i) : The set of representatives of colors is {vi , vj }. Thus type-I chromatic

number is 2 and n-type-I chromatic number is σ(vi ) + σ(vj ).

(ii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-II chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-II chromatic number is 0.

(iii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-III chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-III chromatic number is 0.

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 9.9. Different Types of Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

(iv) : The set of representatives of colors is {vi , vj }. Thus type-IV chromatic

number is 2 and n-type-IV chromatic number is σ(vi ) + σ(vj ).

(v) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-V chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-V chromatic number is 0.

(vi) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VI chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VI chromatic number is 0.

(vii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VII chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VII chromatic number is 0.

Proof. (i). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given
edges is the same. All edges are type-I. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which are type-I. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {vi , vj }. The type-I chromatic number is 2 and n-type-I chromatic
number is neutrosophic cardinality of {vi , vj }.
(ii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-II. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-II. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {}. The type-II chromatic number is 0 and n-type-II chromatic
number is 0.
(iii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-III. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-III. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {}. The type-III chromatic number is 0 and n-type-III chromatic
number is 0.
(iv). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges are type-IV. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which are type-IV. By deletion of one edge, it’s
possible to compute connectedness. Thus the set of representatives of colors is
{vi , vj }. The type-IV chromatic number is 2 and n-type-IV chromatic number
is neutrosophic cardinality of {vi , vj }.
(v). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-III. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-III. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {}. The type-III chromatic number is 0 and n-type-III chromatic
number is 0.
(vi). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-III. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-III. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {}. The type-III chromatic number is 0 and n-type-III chromatic
number is 0.
(vii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-III. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-III. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {}. The type-III chromatic number is 0 and n-type-III chromatic
number is 0. 

Proposition 9.9.8. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph which is strong and

even cycle. If it’s fixed-vertex, then

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 9. Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

(i) : The set of representatives of colors is {vi , vj }. Thus type-I chromatic

number is 2 and n-type-I chromatic number is 2σ(vi ).

(ii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-II chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-II chromatic number is 0.

(iii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-III chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-III chromatic number is 0.

(iv) : The set of representatives of colors is {vi , vj }. Thus type-IV chromatic

number is 2 and n-type-IV chromatic number is 2σ(vi ).

(v) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-V chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-V chromatic number is 0.

(vi) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VI chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VI chromatic number is 0.

(vii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VII chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VII chromatic number is 0.

Proof. (i). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given
edges is the same. All edges are type-I. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which are type-I. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {vi , vj }. The type-I chromatic number is 2 and n-type-I chromatic
number is neutrosophic cardinality of {vi , vj } which is 2σ(vi ).
(ii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-II. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-II. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {}. The type-II chromatic number is 0 and n-type-II chromatic
number is 0.
(iii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-III. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-III. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {}. The type-III chromatic number is 0 and n-type-III chromatic
number is 0.
(iv). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges are type-IV. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which are type-IV. By deletion of one edge, it’s
possible to compute connectedness. Thus the set of representatives of colors is
{vi , vj }. The type-IV chromatic number is 2 and n-type-IV chromatic number
is neutrosophic cardinality of {vi , vj } which is 2σ(vi ).
(v). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-III. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-III. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {}. The type-III chromatic number is 0 and n-type-III chromatic
number is 0.
(vi). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-III. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-III. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {}. The type-III chromatic number is 0 and n-type-III chromatic
number is 0.

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 9.9. Different Types of Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

(vii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-III. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-III. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {}. The type-III chromatic number is 0 and n-type-III chromatic
number is 0. 

Proposition 9.9.9. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph which is an odd

cycle. If it’s fixed-edge, then
(i) : The set of representatives of colors is {vi , vj , vk }. Thus type-I chromatic
number is 2 and n-type-I chromatic number is σ(vi ) + σ(vj ) + σ(vk ).
(ii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-II chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-II chromatic number is 0.
(iii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-III chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-III chromatic number is 0.
(iv) : The set of representatives of colors is {vi , vj , vk }. Thus type-IV chromatic
number is 2 and n-type-IV chromatic number is σ(vi ) + σ(vj ) + σ(vk ).
(v) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-V chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-V chromatic number is 0.
(vi) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VI chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VI chromatic number is 0.
(vii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VII chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VII chromatic number is 0.

Proof. (i). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given
edges is the same. All edges are type-I. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which are type-I. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {vi , vj }. The type-I chromatic number is 2 and n-type-I chromatic
number is neutrosophic cardinality of {vi , vj , vk } which is σ(vi ) + σ(vj ) + σ(vk ).
(ii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-II. By it’s neutrosophic strong, there’s a vertex
has 2 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-II. Thus the set of
representatives of colors is {}. The type-II chromatic number is 0 and n-type-II
chromatic number is 0.
(iii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-III. By it’s neutrosophic strong, there’s a
vertex has 2 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-III. Thus the
set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-III chromatic number is 0 and
n-type-III chromatic number is 0.
(iv). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges are type-IV. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which are type-IV. Thus the set of representatives of
colors is {vi , vj }. The type-IV chromatic number is 2 and n-type-IV chromatic
number is neutrosophic cardinality of {vi , vj , vk } which is σ(vi ) + σ(vj ) + σ(vk ).
(v). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-V. By it’s neutrosophic strong, there’s a vertex
has 2 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-V. Thus the set of

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 9. Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

representatives of colors is {}. The type-V chromatic number is 0 and n-type-V

chromatic number is 0.
(vi). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-VI. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-VI. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {}. The type-VI chromatic number is 0 and n-type-VI chromatic
number is 0.
(vii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-VII. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-VII. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {}. The type-VII chromatic number is 0 and n-type-VII chromatic
number is 0. 

Proposition 9.9.10. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph which is strong

and odd cycle. If it’s fixed-vertex, then

(i) : The set of representatives of colors is {vi , vj , vk }. Thus type-I chromatic

number is 2 and n-type-I chromatic number is 3σ(vi ).

(ii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-II chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-II chromatic number is 0.

(iii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-III chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-III chromatic number is 0.

(iv) : The set of representatives of colors is {vi , vj , vk }. Thus type-IV chromatic

number is 2 and n-type-IV chromatic number is 3σ(vi ).

(v) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-V chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-V chromatic number is 0.

(vi) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VI chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VI chromatic number is 0.

(vii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VII chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VII chromatic number is 0.

Proof. (i). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given
edges is the same. All edges are type-I. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which are type-I. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {vi , vj }. The type-I chromatic number is 2 and n-type-I chromatic
number is neutrosophic cardinality of {vi , vj , vk } which is 3σ(vi ).
(ii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-II. By it’s neutrosophic strong, there’s a vertex
has 2 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-II. Thus the set of
representatives of colors is {}. The type-II chromatic number is 0 and n-type-II
chromatic number is 0.
(iii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-III. By it’s neutrosophic strong, there’s a
vertex has 2 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-III. Thus the
set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-III chromatic number is 0 and
n-type-III chromatic number is 0.

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 9.9. Different Types of Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

(iv). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges are type-IV. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which are type-IV. Thus the set of representatives of
colors is {vi , vj }. The type-IV chromatic number is 2 and n-type-IV chromatic
number is neutrosophic cardinality of {vi , vj , vk } which is 3σ(vi ).
(v). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-V. By it’s neutrosophic strong, there’s a vertex
has 2 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-V. Thus the set of
representatives of colors is {}. The type-V chromatic number is 0 and n-type-V
chromatic number is 0.
(vi). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-VI. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-VI. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {}. The type-VI chromatic number is 0 and n-type-VI chromatic
number is 0.
(vii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-VII. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-VII. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {}. The type-VII chromatic number is 0 and n-type-VII chromatic
number is 0. 

Proposition 9.9.11. Let N = (σ, µ) be an even wheel. If it’s fixed-edge, then

(i) : The set of representatives of colors is {vi , vj , vk }. Thus type-I chromatic

number is 2 and n-type-I chromatic number is σ(vi ) + σ(vj ) + σ(vk ).

(ii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-II chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-II chromatic number is 0.

(iii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-III chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-III chromatic number is 0.

(iv) : The set of representatives of colors is {vi , vj , vk }. Thus type-IV chromatic

number is 3 and n-type-IV chromatic number is σ(vi ) + σ(vj ) + σ(vk ).

(v) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-V chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-V chromatic number is 0.

(vi) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VI chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VI chromatic number is 0.

(vii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VII chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VII chromatic number is 0.

Proof. (i). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given
edges is the same. All edges are type-I. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which are type-I. Thus the set of representatives of
colors is {vi , vj , vk }. The type-I chromatic number is 3 and n-type-I chromatic
number is neutrosophic cardinality of {vi , vj , vk } which is σ(vi ) + σ(vj ) + σ(vk ).
(ii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-II. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-II. Thus the set of representatives

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 9. Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

of colors is {}. The type-II chromatic number is 0 and n-type-II chromatic

number is 0.
(iii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-III. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-III. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {}. The type-III chromatic number is 0 and n-type-III chromatic
number is 0.
(iv). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges are type-IV. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which are type-IV. By deletion of one edge, it’s
possible to compute connectedness. Thus the set of representatives of colors
is {vi , vj , vk }. The type-IV chromatic number is 3 and n-type-IV chromatic
number is neutrosophic cardinality of {vi , vj , vk } which is σ(vi ) + σ(vj ) + σ(vk ).
(v). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-III. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-III. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {}. The type-III chromatic number is 0 and n-type-III chromatic
number is 0.
(vi). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-III. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-III. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {}. The type-III chromatic number is 0 and n-type-III chromatic
number is 0.
(vii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-III. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-III. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {}. The type-III chromatic number is 0 and n-type-III chromatic
number is 0. 

Proposition 9.9.12. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph which is strong

and even wheel. If it’s fixed-vertex, then

(i) : The set of representatives of colors is {vi , vj , vk }. Thus type-I chromatic

number is 3 and n-type-I chromatic number is 3σ(vi ).

(ii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-II chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-II chromatic number is 0.

(iii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-III chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-III chromatic number is 0.

(iv) : The set of representatives of colors is {vi , vj , vk }. Thus type-IV chromatic

number is 3 and n-type-IV chromatic number is 3σ(vi ).

(v) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-V chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-V chromatic number is 0.

(vi) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VI chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VI chromatic number is 0.

(vii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VII chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VII chromatic number is 0.

