Database Systems (CC-230)

Lecture # 1-2

Instructor
Rida Ayesha
 Lecture # 1-2 Agenda:
● Instructor’s Introduction
● Student’s Introduction (Class Activity 0)
● Discussion of class & assessment rules, course outline, marks distribution
● Introduction to course
o What is Data? What is Information?

o Difference between Data & Information

o What is Database (DB) and Database Management System (DBMS)?

o Applications of Database (Examples)

o Meta Data? (Class Activity 1)

o Understanding the approaches to Data Management (File Based vs DBMS)

o Understanding the issues of File Based approach

o Understanding the Advantages & Disadvantages of Database Management System (DBMS)

• Introduction to Database Environment

o Components of Database Environment

o Types of Database Users/Roles

• Database Design: The Paradigm Shift (History of Database Systems)

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 Instructor’s Introduction

Name: Rida Ayesha

Qualification:
• MS-CS (NED-UET, Karachi)
• BS-SE (UoK, Karachi)
Experience: 07+ Years
Contact Details:
• Office: STD-403 (2nd last cabin)
• Email: rida.ayesha@umt.edu.pk

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Student’s Introduction-Class Activity

4
Class Activity 0-Student’s Introduction

1. What’s one thing you’re excited about in this course (even if you don’t know
much about it yet)?

2. What’s one app or website you use daily that you think relies heavily on
databases?

3. Can you think of a situation where losing data would be a disaster?

5
 Class Rules

• No attendance after 10 minutes.

• Class discipline is MANDATORY; sitting posture, cross commenting, unnecessary

remarks or disturbance-creating actions can result in expulsion from class for a
non-specified period of time.

• The use of cell phones (texting, calling, watching mute videos) is not allowed
during all lectures.

• Cell phones must be turned on silent mode and put out of sight during class.

• Questions/Queries will be discussed at the end of the topic.

• It is entirely the students responsibility to recover any information or

announcements presented in the lectures from which they were absent.

6
 Assessment Rules
• All deadlines for assignments will be HARD deadlines. No late submissions will be
accepted after due date and time in any case.

• Your course includes anything and everything from your book as well as your class
discussion (including any guest lectures); DO NOT rely on course slides only.

• There will be NO retake for any assignment/quiz/class activity.

• A non-negotiable attendance quiz will take place on days when class strength is
low; late comers will NOT be accommodated.

• No questions will be answered during the exam/quiz assessment; always state any
assumptions you have along with your answer(s).

• Cheating, plagiarism and other forms of academic fraud/dishonesty are taken very
seriously and will result in marks deduction/UMC.

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 Assessment Grading Scheme (tentative)

Assessment Description Weightage

Assignments/Class In-class activities and evaluation. 20%
Activities Assigned tasks during important stages of
the course to apply and practice the learnt
concepts
Quizzes In-class announced + unannounced short 15%
quizzes
Mid Term Exam A single 75-minute exam from the material 25%
covered during the first 7-8 weeks
Final Exam Will cover the entire course. At least 70% 40%
of the material would be post midterm.
Project Lab project 20%

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 Course Introduction
Introduction:
The goal of the course is to present an introduction to database management systems,
with an emphasis on how to organize, maintain and retrieve - efficiently, and
effectively - information from a DBMS.

Text/Reference Material:
• Database Systems: A Practical Approach to Design, Implementation, and
Management, 6th Edition by Thomas Connolly and Carolyn Begg

• Database Systems – Design, Implementation and Management: Carlos Coronel,

Steven Morris (12th Ed.)

• Modern Database Management: Jeffery. A. Hoffer (10th Ed.)

• Database System Concepts, 6th Edition by Avi Silberschatz, Henry F. Korth and S.
Sudarshan.

• Fundamentals of Database Systems: Elmasri (7th Ed.)

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 Introduction-Data
Data?
• The term data is defined as “facts and figures”.

• Collection of raw facts and figures.

• Collected from different sources for different purposes.

• Data may consist of numbers, characters, symbols, pictures, videos, audios or any
other forms.

• Building blocks of information.

Example:
• raw facts about students: name , class , age etc

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 Introduction-Information

Information?
• Organized and processed form of data.

• Meaningful for decision making.

Examples:
• Marks of a student in different subject is the data.
• Total marks is the information.
• Average mark is also information.

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 Introduction-Data vs Information

Data Information
Unprocessed raw facts Processed form of data

Input in computer Output of computer

Not meaningful and not used in Meaningful and used in decision

decision making making

Huge in volume Normally short in volume

Assets of organization and is usually Normally available to people
not available to people for sale

Difficult to reproduce Easier to reproduce

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 Introduction-Database

When this data is gathered and analyzed, it yields information. Intelligent

interpretation of data yields information.

Information helps to foresee and plan events.

⮚ Following figure illustrates the

A database is an organized collection of
data such that its contents can be easily concept of a database:
accessed, managed, and updated.

A phone book is a database

consisting of names,
addresses, and telephone
numbers.

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 Introduction-Database (cont.)

⮚ Organizations often maintain large amounts of data, which are generated as a

result of day-to-day operations.

⮚ Database:
• A Database is a collection of related data organized in a way that data can be
easily accessed, managed and updated. Database with one sole purpose, storing
data. Database is abbreviated as DB.

• It is a data collection to which different questions/queries can be asked.

For example,
• 'What are the phone numbers and addresses of the five nearest post offices?'
• 'Do we have any books in our library that deal with health food?'