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 9.9. Different Types of Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

Proof. (i). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given
edges is the same. All edges are type-I. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which are type-I. Thus the set of representatives of
colors is {vi , vj , vk }. The type-I chromatic number is 3 and n-type-I chromatic
number is neutrosophic cardinality of {vi , vj , vk } which is 3σ(vi ).
(ii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-II. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-II. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {}. The type-II chromatic number is 0 and n-type-II chromatic
number is 0.
(iii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-III. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-III. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {}. The type-III chromatic number is 0 and n-type-III chromatic
number is 0.
(iv). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges are type-IV. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 3 vertices
which have common edges which are type-IV. By deletion of one edge, it’s
possible to compute connectedness. Thus the set of representatives of colors
is {vi , vj , vk }. The type-IV chromatic number is 3 and n-type-IV chromatic
number is neutrosophic cardinality of {vi , vj , vk } which is 3σ(vi ).
(v). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-III. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-III. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {}. The type-III chromatic number is 0 and n-type-III chromatic
number is 0.
(vi). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-III. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-III. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {}. The type-III chromatic number is 0 and n-type-III chromatic
number is 0.
(vii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-III. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-III. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {}. The type-III chromatic number is 0 and n-type-III chromatic
number is 0. 
Proposition 9.9.13. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph which is an odd
wheel. If it’s fixed-edge, then
(i) : The set of representatives of colors is {vi , vj , vk , vs }. Thus type-I chromatic
number is 4 and n-type-I chromatic number is σ(vi )+σ(vj )+σ(vk )+σ(vs ).
(ii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-II chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-II chromatic number is 0.
(iii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-III chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-III chromatic number is 0.
(iv) : The set of representatives of colors is {vi , vj , vk , vs }. Thus type-IV
chromatic number is 2 and n-type-IV chromatic number is σ(vi ) + σ(vj ) +
σ(vk ) + σ(vs ).

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 9. Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

(v) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-V chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-V chromatic number is 0.
(vi) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VI chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VI chromatic number is 0.
(vii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VII chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VII chromatic number is 0.
Proof. (i). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given
edges is the same. All edges are type-I. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which are type-I. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {vi , vj , vk , vs }. The type-I chromatic number is 4 and n-type-
I chromatic number is neutrosophic cardinality of {vi , vj , vk , vs } which is
σ(vi ) + σ(vj ) + σ(vk ) + σ(vs ).
(ii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-II. By it’s neutrosophic strong, there’s a vertex
has 2 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-II. Thus the set of
representatives of colors is {}. The type-II chromatic number is 0 and n-type-II
chromatic number is 0.
(iii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-III. By it’s neutrosophic strong, there’s a
vertex has 2 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-III. Thus the
set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-III chromatic number is 0 and
n-type-III chromatic number is 0.
(iv). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges are type-IV. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which are type-IV. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {vi , vj , vk , vs }. The type-IV chromatic number is 4 and n-type-
IV chromatic number is neutrosophic cardinality of {vi , vj , vk , vs } which is
σ(vi ) + σ(vj ) + σ(vk ) + σ(vs ).
(v). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-V. By it’s neutrosophic strong, there’s a vertex
has 2 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-V. Thus the set of
representatives of colors is {}. The type-V chromatic number is 0 and n-type-V
chromatic number is 0.
(vi). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-VI. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-VI. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {}. The type-VI chromatic number is 0 and n-type-VI chromatic
number is 0.
(vii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-VII. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-VII. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {}. The type-VII chromatic number is 0 and n-type-VII chromatic
number is 0. 
Proposition 9.9.14. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph which is strong
and odd wheel. If it’s fixed-vertex, then
(i) : The set of representatives of colors is {vi , vj , vk , vs }. Thus type-I chromatic
number is 4 and n-type-I chromatic number is 4σ(vi ).

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 9.9. Different Types of Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

(ii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-II chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-II chromatic number is 0.

(iii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-III chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-III chromatic number is 0.

(iv) : The set of representatives of colors is {vi , vj , vk , vs }. Thus type-IV

chromatic number is 4 and n-type-IV chromatic number is 4σ(vi ).

(v) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-V chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-V chromatic number is 0.

(vi) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VI chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VI chromatic number is 0.

(vii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VII chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VII chromatic number is 0.

Proof. (i). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given
edges is the same. All edges are type-I. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which are type-I. Thus the set of representatives of
colors is {vi , vj , vk , vs }. The type-I chromatic number is 4 and n-type-I chromatic
number is neutrosophic cardinality of {vi , vj , vk , vs } which is 4σ(vi ).
(ii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-II. By it’s neutrosophic strong, there’s a vertex
has 2 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-II. Thus the set of
representatives of colors is {}. The type-II chromatic number is 0 and n-type-II
chromatic number is 0.
(iii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-III. By it’s neutrosophic strong, there’s a
vertex has 2 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-III. Thus the
set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-III chromatic number is 0 and
n-type-III chromatic number is 0.
(iv). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges are type-IV. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices which
have common edges which are type-IV. Thus the set of representatives of colors
is {vi , vj , vk , vs }. The type-IV chromatic number is 4 and n-type-IV chromatic
number is neutrosophic cardinality of {vi , vj , vk , vs } which is 4σ(vi ).
(v). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-V. By it’s neutrosophic strong, there’s a vertex
has 2 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-V. Thus the set of
representatives of colors is {}. The type-V chromatic number is 0 and n-type-V
chromatic number is 0.
(vi). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-VI. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-VI. Thus the set of representatives
of colors is {}. The type-VI chromatic number is 0 and n-type-VI chromatic
number is 0.
(vii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-VII. By it’s cycle, all vertices have 2 vertices
which have common edges which aren’t type-VII. Thus the set of representatives

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 9. Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

of colors is {}. The type-VII chromatic number is 0 and n-type-VII chromatic

number is 0. 

Proposition 9.9.15. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph which is complete

t−partite. If it’s fixed-edge, then
(i) : The set of representatives of colors is {v1 , v2 , · · · , vt }. Thus type-I
chromatic number is t and n-type-I chromatic number is σ(v1 ) + σ(v2 ) +
· · · + σ(vt ).
(ii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-II chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-II chromatic number is 0.
(iii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-III chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-III chromatic number is 0.
(iv) : The set of representatives of colors is {v1 , v2 , · · · , vt }. Thus type-IV
chromatic number is t and n-type-IV chromatic number is σ(v1 ) + σ(v2 ) +
· · · + σ(vt ).
(v) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-V chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-V chromatic number is 0.
(vi) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VI chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VI chromatic number is 0.
(vii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VII chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VII chromatic number is 0.

Proof. (i). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given
edges is the same. All edges are type-I. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s a
vertex has t − 1 which have common edges which are type-I. Thus the set of
representatives of colors is {v1 , v2 , · · · , vt }. The type-I chromatic number is t
and n-type-I chromatic number is neutrosophic cardinality of {v1 , v2 , · · · , vt }
which is σ(v1 ) + σ(v2 ) + · · · + σ(vt ).
(ii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-II. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s a
vertex has t − 1 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-II. Thus
the set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-II chromatic number is 0 and
n-type-II chromatic number is 0.
(iii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-III. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s a
vertex has t − 1 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-III. Thus
the set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-III chromatic number is 0
and n-type-III chromatic number is 0.
(iv). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges are type-IV. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s a vertex
has t − 1 vertices which have common edges which are type-IV. Thus the set of
representatives of colors is {v1 , v2 , · · · , vt }. The type-IV chromatic number is t
and n-type-IV chromatic number is neutrosophic cardinality of {v1 , v2 , · · · , vt }
which is σ(v1 ) + σ(v2 ) + · · · + σ(vt ).
(v). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-V. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s a

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 9.9. Different Types of Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

vertex has t − 1 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-V. Thus
the set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-V chromatic number is 0 and
n-type-V chromatic number is 0.
(vi). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-VI. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s a
vertex has t − 1 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-VI. Thus
the set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-VI chromatic number is 0
and n-type-VI chromatic number is 0.
(vii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-VII. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s a
vertex has t − 1 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-VII. Thus
the set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-VII chromatic number is 0
and n-type-VII chromatic number is 0. 

Proposition 9.9.16. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph which is complete

t−partite. If it’s fixed-vertex, then

(i) : The set of representatives of colors is {v1 , v2 , · · · , vt }. Thus type-I

chromatic number is t and n-type-I chromatic number is tσ(vi ).

(ii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-II chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-II chromatic number is 0.

(iii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-III chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-III chromatic number is 0.

(iv) : The set of representatives of colors is {v1 , v2 , · · · , vt }. Thus type-IV

chromatic number is t and n-type-IV chromatic number is tσ(vi ).

(v) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-V chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-V chromatic number is 0.

(vi) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VI chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VI chromatic number is 0.

(vii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VII chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VII chromatic number is 0.

Proof. (i). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given
edges is the same. All edges are type-I. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s a
vertex has t−1 vertices which have common edges which are type-I. Thus the set
of representatives of colors is {v1 , v2 , · · · , vt }. The type-I chromatic number is t
and n-type-I chromatic number is neutrosophic cardinality of {v1 , v2 , · · · , vt }.
which is tσ(vi ).
(ii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-II. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s a
vertex has t − 1 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-II. Thus
the set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-II chromatic number is 0 and
n-type-II chromatic number is 0.
(iii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-III. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s a
vertex has t − 1 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-III. Thus

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 9. Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

the set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-III chromatic number is 0

and n-type-III chromatic number is 0.
(iv). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges are type-IV. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s a vertex
has t − 1 vertices which have common edges which are type-IV. Thus the set of
representatives of colors is {v1 , v2 , · · · , vt }. The type-IV chromatic number is t
and n-type-IV chromatic number is neutrosophic c{v1 , v2 , · · · , vt }.{vi , vj , vk , vs }
which is tσ(vi ).
(v). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-V. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s a
vertex has t − 1 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-V. Thus
the set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-V chromatic number is 0 and
n-type-V chromatic number is 0.
(vi). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-VI. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s a
vertex has t − 1 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-VI. Thus
the set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-VI chromatic number is 0
and n-type-VI chromatic number is 0.
(vii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-VII. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s a
vertex has t − 1 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-VII. Thus
the set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-VII chromatic number is 0
and n-type-VII chromatic number is 0. 

Corollary 9.9.17. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph which is complete

bipartite. If it’s fixed-edge, then

(i) : The set of representatives of colors is {v1 , v2 }. Thus type-I chromatic

number is 2 and n-type-I chromatic number is σ(v1 ) + σ(v2 ).

(ii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-II chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-II chromatic number is 0.

(iii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-III chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-III chromatic number is 0.

(iv) : The set of representatives of colors is {v1 , v2 }. Thus type-IV chromatic

number is 2 and n-type-IV chromatic number is σ(v1 ) + σ(v2 ).

(v) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-V chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-V chromatic number is 0.

(vi) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VI chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VI chromatic number is 0.

(vii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VII chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VII chromatic number is 0.

Proof. (i). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given
edges is the same. All edges are type-I. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s
a vertex has 1 which have common edges which are type-I. Thus the set of
representatives of colors is {v1 , v2 }. The type-I chromatic number is 2 and

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 9.9. Different Types of Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

n-type-I chromatic number is neutrosophic cardinality of {v1 , v2 } which is

σ(v1 ) + σ(v2 ).
(ii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-II. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s a
vertex has 1 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-II. Thus the
set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-II chromatic number is 0 and
n-type-II chromatic number is 0.
(iii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-III. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s a
vertex has 1 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-III. Thus the
set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-III chromatic number is 0 and
n-type-III chromatic number is 0.
(iv). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges are type-IV. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s a
vertex has 1 vertices which have common edges which are type-IV. Thus the
set of representatives of colors is {v1 , v2 }. The type-IV chromatic number is 2
and n-type-IV chromatic number is neutrosophic cardinality of {v1 , v2 } which
is σ(v1 ) + σ(v2 ).
(v). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-V. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s a
vertex has 1 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-V. Thus the
set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-V chromatic number is 0 and
n-type-V chromatic number is 0.
(vi). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-VI. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s a
vertex has 1 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-VI. Thus the
set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-VI chromatic number is 0 and
n-type-VI chromatic number is 0.
(vii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-VII. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s a
vertex has 1 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-VII. Thus
the set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-VII chromatic number is 0
and n-type-VII chromatic number is 0. 

Corollary 9.9.18. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph which is complete

bipartite. If it’s fixed-vertex, then

(i) : The set of representatives of colors is {v1 , v2 }. Thus type-I chromatic

number is 2 and n-type-I chromatic number is 2σ(vi ).

(ii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-II chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-II chromatic number is 0.

(iii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-III chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-III chromatic number is 0.

(iv) : The set of representatives of colors is {v1 , v2 }. Thus type-IV chromatic

number is t and n-type-IV chromatic number is 2σ(vi ).

(v) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-V chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-V chromatic number is 0.

411
 9. Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

(vi) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VI chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VI chromatic number is 0.

(vii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-VII chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-VII chromatic number is 0.

Proof. (i). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given
edges is the same. All edges are type-I. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s
a vertex has 1 vertices which have common edges which are type-I. Thus the
set of representatives of colors is {v1 , v2 }. The type-I chromatic number is 2
and n-type-I chromatic number is neutrosophic cardinality of {v1 , v2 }. which is
2σ(vi ).
(ii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-II. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s a
vertex has 1 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-II. Thus the
set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-II chromatic number is 0 and
n-type-II chromatic number is 0.
(iii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-III. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s a
vertex has 1 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-III. Thus the
set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-III chromatic number is 0 and
n-type-III chromatic number is 0.
(iv). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges are type-IV. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s a
vertex has 1 vertices which have common edges which are type-IV. Thus the
set of representatives of colors is {v1 , v2 }. The type-IV chromatic number is 2
and n-type-IV chromatic number is neutrosophic {v1 , v2 } which is 2σ(vi ).
(v). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-V. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s a
vertex has 1 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-V. Thus the
set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-V chromatic number is 0 and
n-type-V chromatic number is 0.
(vi). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-VI. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s a
vertex has 1 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-VI. Thus the
set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-VI chromatic number is 0 and
n-type-VI chromatic number is 0.
(vii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-VII. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s a
vertex has 1 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-VII. Thus
the set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-VII chromatic number is 0
and n-type-VII chromatic number is 0. 

Corollary 9.9.19. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph which is star. If it’s

fixed-edge, then

(i) : The set of representatives of colors is {c, v2 }. Thus type-I chromatic

number is 2 and n-type-I chromatic number is σ(c) + σ(v2 ).

(ii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-II chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-II chromatic number is 0.

412
 9.9. Different Types of Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

(iii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-III chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-III chromatic number is 0.

(iv) : The set of representatives of colors, type-IV chromatic number and n-type-
IV chromatic number aren’t defined.

(v) : The set of representatives of colors, type-V chromatic number and n-type-V
chromatic number aren’t defined.

(vi) : The set of representatives of colors, type-VI chromatic number and n-type-
VI chromatic number aren’t defined.

(vii) : The set of representatives of colors, type-VII chromatic number and n-

type-VII chromatic number aren’t defined.

Proof. (i). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given
edges is the same. All edges are type-I. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s
a vertex has 1 which have common edges which are type-I. Thus the set of
representatives of colors is {v1 , v2 }. The type-I chromatic number is 2 and
n-type-I chromatic number is neutrosophic cardinality of {v1 , v2 } which is
σ(v1 ) + σ(v2 ).
(ii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-II. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s a
vertex has 1 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-II. Thus the
set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-II chromatic number is 0 and
n-type-II chromatic number is 0.
(iii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-III. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s a
vertex has 1 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-III. Thus the
set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-III chromatic number is 0 and
n-type-III chromatic number is 0.
(iv). By it’s fixed-vertex and it’s neutrosophic strong, all edges have same
amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is the same. All edges aren’t
type-IV. Since it’s impossible to define when there’s no cycle in neutrosophic
graph.
(v). By it’s fixed-vertex and it’s neutrosophic strong, all edges have same amount
so the connectedness amid two given edges is the same. All edges aren’t type-V.
Since it’s impossible to define when there’s no cycle in neutrosophic graph.
(vi). By it’s fixed-vertex and it’s neutrosophic strong, all edges have same
amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is the same. All edges aren’t
type-VI. Since it’s impossible to define when there’s no cycle in neutrosophic
graph.
(vii). By it’s fixed-vertex and it’s neutrosophic strong, all edges have same
amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is the same. All edges aren’t
type-VII. Since it’s impossible to define when there’s no cycle in neutrosophic
graph.


Corollary 9.9.20. Let N = (σ, µ) be a neutrosophic graph which is star. If it’s

fixed-vertex, then

413
 9. Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

(i) : The set of representatives of colors is {v1 , c}. Thus type-I chromatic
number is 2 and n-type-I chromatic number is 2σ(c).

(ii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-II chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-II chromatic number is 0.

(iii) : The set of representatives of colors is {}. Thus type-III chromatic number
is 0 and n-type-III chromatic number is 0.

(iv) : The set of representatives of colors, type-IV chromatic number and n-type-
IV chromatic number aren’t defined.

(v) : The set of representatives of colors, type-V chromatic number and n-type-V
chromatic number aren’t defined.

(vi) : The set of representatives of colors, type-VI chromatic number and n-type-
VI chromatic number aren’t defined.

(vii) : The set of representatives of colors, type-VII chromatic number and n-

type-VII chromatic number aren’t defined.

Proof. (i). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given
edges is the same. All edges are type-I. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s
a vertex has 1 vertices which have common edges which are type-I. Thus the
set of representatives of colors is {c, v2 }. The type-I chromatic number is 2 and
n-type-I chromatic number is neutrosophic cardinality of {c, v2 }. which is 2σ(c).
(ii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges
is the same. All edges aren’t type-II. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s a
vertex has 1 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-II. Thus the
set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-II chromatic number is 0 and
n-type-II chromatic number is 0.
(iii). All edges have same amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is
the same. All edges aren’t type-III. By it’s neutrosophic complete, there’s a
vertex has 1 vertices which have common edges which aren’t type-III. Thus the
set of representatives of colors is {}. The type-III chromatic number is 0 and
n-type-III chromatic number is 0.
(iv). By it’s fixed-vertex and it’s neutrosophic strong, all edges have same
amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is the same. All edges aren’t
type-IV. Since it’s impossible to define when there’s no cycle in neutrosophic
graph.
(v). By it’s fixed-vertex and it’s neutrosophic strong, all edges have same amount
so the connectedness amid two given edges is the same. All edges aren’t type-V.
Since it’s impossible to define when there’s no cycle in neutrosophic graph.
(vi). By it’s fixed-vertex and it’s neutrosophic strong, all edges have same
amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is the same. All edges aren’t
type-VI. Since it’s impossible to define when there’s no cycle in neutrosophic
graph.
(vii). By it’s fixed-vertex and it’s neutrosophic strong, all edges have same
amount so the connectedness amid two given edges is the same. All edges aren’t
type-VII. Since it’s impossible to define when there’s no cycle in neutrosophic
graph. 

414
 9.9. Different Types of Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

Applications in Time Table and Scheduling

Designing the programs to achieve some goals is general approach to apply on
some issues to function properly. Separation has key role in the context of this
style. Separating the duration of work which are consecutive, is the matter and
it has important to avoid mixing up.
Step 1. (Definition) Time table is an approach to get some attributes to do
the work fast and proper. The style of scheduling implies special attention
to the tasks which are consecutive.
Step 2. (Issue) Scheduling of program has faced with difficulties to differ amid
consecutive section. Beyond that, sometimes sections are not the same.
Step 3. (Model) As Figure (9.7), the situation is designed as a model. The
model uses data to assign every section and to assign to relation amid
section, three numbers belong unit interval to state indeterminacy,
possibilities and determinacy. There’s one restriction in that, the numbers
amid two sections are at least the number of the relation amid them.
Table (10.1), clarifies about the assigned numbers to these situation.

Figure 9.7: Black vertices are suspicions about choosing them. fgr1c

Table 9.5: Scheduling concerns its Subjects and its Connections as a

Neutrosophic Graph in a Model. tbl1c

Sections of T s1 s2 s3 s4 s5 s6 s7 s8 s9 , s10
Values 0.1 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.1 0.3 0.6 0.5 0.2
Connections of T s1 s2 s2 s3 s3 s4 s4 s5 s5 s6 s6 s7 s7 s8 s8 s9 s9 s10
Values 0.1 0.6 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.1

Step 4. (Solution) As Figure (9.7) shows, neutrosophic model, proposes to

use different types of chromatic number which is incomputable for types
IV,V,VI,VII in the case which is titled T 0 . In this case, i1 and c1 aren’t
representative of these two colors and different types of chromatic number
is incomputable for types IV,V,VI,VII. The set {i1 , c1 } doesn’t contain

415
9. Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

representatives of colors which pose different types of chromatic number

and different types of chromatic number for types IV,V,VI,VII. Thus the
decision amid choosing the subject c1 an c2 isn’t concluded to choose
c1 for types IV,V,VI,VII. To get brief overview, neutrosophic model
uses one number for every array so 0.9 means (0.9, 0.9, 0.9). In Figure
(9.7), the neutrosophic model T introduces the common situation. The
representatives of colors are i2 and c1 . Thus different types of chromatic
numbers is two for types I and IV and different types of neutrosophic
chromatic number is 1.4 for types I and IV. Thus suspicion about choosing
i1 and i2 is determined to be i2 . The sets of representative for colors
are {i2 , c1 } for types I and IV. Thus the comparative studies based on
different types of chromatic number and neutrosophic chromatic number
are concluded.

Open Problems
The two notions of coloring of vertices concerning different types of chromatic
number and different types of neutrosophic chromatic number are defined on
neutrosophic graphs when connectedness and as its consequences, different
types of edges have key role to have these notions. Thus
Question 9.9.21. Is it possible to use other types edges via connectedness to
define different types of chromatic number and different types of neutrosophic
chromatic number?
Question 9.9.22. Are existed some connections amid the coloring from
connectedness inside this concept and external connections with other types
of coloring from other notions?
Question 9.9.23. Is it possible to construct some classes neutrosophic graphs
which have “nice” behavior?
Question 9.9.24. Which applications do make an independent study to apply
different types of chromatic number and different types of neutrosophic chromatic
number?
Problem 9.9.25. Which parameters are related to this parameter?
Problem 9.9.26. Which approaches do work to construct applications to create
independent study?
Problem 9.9.27. Which approaches do work to construct definitions which use
all three arrays and the relations amid them instead of one array of three arrays
to create independent study?

Conclusion and Closing Remarks

This study uses mixed combinations of different types of chromatic number
and different types of neutrosophic chromatic number to study on neutrosophic
graphs. The connections of vertices which are clarified by special edges and
different edges from connectedness, differ them from each other and and put
them in different categories to represent one representative for each color.
Further studies could be about changes in the settings to compare this notion

416
 9.9. Different Types of Neutrosophic Chromatic Number

amid different settings of graph theory. One way is finding some relations amid
array of vertices to make sensible definitions. In Table (9.4), some limitations
and advantages of this study is pointed out.

Table 9.6: A Brief Overview about Advantages and Limitations of this study tbl2c

Advantages Limitations
1. Using connectedness for labelling edges 1. General Results

2. Using neutrosophic cardinality

3. Using cardinality 2. Connections with parameters

4. Applying Different Types of Edges

5. Different Types of Chromatic Notions 3. Connections of Results

417
 Bibliography

Ref1 [1] Henry Garrett, Big Sets Of Vertices, Preprints 2021, 2021060189 (doi:
10.20944/preprints202106.0189.v1).
Ref10 [2] Henry Garrett, Chromatic Number and Neutrosophic Chromatic Number,
ResearchGate 2021 (doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.36035.73766).
Ref12 [3] Henry Garrett, Different Types of Neutrosophic Chromatic Number,
ResearchGate 2021 (doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.19068.46723).
Ref2 [4] Henry Garrett, Locating And Location Number, Preprints 2021,
2021060206 (doi: 10.20944/preprints202106.0206.v1).
Ref9 [5] Henry Garrett, Matroid And Its Outlines, Preprints 2021, 2021060146
(doi: 10.20944/preprints202106.0146.v1).
Ref3 [6] Henry Garrett, Metric Dimension in Fuzzy Graphs and Neutro-
sophic Graphs, Preprints 2021, 2021110142 (doi: 10.20944/pre-
prints202111.0142.v1).
Ref4 [7] Henry Garrett, Metric Dimension in fuzzy (neutrsophic) Graphs-II,
Preprints 2021, 2021110142 (doi: 10.20944/preprints202111.0142.v2).
Ref6 [8] Henry Garrett, Metric Dimensions Of Graphs, Preprints 2021, 2021060392
(doi: 10.20944/preprints202106.0392.v1).
Ref5 [9] Henry Garrett, Metric Dimensions Of Graphs #12, ResearchGate 2021
(doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.20690.48322).
Ref11 [10] Henry Garrett, Neutrosophic Chromatic Number Based on Connectedness,
ResearchGate 2021 (doi: 10.13140/RG.2.2.18563.84001).
Ref7 [11] Henry Garrett, New Graph Of Graph, Preprints 2021, 2021060323 (doi:
10.20944/preprints202106.0323.v1).
Ref8 [12] Henry Garrett, Numbers Based On Edges, Preprints 2021, 2021060315
(doi: 10.20944/preprints202106.0315.v1).

419
 CHAPTER 10

Neutrosophic Hypergraphs

10.1 Acknowledgements

The words of mind and the minds

of words, are too eligible to be in
the stage of acknowledgements

he author is going to say his gratitude and his appreciation about the brains
and their hands which are showing the importance of words in the framework
of every wisdom, knowledge, arts and emotions which are streaming in the
lines from the words, notions, ideas and approaches to have the material which
is only the way to flourish the minds, the growing the notions, advancing ways
and making the stable ways to be amid the events and storms of minds for
surviving from them and making the outstanding experiences about the tools
and ideas to be on the star lines of words and shining like stars, forever.

10.2 Numbers and Sets

Based on some ideas, numbers
and sets are defined in the ways
that, some results are obtained.
Thus it’s an open way to have
well-understandable structures
and well-defined ideas from
neutrosophic hypergraphs.
m

10.3 Preliminaries
Definition 10.3.1. (Graph).
G = (V, E) is called a graph if V is a set of objects and E is a subset of V × V
(E is a set of 2-subsets of V ) where V is called vertex set and E is called
edge set. Every two vertices have been corresponded to at most one edge.
Definition 10.3.2. (Hypergraph).

421
 10. Neutrosophic Hypergraphs

H = (V, E) is called a hypergraph if V is a set of objects and for every

nonnegative integer t ≤ n, E is a set of t−subsets of V where V is called
vertex set and E is called hyperedge set.
Definition 10.3.3. (Neutrosophic Hypergraph).
N HG = (V, E, σ = (σ1 , σ2 , σ3 ), µ = (µ1 , µ2 , µ3 )) is called a neutrosophic
hypergraph if it’s hypergraph, σi : V → [0, 1], µi : E → [0, 1], and for every
v1 v2 · · · vt ∈ E,

µ(v1 v2 · · · vt ) ≤ σ(v1 ) ∧ σ(v2 ) ∧ · · · σ(vt ).

(i) : σ is called neutrosophic vertex set.

(ii) : µ is called neutrosophic hyperedge set.
(iii) : |V | is called order of NHG and it’s denoted by O(N HG).
(iv) : Σv∈V σ(v) is called neutrosophic order of NHG and it’s denoted by
On (N HG).
(vi) : |E| is called size of NHG and it’s denoted by S(N HG).
(vii) : Σe∈E µ(e) is called neutrosophic size of NHG and it’s denoted by
Sn (N HG).
Example 10.3.4. Assume Figure (10.5).
(i) : Neutrosophic hyperedge n1 n2 n3 has three neutrosophic vertices.
(ii) : Neutrosophic hyperedge n3 n4 n5 n6 has four neutrosophic vertices.
(iii) : Neutrosophic hyperedge n1 n7 n8 n9 n5 n6 has six neutrosophic vertices.
(iv) : σ = {(n1 , (0.99, 0.98, 0.55)), (n2 , (0.74, 0.64, 0.46)), (n3 , (0.99, 0.98, 0.55)),
(n4 , (0.54, 0.24, 0.16)), (n5 , (0.99, 0.98, 0.55)), (n6 , (0.99, 0.98, 0.55)),
(n7 , (0.99, 0.98, 0.55)), (n8 , (0.99, 0.98, 0.55)), (n9 , (0.99, 0.98, 0.55))}) is
neutrosophic vertex set.
(v) : µ = {(e1 , (0.01, 0.01, 0.01)), (e2 , (0.01, 0.01, 0.01)), (e3 , (0.01, 0.01, 0.01))})
is neutrosophic hyperedge set.
(vi) : O(N HG) = 9.
(vii) : On (N HG) = (8.21, 7.74, 4.47).
(viii) : S(N HG) = 3.
(ix) : Sn (N HG) = (0.03, 0.03, 0.03).

Definition 10.3.5. (Neutrosophic Edge t−Regular Hypergraph).

A neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ) is called a neutrosophic
edge t−regular hypergraph if every neutrosophic hyperedge has only t
neutrosophic vertices.

Question 10.3.6. What-if all neutrosophic hypergraphs are either edge t−regular
or not?

422
 10.3. Preliminaries

Figure 10.1: There are three neutrosophic hyperedges and two neutrosophic
vertices. nhg1

Figure 10.2: N HG = (V, E, σ, µ) is neutrosophic edge 3−regular hypergraph nhg2

In the following, there are some directions which clarify the existence of some
neutrosophic hypergraphs which are either edge t−regular or not.
Example 10.3.7. Two neutrosophic hypergraphs are presented such that one
of them is edge t−regular and another isn’t.

(i) : Assume Figure (10.5). It isn’t neutrosophic edge t−regular hypergraph.

(ii) : Suppose Figure (10.2). It’s neutrosophic edge 3−regular hypergraph.

Definition 10.3.8. (Neutrosophic vertex t−Regular Hypergraph).

A neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ) is called a neutrosophic
vertex t−regular hypergraph if every neutrosophic vertex is incident to
only t neutrosophic hyperedges.
Example 10.3.9. Three neutrosophic hypergraphs are presented such that one
of them is vertex t−regular and anothers aren’t.

(i) : Consider Figure (10.5). It isn’t neutrosophic edge t−regular hypergraph.

(ii) : Suppose Figure (10.2). It’s neutrosophic edge 3−regular hypergraph but
It isn’t neutrosophic vertex 3−regular hypergraph.

(iii) : Assume Figure (10.3). It’s neutrosophic vertex 2−regular hypergraph but
It isn’t neutrosophic edge t−regular hypergraph.

423
10. Neutrosophic Hypergraphs

Figure 10.3: N HG = (V, E, σ, µ) is neutrosophic strong hypergraph. nhg3

Definition 10.3.10. (Neutrosophic Strong Hypergraph).

A neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ) is called a neutrosophic
strong hypergraph if it’s hypergraph and for every v1 v2 · · · vt ∈ E,

µ(v1 v2 · · · vt ) = σ(v1 ) ∧ σ(v2 ) ∧ · · · σ(vt ).

Figure 10.4: N HG = (V, E, σ, µ) is neutrosophic strong hypergraph. nhg4

Example 10.3.11. Three neutrosophic hypergraphs are presented such that one
of them is neutrosophic strong hypergraph and others aren’t.

(i) : Consider Figure (10.5). It isn’t neutrosophic strong hypergraph.

(ii) : Assume Figure (10.2). It isn’t neutrosophic strong hypergraph.

(iii) : Suppose Figure (10.3). It isn’t neutrosophic strong hypergraph.

(iv) : Assume Figure (10.4). It’s neutrosophic strong hypergraph. It’s also
neutrosophic edge 3−regular hypergraph but it isn’t neutrosophic vertex
t−regular hypergraph.

Definition 10.3.12. (Neutrosophic Strong Hypergraph).

Assume neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ.) A neutrosophic
hyperedge v1 v2 · · · vt ∈ E is called a neutrosophic strong hyperedge if

µ(v1 v2 · · · vt ) = σ(v1 ) ∧ σ(v2 ) ∧ · · · σ(vt ).

424
 10.4. Dimension and Coloring alongside Domination in Neutrosophic
Hypergraphs
Proposition 10.3.13. Assume neutrosophic strong hypergraph N HG =
(V, E, σ, µ.) Then all neutrosophic hyperedges are neutrosophic strong.
Definition 10.3.14. (Neutrosophic Hyperpath).
A path v0 , E0 , v1 , v1 , E1 , v2 , · · · , vt−1 , Et−1 , vt , is called neutrosophic hyper-
path such that vi−1 and vi have incident to Ei−1 for all nonnegative integers
0 ≤ i ≤ t. In this case, t − 1 is called length of neutrosophic hyperpath. Also, if
x and y are two neutrosophic vertices, then maximum length of neutrosophic hy-
perpaths from x to y, is called neutrosophic hyperdistance and it’s denoted
by d(x, y). If v0 = vt , then it’s called neutrosophic hypercycle.
Example 10.3.15. Assume Figure (10.5).

(i) : n1 , E1 , n3 , E2 , n6 , E3 , n1 is a neutrosophic hypercycle.

(ii) : n1 , E1 , nn , E2 , n6 , E3 , n1 isn’t neither neutrosophic hypercycle nor neutro-

sophic hyperpath.

(iii) : n1 E1 n3 E2 n6 E3 n1 isn’t neither neutrosophic hypercycle nor neutrosophic

hyperpath.

(iv) : n1 , n3 , n6 , n1 isn’t neither neutrosophic hypercycle nor neutrosophic

hyperpath.

(v) : n1 E1 , n3 , E2 , n6 , E3 , n1 isn’t neither neutrosophic hypercycle nor neutro-

sophic hyperpath.

(vi) : n1 , E1 , n3 , E2 , n6 , E3 , n7 is a neutrosophic hyperpath.

(vii) : Neutrosophic hyperdistance amid n1 and n4 is two.

(viii) : Neutrosophic hyperdistance amid n1 and n7 is one.

(ix) : Neutrosophic hyperdistance amid n1 and n2 is one.

(x) : Neutrosophic hyperdistance amid two given neutrosophic vertices is either

one or two.

First case for the contents is to use the article from [Ref1]. The contents are
used in the way that, usages of new contents are preferences and the
preliminaries are passed in the beginning of this chapter.

10.4 Dimension and Coloring alongside Domination in

Neutrosophic Hypergraphs

10.5 Abstract
New setting is introduced to study resolving number and chromatic number
alongside dominating number. Different types of procedures including set,
optimal set, and optimal number alongside study on the family of neutrosophic
hypergraphs are proposed in this way, some results are obtained. General
classes of neutrosophic hypergraphs are used to obtains these numbers and the
representatives of the colors, dominating sets and resolving sets. Using colors
to assign to the vertices of neutrosophic hypergraphs and characterizing

425
10. Neutrosophic Hypergraphs

resolving sets and dominating sets are applied. Some questions and problems
are posed concerning ways to do further studies on this topic. Using different
ways of study on neutrosophic hypergraphs to get new results about numbers
and sets in the way that some numbers get understandable perspective. Family
of neutrosophic hypergraphs are studied to investigate about the notions,
dimension and coloring alongside domination in neutrosophic hypergraphs. In
this way, sets of representatives of colors, resolving sets and dominating sets
have key role. Optimal sets and optimal numbers have key points to get new
results but in some cases, there are usages of sets and numbers instead of
optimal ones. Simultaneously, three notions are applied into neutrosophic
hypergraphs to get sensible results about their structures. Basic familiarities
with neutrosophic hypergraphs theory and hypergraph theory are proposed for
this article.

Keywords: Dimension, Coloring, Domination

AMS Subject Classification: 05C17, 05C22, 05E45

10.6 Motivation and Contributions

In this study, there’s an idea which could be considered as a motivation.
Question 10.6.1. Is it possible to use mixed versions of ideas concerning “neut-
rosophic domination”, “neutrosophic dimension” and “neutrosophic coloring”
to define some notions which are applied to neutrosophic hypergraphs?
It’s motivation to find notions to use in any classes of neutrosophic
hypergraphs. Real-world applications about time table and scheduling are
another thoughts which lead to be considered as motivation. Connections amid
two items have key roles to assign colors, dominating and domination. Thus
they’re used to define new ideas which conclude to the structure of coloring,
dominating and domination. The concept of having general neutrosophic
hyperedge inspires me to study the behavior of general neutrosophic hyperedge
in the way that, three types of coloring numbers, dominating number and
resolving set are the cases of study in individuals and families.
The framework of this study is as follows. In the beginning, I introduced basic
definitions to clarify about preliminaries. In section “New Ideas For
Neutrosophic Hypergraphs”, new notions of coloring, dominating and
domination are applied to neutrosophic vertices of neutrosophic graphs as
individuals. In section “Optimal Numbers For Neutrosophic Hypergraphs”,
specific numbers have the key role in this way. Classes of neutrosophic graphs
are studied in the terms of different numbers in section “Optimal Numbers For
Neutrosophic Hypergraphs” as individuals. In the section “Optimal Sets For
Neutrosophic Hypergraphs”, usages of general neutrosophic sets and special
neutrosophic sets have key role in this study as individuals. In section
“Optimal Sets and Numbers For Family of Neutrosophic Hypergraphs”, both
sets and numbers have applied into the family of neutrosophic hypergraphs. In
section “Applications in Time Table and Scheduling”, one application is posed
for neutrosophic hypergraphs concerning time table and scheduling when the
suspicions are about choosing some subjects. In section “Open Problems”,
some problems and questions for further studies are proposed. In section

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 10.7. New Ideas For Neutrosophic Hypergraphs

“Conclusion and Closing Remarks”, gentle discussion about results and

applications are featured. In section “Conclusion and Closing Remarks”, a
brief overview concerning advantages and limitations of this study alongside
conclusions are formed.

10.7 New Ideas For Neutrosophic Hypergraphs

Definition 10.7.1. (Dominating, Resolving and Coloring).
Assume neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ).

(a) : Neutrosophic-dominating set and number are defined as follows.

(i) : A neutrosophic vertex x neutrosophic-dominates a vertex y if

there’s at least one neutrosophic strong hyperedge which have them.
(ii) : A set S is called neutrosophic-dominating set if for every
y ∈ V \ S, there’s at least one vertex x which neutrosophic-dominates
vertex y.
(iii) : If S is set of all neutrosophic-dominating sets, then

Σx∈X σ(x) = min Σx∈S σ(x)

S∈S

is called optimal-neutrosophic-dominating number and X is

called optimal-neutrosophic-dominating set.

(b) : Neutrosophic-resolving set and number are defined as follows.

(i) : A neutrosophic vertex x neutrosophic-resolves vertices y, w if

d(x, y) 6= d(x, w).

.
(ii) : A set S is called neutrosophic-resolving set if for every y ∈ V \ S,
there’s at least one vertex x which neutrosophic-resolves vertices
y, w.
(iii) : If S is set of all neutrosophic-resolving sets, then

Σx∈X σ(x) = min Σx∈S σ(x)

S∈S

is called optimal-neutrosophic-resolving number and X is

called optimal-neutrosophic-resolving set.

(c) : Neutrosophic-coloring set and number are defined as follows.

(i) : A neutrosophic vertex x neutrosophic-colors a vertex y differently

with itself if there’s at least one neutrosophic strong hyperedge which
have them.
(ii) : A set S is called neutrosophic-coloring set if for every y ∈ V \ S,
there’s at least one vertex x which neutrosophic-colors vertex y.

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10. Neutrosophic Hypergraphs

(iii) : If S is set of all neutrosophic-coloring sets, then

Σx∈X σ(x) = min Σx∈S σ(x)

S∈S

is called optimal-neutrosophic-coloring number and X is called

optimal-neutrosophic-coloring set.
Example 10.7.2. Consider Figure (10.5) where the improvements on its
hyperedges to have neutrosophic strong hypergraph.
(a) : The notions of dominating are clarified.
(i) : n1 neutrosophic-dominates every vertex from the set of vertices
{n7 , n8 , n9 , n2 , n3 }. n4 neutrosophic-dominates every vertex from
the set of vertices {n6 , n5 , n3 }. n4 doesn’t neutrosophic-dominate
every vertex from the set of vertices {n1 , n2 , n7 , n8 , n9 }.
(ii) : {n1 , n3 } is neutrosophic-coloring set but {n1 , n4 } is optimal-
neutrosophic-dominating set.
(iii) : (1.53, 1.22, 0.71) is optimal-neutrosophic-dominating number.
(b) : The notions of resolving are clarified.
(i) : n1 neutrosophic-resolves two vertices n4 and n6 .
(ii) : V \{n1 , n4 } is neutrosophic-resolves set but V \{n2 , n4 , n9 } is optimal-
neutrosophic-resolving set.
(iii) : (5, 94, 6.36, 3.3) is optimal-neutrosophic-resolving number.
(c) : The notions of coloring are clarified.
(i) : n1 neutrosophic-colors every vertex from the set of vertices
{n7 , n8 , n9 , n2 , n3 }. n4 neutrosophic-colors every vertex from the
set of vertices {n6 , n5 , n3 }. n4 doesn’t neutrosophic-dominate every
vertex from the set of vertices {n1 , n2 , n7 , n8 , n9 }.
(ii) : {n1 , n5 , n7 , n8 , n9 , n6 , n4 } is neutrosophic-coloring set but
{n1 , n5 , n7 , n8 , n2 , n4 } is optimal-neutrosophic-coloring set.
(iii) : (5.24, 4.8, 2.82) is optimal-neutrosophic-coloring number.
Example 10.7.3. Consider Figure (10.3).
(a) : The notions of dominating are clarified.
(i) : n1 neutrosophic-dominates every vertex from the set of vertices
{n5 , n6 , n2 , n3 }. n4 neutrosophic-dominates every vertex from the set
of vertices {n5 , n3 }. n4 doesn’t neutrosophic-dominate every vertex
from the set of vertices {n1 , n2 , n6 }.
(ii) : {n1 , n3 } is neutrosophic-dominating set but {n1 , n4 } is optimal-
neutrosophic-dominating set.
(iii) : (1.53, 1.22, 0.71) is optimal-neutrosophic-dominating number.
(b) : The notions of resolving are clarified.
(i) : n1 neutrosophic-resolves two vertices n4 and n6 .

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 10.8. Optimal Numbers For Neutrosophic Hypergraphs

(ii) : V \{n1 , n4 } is neutrosophic-resolves set but V \{n2 , n4 , n6 } is optimal-

neutrosophic-resolving set.
(iii) : (5, 94, 6.36, 3.3) is optimal-neutrosophic-resolving number.
(c) : The notions of coloring are clarified.
(i) : n1 neutrosophic-colors every vertex from the set of vertices
{n5 , n6 , n2 , n3 }. n4 neutrosophic-colors every vertex from the set
of vertices {n5 , n3 }. n4 doesn’t neutrosophic-dominate every vertex
from the set of vertices {n1 , n2 , n6 }.
(ii) : {n1 , n5 , n6 } is neutrosophic-coloring set but {n5 , n2 , n4 } is optimal-
neutrosophic-coloring set.
(iii) : (2.27, 1.86, 1.17) is optimal-neutrosophic-coloring number.

10.8 Optimal Numbers For Neutrosophic Hypergraphs

Proposition 10.8.1. Assume neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ). S
is maximum set of vertices which form a hyperedge. Then optimal-neutrosophic-
coloring set has as cardinality as S has.
Proof. Assume neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ). Every neutro-
sophic hyperedge has neutrosophic vertices which have common neutrosophic
hyperedge. Thus every neutrosophic vertex has different color with other neut-
rosophic vertices which are incident with a neutrosophic hyperedge. It induces
a neutrosophic hyperedge with the most number of neutrosophic vertices de-
termines optimal-neutrosophic-coloring set. S is maximum set of vertices which
form a hyperedge. Thus optimal-neutrosophic-coloring set has as cardinality as
S has. 
Proposition 10.8.2. Assume neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ). S
is maximum set of vertices which form a hyperedge. Then optimal-neutrosophic-
coloring number is
Σs∈S σ(s).
Proof. Assume neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ). Every neutro-
sophic hyperedge has neutrosophic vertices which have common neutrosophic
hyperedge. Thus every neutrosophic vertex has different color with other neut-
rosophic vertices which are incident with a neutrosophic hyperedge. It induces
a neutrosophic hyperedge with the most number of neutrosophic vertices de-
termines optimal-neutrosophic-coloring set. S is maximum set of vertices which
form a hyperedge. Thus optimal-neutrosophic-coloring number is
Σs∈S σ(s).

Proposition 10.8.3. Assume neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ). If
optimal-neutrosophic-coloring number is
Σv∈V σ(v),
then there’s at least one hyperedge which contains n vertices where n is the
cardinality of the set V.

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10. Neutrosophic Hypergraphs

Proof. Suppose neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ). Consider

optimal-neutrosophic-coloring number is

Σv∈V σ(v).

It implies there’s one neutrosophic hyperedge which has all neutrosophic vertices.
Since if all neutrosophic vertices are incident to a neutrosophic hyperedge, then
all have different colors. 

Proposition 10.8.4. Assume neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ). If

there’s at least one hyperedge which contains n vertices where n is the cardinality
of the set V, then optimal-neutrosophic-coloring number is

Σv∈V σ(v).

Proof. Consider neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ). Suppose there’s

at least one hyperedge which contains n vertices where n is the cardinality of the
set V. It implies there’s one neutrosophic hyperedge which has all neutrosophic
vertices. If all neutrosophic vertices are incident to a neutrosophic hyperedge,
then all have different colors. So V is optimal-neutrosophic-coloring set. It
induces optimal-neutrosophic-coloring number is

Σv∈V σ(v).

Proposition 10.8.5. Assume neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ). If

optimal-neutrosophic-dominating number is

Σv∈V σ(v),

then there’s at least one neutrosophic vertex which doesn’t have incident to any
neutrosophic hyperedge.

Proof. Suppose neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ). Consider

optimal-neutrosophic-dominating number is

Σv∈V σ(v).

If for all given neutrosophic vertex, there’s at least one neutrosophic hyperedge
which the neutrosophic vertex has incident to it, then there’s a neutrosophic
vertex x such that optimal-neutrosophic-dominating number is

Σv∈V −{x} σ(v).

It induces contradiction with hypothesis. It implies there’s at least one

neutrosophic vertex which doesn’t have incident to any neutrosophic hyperedge.


Proposition 10.8.6. Assume neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ).

Then optimal-neutrosophic-dominating number is <

Σv∈V σ(v).

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 10.8. Optimal Numbers For Neutrosophic Hypergraphs

Proof. Consider neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ). Thus V − {x}

is a neutrosophic-dominating set. Since if not, x isn’t incident to any given
neutrosophic hyperedge. This is contradiction with supposition. It induces that
x belongs to a neutrosophic hyperedge which has another vertex s. It implies s
neutrosophic-dominates x. Thus V − {x} is a neutrosophic-dominating set. It
induces optimal-neutrosophic-dominating number is <

Σv∈V σ(v).

Proposition 10.8.7. Assume neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ). If

optimal-neutrosophic-resolving number is

Σv∈V σ(v),

then every given vertex doesn’t have incident to any hyperedge.

Proof. Consider neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ). Let optimal-

neutrosophic-resolving number be

Σv∈V σ(v).

It implies every neutrosophic vertex isn’t neutrosophic-resolved by a neutro-

sophic vertex. It’s contradiction with hypothesis. So every given vertex doesn’t
have incident to any hyperedge. 

Proposition 10.8.8. Assume neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ).

Then optimal-neutrosophic-resolving number is <

Σv∈V σ(v).

Proof. Consider neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ). If optimal-

neutrosophic-resolving number is

Σv∈V σ(v),

then there’s a contradiction to hypothesis. Since the set V \ {x} is neutrosophic-

resolving set. It implies optimal-neutrosophic-resolving number is <

Σv∈V σ(v).

Proposition 10.8.9. Assume neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ). If

optimal-neutrosophic-coloring number is

Σv∈V σ(v),

then all neutrosophic verties which have incident to at least one neutrosophic
hyperedge.

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10. Neutrosophic Hypergraphs

Proof. Suppose neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ). Consider

optimal-neutrosophic-coloring number is

Σv∈V σ(v).

If for all given neutrosophic vertices, there’s no neutrosophic hyperedge which

the neutrosophic vertices have incident to it, then there’s neutrosophic vertex x
such that optimal-neutrosophic-coloring number is

Σv∈V −{x} σ(v).

It induces contradiction with hypothesis. It implies all neutrosophic vertices

have incident to at least one neutrosophic hyperedge. 

Proposition 10.8.10. Assume neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ).

Then optimal-neutrosophic-coloring number isn’t <

Σv∈V σ(v).

Proof. Consider neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ). Thus V − {x}

isn’t a neutrosophic-coloring set. Since if not, x isn’t incident to any given
neutrosophic hyperedge. This is contradiction with supposition. It induces that
x belongs to a neutrosophic hyperedge which has another vertex s. It implies
s neutrosophic-colors x. Thus V − {x} isn’t a neutrosophic-coloring set. It
induces optimal-neutrosophic-coloring number isn’t <

Σv∈V σ(v).

Proposition 10.8.11. Assume neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ).

Then optimal-neutrosophic-dominating set has cardinality which is greater than
n − 1 where n is is the cardinality of the set V.

Proof. Consider neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ). The set V is

neutrosophic-dominating set. So optimal-neutrosophic-dominating set has
cardinality which is greater than n where n is is the cardinality of the set V. But
the set V \ {x}, for every given neutrosophic vertex is optimal-neutrosophic-
dominating set has cardinality which is greater than n − 1 where n is is the
cardinality of the set V. The result is obtained. 

Proposition 10.8.12. Assume neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ).

S is maximum set of vertices which form a hyperedge. Then S is optimal-
neutrosophic-coloring set and
Σs∈S σ(S)
is optimal-neutrosophic-coloring number.

Proof. Suppose neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ). Consider S is

maximum set of vertices which form a hyperedge. Thus all vertices of S have
incident to hyperedge. It implies the number of different colors equals to
cardinality of S. Therefore, optimal-neutrosophic-coloring number ≥

Σs∈S σ(S).

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 10.9. Optimal Sets For Neutrosophic Hypergraphs

In other hand, S is maximum set of vertices which form a hyperedge. It induces

optimal-neutrosophic-coloring number ≤

Σs∈S σ(S).

So S is neutrosophic-coloring set. Hence S is optimal-neutrosophic-coloring set

and
Σs∈S σ(S)
is optimal-neutrosophic-coloring number. 

10.9 Optimal Sets For Neutrosophic Hypergraphs

Proposition 10.9.1. Assume neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ). If S
is neutrosophic-dominating set, then D contains S is neutrosophic-dominating
set.

Proof. Consider neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ). Suppose S is

neutrosophic-dominating set. Then all neutrosophic vertices are neutrosophic-
dominated. Thus D contains S is neutrosophic-dominating set. 

Proposition 10.9.2. Assume neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ). If

S is neutrosophic-resolving set, then D contains S is neutrosophic-resolving set.

Proof. Suppose neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ). Consider S is

neutrosophic-resolving set. Hence All two given neutrosophic vertices are
neutrosophic-resolved by at least one neutrosophic vertex of S. It induces D
contains S is neutrosophic-resolving set. 

Proposition 10.9.3. Assume neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ). If

S is neutrosophic-coloring set, then D contains S is neutrosophic-coloring set.

Proof. Suppose neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ). Consider S is

neutrosophic-coloring set. So all neutrosophic vertices which have a common
neutrosophic hyperedge have different colors. Thus every neutrosophic vertex
neutrosophic-colored by a neutrosophic vertex of S. It induces every neutrosophic
vertex which has a common neutrosophic hyperedge has different colors with
other neutrosophic vertices belong to that neutrosophic hyperedge. then D
contains S is neutrosophic-coloring set. 

Proposition 10.9.4. Assume neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ).

Then V is neutrosophic-dominating set.

Proof. Suppose neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ). Since V \ {x}

is neutrosophic-dominating set. Then V contains V \ {x} is neutrosophic-
dominating set. 

Proposition 10.9.5. Assume neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ).

Then V is neutrosophic-resolving set.

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10. Neutrosophic Hypergraphs

Proof. Suppose neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ). If there’s no

neutrosophic vertex, then all neutrosophic vertices are neutrosophic-resolved.
Hence if I choose V, then there’s no neutrosophic vertex such that neutrosophic
vertex is neutrosophic-resolved. It implies V is neutrosophic-resolving set but
V isn’t optimal-neutrosophic-resolving set. Since if I construct one set from
V such that only one neutrosophic vertex is out of S, then S is neutrosophic-
resolving set. It implies V isn’t optimal-neutrosophic-resolving set. Thus V is
neutrosophic-resolving set. 

Proposition 10.9.6. Assume neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ).

Then V is neutrosophic-coloring set.

Proof. Suppose neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ). All neutrosophic

vertices belong to a neutrosophic hyperedge have to color differently. If V is
chosen, then all neutrosophic vertices have different colors. It induces that
n colors are used where n is the number of neutrosophic vertices. Every
neutrosophic vertex has unique color. Thus V is neutrosophic-coloring set. 

10.10 Optimal Sets and Numbers For Family of

Neutrosophic Hypergraphs
Proposition 10.10.1. Assume G is a family of neutrosophic hypergraphs. Then
V is neutrosophic-dominating set for all members of G, simultaneously.

Proof. Suppose G is a family of neutrosophic hypergraphs. Thus V is

neutrosophic-dominating set for every given neutrosophic hypergraph of
G. It implies V is neutrosophic-dominating set for all members of G,
simultaneously. 

Proposition 10.10.2. Assume G is a family of neutrosophic hypergraphs. Then

V is neutrosophic-resolving set for all members of G, simultaneously.

Proof. Suppose G is a family of neutrosophic hypergraphs. Thus V is

neutrosophic-resolving set for every given neutrosophic hypergraph of G. It
implies V is neutrosophic-resolving set for all members of G, simultaneously. 

Proposition 10.10.3. Assume G is a family of neutrosophic hypergraphs. Then

V is neutrosophic-coloring set for all members of G, simultaneously.

Proof. Suppose G is a family of neutrosophic hypergraphs. Thus V is

neutrosophic-coloring set for every given neutrosophic hypergraph of G. It
implies V is neutrosophic-coloring set for all members of G, simultaneously. 

Proposition 10.10.4. Assume G is a family of neutrosophic hypergraphs. Then

V \ {x} is neutrosophic-dominating set for all members of G, simultaneously.

Proof. Suppose G is a family of neutrosophic hypergraphs. Thus V \ {x} is

neutrosophic-dominating set for every given neutrosophic hypergraph of G. One
neutrosophic vertex is out of V \ {x}. It’s neutrosophic-dominated from any
neutrosophic vertex in V \ {x}. Hence every given two neutrosophic vertices
are neutrosophic-dominated from any neutrosophic vertex in V \ {x}. It implies
V \ {x} is neutrosophic-dominating set for all members of G, simultaneously. 

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 10.10. Optimal Sets and Numbers For Family of Neutrosophic Hypergraphs

Proposition 10.10.5. Assume G is a family of neutrosophic hypergraphs. Then

V \ {x} is neutrosophic-resolving set for all members of G, simultaneously.

Proof. Suppose G is a family of neutrosophic hypergraphs. Thus V \ {x} is

neutrosophic-resolving set for every given neutrosophic hypergraph of G. One
neutrosophic vertex is out of V \ {x}. It’s neutrosophic-resolved from any
neutrosophic vertex in V \ {x}. Hence every given two neutrosophic vertices
are neutrosophic-resolved from any neutrosophic vertex in V \ {x}. It implies
V \ {x} is neutrosophic-resolving set for all members of G, simultaneously. 

Proposition 10.10.6. Assume G is a family of neutrosophic hypergraphs. Then

V \ {x} isn’t neutrosophic-coloring set for all members of G, simultaneously.

Proof. Suppose G is a family of neutrosophic hypergraphs. Thus V \ {x} isn’t

neutrosophic-coloring set for every given neutrosophic hypergraph of G. One
neutrosophic vertex is out of V \ {x}. It isn’t neutrosophic-colored from any
neutrosophic vertex in V \ {x}. Hence every given two neutrosophic vertices
aren’t neutrosophic-colored from any neutrosophic vertex in V \ {x}. It implies
V \ {x} isn’t neutrosophic-coloring set for all members of G, simultaneously. 

Proposition 10.10.7. Assume G is a family of neutrosophic hypergraphs. Then

union of neutrosophic-dominating sets from each member of G is neutrosophic-
dominating set for all members of G, simultaneously.

Proof. Suppose G is a family of neutrosophic hypergraphs. For every chosen

neutrosophic hypergraph, there’s one neutrosophic-dominating set in the
union of neutrosophic-dominating sets from each member of G. Thus union of
neutrosophic-dominating sets from each member of G is neutrosophic-dominating
set for every given neutrosophic hypergraph of G. Even one neutrosophic vertex
isn’t out of the union. It’s neutrosophic-dominated from any neutrosophic vertex
in the union. Hence every given two neutrosophic vertices are neutrosophic-
dominated from any neutrosophic vertex in union of neutrosophic-coloring sets.
It implies union of neutrosophic-coloring sets is neutrosophic-dominating set
for all members of G, simultaneously. 

Proposition 10.10.8. Assume G is a family of neutrosophic hypergraphs. Then

union of neutrosophic-resolving sets from each member of G is neutrosophic-
resolving set for all members of G, simultaneously.

Proof. Suppose G is a family of neutrosophic hypergraphs. For every chosen

neutrosophic hypergraph, there’s one neutrosophic-resolving set in the union of
neutrosophic-resolving sets from each member of G. Thus union of neutrosophic-
resolving sets from each member of G is neutrosophic-resolving set for every
given neutrosophic hypergraph of G. Even one neutrosophic vertex isn’t out
of the union. It’s neutrosophic-resolved from any neutrosophic vertex in the
union. Hence every given two neutrosophic vertices are neutrosophic-resolved
from any neutrosophic vertex in union of neutrosophic-coloring sets. It implies
union of neutrosophic-coloring sets is neutrosophic-resolved set for all members
of G, simultaneously. 

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10. Neutrosophic Hypergraphs

Proposition 10.10.9. Assume G is a family of neutrosophic hypergraphs. Then

union of neutrosophic-coloring sets from each member of G is neutrosophic-
coloring set for all members of G, simultaneously.

Proof. Suppose G is a family of neutrosophic hypergraphs. For every chosen

neutrosophic hypergraph, there’s one neutrosophic-coloring set in the union of
neutrosophic-coloring sets from each member of G. Thus union of neutrosophic-
coloring sets from each member of G is neutrosophic-coloring set for every given
neutrosophic hypergraph of G. Even one neutrosophic vertex isn’t out of the
union. It’s neutrosophic-colored from any neutrosophic vertex in the union.
Hence every given two neutrosophic vertices are neutrosophic-colored from any
neutrosophic vertex in union of neutrosophic-coloring sets. It implies union
of neutrosophic-coloring sets is neutrosophic-colored set for all members of G,
simultaneously. 

Proposition 10.10.10. Assume G is a family of neutrosophic hypergraphs. For

every given neutrosophic vertex, there’s one neutrosophic hypergraph such that
the vertex has another neutrosophic vertex which are incident to a neutrosophic
hyperedge. If for given neutrosophic vertex, all neutrosophic vertices have a
common neutrosophic hyperedge in this way, then V \{x} is optimal-neutrosophic-
dominating set for all members of G, simultaneously.

Proof. Suppose G is a family of neutrosophic hypergraphs. For all neutrosophic

hypergraphs, there’s no neutrosophic-dominating set from any of member of
G. Thus V \ {x} is neutrosophic-dominating set for every given neutrosophic
hypergraph of G. For every given neutrosophic vertex, there’s one neutrosophic
hypergraph such that the vertex has another neutrosophic vertex which are
incident to a neutrosophic hyperedge. Only one neutrosophic vertex is out
of V \ {x}. It’s neutrosophic-dominated from any neutrosophic vertex in the
V \{x}. Hence every given two neutrosophic vertices are neutrosophic-dominated
from any neutrosophic vertex in V \ {x}. It implies V \ {x} is neutrosophic-
dominating set for all members of G, simultaneously. If for given neutrosophic
vertex, all neutrosophic vertices have a common neutrosophic hyperedge in this
way, then V \ {x} is optimal-neutrosophic-dominating set for all members of G,
simultaneously. 

Proposition 10.10.11. Assume G is a family of neutrosophic hypergraphs. For

every given neutrosophic vertex, there’s one neutrosophic hypergraph such that
the neutrosophic vertex has another neutrosophic vertex which are incident to
a neutrosophic hyperedge. If for given neutrosophic vertex, all neutrosophic
vertices have a common neutrosophic hyperedge in this way, then V \ {x} is
optimal-neutrosophic-resolving set for all members of G, simultaneously.

Proof. Suppose G is a family of neutrosophic hypergraphs. For all neutrosophic

hypergraphs, there’s no neutrosophic-resolving set from any of member of
G. Thus V \ {x} is neutrosophic-resolving set for every given neutrosophic
hypergraph of G. For every given neutrosophic vertex, there’s one neutrosophic
hypergraph such that the vertex has another neutrosophic vertex which are
incident to a neutrosophic hyperedge. Only one neutrosophic vertex is out
of V \ {x}. It’s neutrosophic-resolved from any neutrosophic vertex in the
V \ {x}. Hence every given two neutrosophic vertices are neutrosophic-resolving

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 10.11. Applications in Time Table and Scheduling

from any neutrosophic vertex in V \ {x}. It implies V \ {x} is neutrosophic-

resolved set for all members of G, simultaneously. If for given neutrosophic
vertex, all neutrosophic vertices have a common neutrosophic hyperedge in this
way, then V \ {x} is optimal-neutrosophic-resolving set for all members of G,
simultaneously. 

Proposition 10.10.12. Assume G is a family of neutrosophic hypergraphs. For

every given neutrosophic vertex, there’s one neutrosophic hypergraph such that
the neutrosophic vertex has another neutrosophic vertex which are incident to
a neutrosophic hyperedge. If for given neutrosophic vertex, all neutrosophic
vertices have a common neutrosophic hyperedge in this way, then V is optimal-
neutrosophic-coloring set for all members of G, simultaneously.

Proof. Suppose G is a family of neutrosophic hypergraphs. For all neutrosophic

hypergraphs, there’s no neutrosophic-coloring set from any of member of G. Thus
V is neutrosophic-coloring set for every given neutrosophic hypergraphs of G. For
every given neutrosophic vertex, there’s one neutrosophic hypergraph such that
the vertex has another neutrosophic vertex which are incident to a neutrosophic
hyperedge. No neutrosophic vertex is out of V. It’s neutrosophic-colored from
any neutrosophic vertex in the V. Hence every given two neutrosophic vertices
are neutrosophic-colored from any neutrosophic vertex in V. It implies V is
neutrosophic-coloring set for all members of G, simultaneously. If for given
neutrosophic vertex, all neutrosophic vertices have a common neutrosophic
hyperedge in this way, then V is optimal-neutrosophic-coloring set for all
members of G, simultaneously. 

10.11 Applications in Time Table and Scheduling

Designing the programs to achieve some goals is general approach to apply on
some issues to function properly. Separation has key role in the context of this
style. Separating the duration of work which are consecutive, is the matter and
it has important to avoid mixing up.
Step 1. (Definition) Time table is an approach to get some attributes to do
the work fast and proper. The style of scheduling implies special attention
to the tasks which are consecutive.
Step 2. (Issue) Scheduling of program has faced with difficulties to differ amid
consecutive section. Beyond that, sometimes sections are not the same.
Step 3. (Model) As Figure (10.5), the situation is designed as a model. The
model uses data to assign every section and to assign to relation amid
section, three numbers belong unit interval to state indeterminacy,
possibilities and determinacy. There’s one restriction in that, the numbers
amid two sections are at least the number of the relation amid them.
Table (10.1), clarifies about the assigned numbers to these situation.
Step 4. (Solution) As Figure (10.5) shows, neutrosophic hyper graph as model,
proposes to use different types of coloring, resolving and dominating as
numbers, sets, optimal numbers, optimal sets and et cetera.
(a) : The notions of dominating are applied.

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10. Neutrosophic Hypergraphs

Figure 10.5: Vertices are suspicions about choosing them. nhg1

Table 10.1: Scheduling concerns its Subjects and its Connections as a

Neutrosophic Hypergraph in a Model. tbl1c

Sections of N HG n1 n2 · · · n9
Values (0.99, 0.98, 0.55) (0.74, 0.64, 0.46)· · · (0.99, 0.98, 0.55)
Connections of N HG E1 E2 E3
Values (0.01, 0.01, 0.01) (0.01, 0.01, 0.01) (0.01, 0.01, 0.01)

(i) : n1 neutrosophic-dominates every vertex from the set of vertices

{n7 , n8 , n9 , n2 , n3 }. n4 neutrosophic-dominates every vertex from
the set of vertices {n6 , n5 , n3 }. n4 doesn’t neutrosophic-dominate
every vertex from the set of vertices {n1 , n2 , n7 , n8 , n9 }.
(ii) : {n1 , n3 } is neutrosophic-coloring set but {n1 , n4 } is optimal-
neutrosophic-dominating set.
(iii) : (1.53, 1.22, 0.71) is optimal-neutrosophic-dominating number.
(b) : The notions of resolving are applied.
(i) : n1 neutrosophic-resolves two vertices n4 and n6 .
(ii) : V \ {n1 , n4 } is neutrosophic-resolves set but V \ {n2 , n4 , n9 } is
optimal-neutrosophic-resolving set.
(iii) : (5, 94, 6.36, 3.3) is optimal-neutrosophic-resolving number.
(c) : The notions of coloring are applied.
(i) : n1 neutrosophic-colors every vertex from the set of vertices
{n7 , n8 , n9 , n2 , n3 }. n4 neutrosophic-colors every vertex from the
set of vertices {n6 , n5 , n3 }. n4 doesn’t neutrosophic-dominate
every vertex from the set of vertices {n1 , n2 , n7 , n8 , n9 }.
(ii) : {n1 , n5 , n7 , n8 , n9 , n6 , n4 } is neutrosophic-coloring set but
{n1 , n5 , n7 , n8 , n2 , n4 } is optimal-neutrosophic-coloring set.
(iii) : (5.24, 4.8, 2.82) is optimal-neutrosophic-coloring number.

10.12 Open Problems

The three notions of coloring, resolving and dominating are introduced on
neutrosophic hypergraphs. Thus,

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 10.13. Conclusion and Closing Remarks

Question 10.12.1. Is it possible to use other types neutrosophic hyperedges to

define different types of coloring, resolving and dominating on neutrosophic
hypergraphs?

Question 10.12.2. Are existed some connections amid the coloring, resolving
and dominating inside this concept and external connections with other types of
coloring, resolving and dominating on neutrosophic hypergraphs?

Question 10.12.3. Is it possible to construct some classes on neutrosophic

hypergraphs which have “nice” behavior?

Question 10.12.4. Which applications do make an independent study to

apply these three types coloring, resolving and dominating on neutrosophic
hypergraphs?

Problem 10.12.5. Which parameters are related to this parameter?

Problem 10.12.6. Which approaches do work to construct applications to create

independent study?

Problem 10.12.7. Which approaches do work to construct definitions which use

all three definitions and the relations amid them instead of separate definitions
to create independent study?

Table 10.2: A Brief Overview about Advantages and Limitations of this study tbl2c

Advantages Limitations
1. Defining Dimension 1. General Results

2. Defining Domination

3. Defining Coloring 2. Connections Amid New Notions

4. Applying on Individuals

5. Applying on Family 3. Connections of Results

10.13 Conclusion and Closing Remarks

This study uses mixed combinations of different types of definitions, including
coloring, resolving and dominating to study on neutrosophic hypergraphs. The
connections of neutrosophic vertices which are clarified by general hyperedges
differ them from each other and and put them in different categories to
represent one representative for each color, resolver and dominator. Further
studies could be about changes in the settings to compare this notion amid
different settings of neutrosophic hypergraphs theory. One way is finding some
relations amid three definitions of notions to make sensible definitions. In
Table (10.2), some limitations and advantages of this study are pointed out.

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10. Neutrosophic Hypergraphs

10.14 Classes Of Neutrosophic Hypergraphs

??????
m

Question 10.14.1. What-if the notion of complete proposes some classes of

neutrosophic hypergraphs?
In the setting of neutrosophic hypergraphs, the notion of complete have
introduced some classes. Since the vertex could have any number of arbitrary
hyperedges. This notion is too close to the notion of regularity. Thus the idea
of complete has an obvious structure in that, every hyperedge has n vertices so
there’s only one hyperedge.
Definition 10.14.2. Assume neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ). It’s
denoted by N HGrn and it’s (r, n)− regular if every hyperedge has exactly r
vertices in the way that, all r−subsets of the vertices have an unique hyperedge
where r ≤ n and |V | = n.
Example 10.14.3. In Figure (10.6), N HG34 is shown.

Figure 10.6: N HG34 = (V, E, σ, µ) is neutrosophic (3, 4)− regular hypergraph. nhg6

Definition 10.14.4. Assume neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ).

(i) : Maximum number is maximum number of hyperedges which are

incident to a vertex and it’s denoted by ∆(N HG);

(ii) : Minimum number is minimum number of hyperedges which are incident

to a vertex and it’s denoted by δ(N HG);

(iii) : Maximum value is maximum value of vertices and it’s denoted by

∆n (N HG);

(iv) : Minimum value is minimum value of vertices and it’s denoted by

δn (N HG).

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 10.14. Classes Of Neutrosophic Hypergraphs

Example 10.14.5. Assume neutrosophic hypergraph N HG = (V, E, σ, µ) as

Figure (10.6).

(i) : ∆(N HG) = 3;

(ii) : δ(N HG) = 3;
(iii) : ∆n (N HG) = (0.99, 0.98, 0.55);
(iv) : δn (N HG) = (0.99, 0.98, 0.55).

Proposition 10.14.6. Assume neutrosophic hypergraph N HGrn = (V, E, σ, µ)

which is (r, n)− regular. Then ∆(N HG) = δ(N HG).

Proof. Consider neutrosophic hypergraph N HGrn = (V, E, σ, µ) which is (r, n)−

regular. Every hyperedge has same number of vertices. Hyperedges are distinct.
It implies the number of hyperedges which are incident to every vertex is the
same. 

Proposition 10.14.7. Assume neutrosophic hypergraph N HGrn = (V, E, σ, µ)

which is (r, n)− regular. Then the number of hyperedges equals to n choose r.

Proof. Suppose neutrosophic hypergraph N HGrn = (V, E, σ, µ) which is (r, n)−

regular. Every hyperedge has r vertices. Thus r−subsets of n form hyperedges.
It induces n choose r. 

Proposition 10.14.8. Assume neutrosophic hypergraph N HGrn = (V, E, σ, µ)

which is (r, n)− regular. Then

(i) : Chromatic number is at least r;

(ii) : Chromatic number is at most ∆r;
(iii) : Neutrosophic chromatic number is at most ∆n r.

Proof. (i) Suppose N HGrn = (V, E, σ, µ). Every hyperedge has r vertices. It
implies the set of representatives has at least r members. Hence chromatic
number is at least r.
(ii) Suppose N HGrn = (V, E, σ, µ). Every hyperedge has r vertices. It implies
the set of representatives has at least r members. If all vertices have at least
one common hyperedge, then chromatic number is at most ∆r. Thus chromatic
number is at most ∆r.
(iii) Consider N HGrn = (V, E, σ, µ). Every hyperedge has r vertices. It implies
the set of representatives has at least r members. If all vertices have at least
one common hyperedge, then neutrosophic chromatic number is at most ∆n r.
Thus neutrosophic chromatic number is at most ∆n r. 

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 Bibliography

Ref1 [1] Henry Garrett, Dimension and Coloring alongside Domina-

tion in Neutrosophic Hypergraphs, ResearchGate 2021 (doi:
10.13140/RG.2.2.13070.28483).

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