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 Introduction-Database Application Examples

Examples of database applications include:

Automated teller Computerized

machines parts inventory
systems

Computerized Flight
library systems reservation
systems

1. Enterprise Information
• Sales: customers, products, purchases
• Accounting: payments, receipts, assets
• Human Resources: Information about employees, salaries, payroll taxes.
2. Manufacturing: management of production, inventory, orders, supply chain.

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 Introduction-Database Application Examples (cont.)

3. Banking and finance

• customer information, accounts, loans, and banking transactions.
• Credit card transactions
• Finance: sales and purchases of financial instruments (e.g., stocks and bonds;
storing real-time market data)
4. Universities: registration, grades
5. Airlines: reservations, schedules
6. Telecommunication: records of calls, texts, and data usage, generating monthly
bills, maintaining balances on prepaid calling cards
7. Web-based services
• Online retailers: order tracking, customized recommendations
• Online advertisements
8. Navigation systems: For maintaining the locations of various places of interest along
with the exact routes of roads, train systems, buses, etc.

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Introduction-Database Management System (DBMS)

Database management system is a software or application that enable the user to

interact with the database, thus allowing users to insert, retrieve, update and delete
data.

Examples of DBMSs – Oracle, IBM DB2, Microsoft SQL Server, Vertica, Teradata –
Open source: MySQL (Sun/Oracle), PostgreSQL, CouchDB – Open source library:
SQLite

Following figures illustrates a database system:

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 Data vs Information
Database vs DBMS

• Data: Data refers to raw facts and figures

• Information: Information is processed data that is meaningful
• Database: A database is a structured collection of data
• DBMS: a DBMS (Database Management System) is software that manages
and interacts with that database

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 Introduction-Metadata

• Metadata is simply data about data.

• It means it is a description and context of the data. It helps to organize, find and
understand data.
• Also known as data dictionary.
Examples of metadata: These are some typical metadata elements:
• Title and description
• Tags and categories
• Who created and when
• Who last modified and when
• Who can access or update

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 Introduction-Metadata (cont.)

Example:
Every time you take a photo with today's cameras a bunch of metadata is gathered
and saved with it:
• date and time
• filename
• camera settings
• geolocation

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 Introduction-Metadata (cont.)

Example:
Each book has a number of standard metadata on the covers and inside. This includes:
• a title
• author name
• publisher and copyright details
• description on a back
• table of contents
• index
• page numbers

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 Introduction-Metadata (cont.)

Example:
Spreadsheet contains a few metadata fields
• tab names
• column names
• user comments

Further examples can be viewed

at the following link:
Metadata Examples

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 Class Activity 1

Write two examples of each:

• Data
• Information
• Metadata

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 Importance of the Databases

• Computer applications are divided into commercial and scientific (or engineering)
ones.

• Scientific applications involve more computations, that is, different type of

calculations that vary from simple to very complex, domains such as space, nuclear,
medicine.

• Commercial or business applications do not involve much computations, rather

minor computation but mainly they perform the input/output operations.

• These applications mainly store the data in the computer storage, then access and
present it to the users in different formats (also termed as data processing) for
example, banks, shopping, production, utilities billing, customer services.

• The goal of this course is to present an in-depth introduction to databases, with an

emphasis on how to organize information in the database and to maintain it and
retrieve it efficiently, that is, how to design a database and use it effectively.

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 Data Management/Record Keeping Techniques

Data management deals with managing large amount of information, which

involves:

⮚ the storage of information

⮚ the provision of mechanisms for the manipulation of information
⮚ providing safety of information stored under various circumstances

The two common Record Keeping Techniques are: Manual Record Keeping &
Computerized Record Keeping

The two different approaches of managing computerized data are as follows:

File-based systems
Database
systems

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 File-based Systems

In a file-based systems data is stored in discrete files and a collection of such files is
stored on a computer.

Files of archived data were called tables because they looked like tables used in
traditional file keeping.

Rows in the table were called records and columns were called fields. An example of
the file-based system is illustrated in the following table:

First Name Last Name Address Phone

Eric David ericd@eff.org 213-456-0987

Selena Sol selena@eff.org

987-765-4321

Jordan Lim nadroj@otherdomain.com 222-3456-123

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 Case Study-Traditional and File Processing System

• Consider a College System consisting of the following offices:

• Registration Office
• Library
• Exam Office

• Each Office is maintaining its own set of files for its day to day operations.

• Some of the files used in the system are Student’s File, Faculty File, Course File etc.

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 Manual System - Disadvantages
High data volume

Not reliable

Inefficient

Duplication of data

Inconsistency

A lot of data movement is required

• The manual filing system breaks down when we have to cross-reference or process
the information in the files. For example, a typical real estate agent’s office might
have a separate file for each property for sale or rent, each potential buyer and
renter, and each member of staff. 28
 Example of File System

• In our own home, we probably have some sort of filing system, which contains
receipts, guarantees, invoices, bank statements, and such like.

• When we need to look something up, we go to the filing system and search
through the system starting from the first entry until we find what we want.

• Alternatively, we may have an indexing system that helps to locate what we want
more quickly.

For example, we may have divisions in the filing system or separate folders for
different types of item that are in some way logically related.

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 File Processing System

• File-based systems were an early attempt to computerize the manual filing system.

• The manual files were replaced by computer files.

• A person responsible for developing and managing computerized file processing

system was called Data Processing (DP) specialist.

• Each application will have its own set of Private Files designed to meet the needs
of a particular department.

• Before the advent of database systems, computer-readable data was usually kept
in files stored on magnetic tape or disk.

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File Processing System (cont.)

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File Processing System (cont.)

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Examples of File Processing System

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 Disadvantages of File-based Systems
1. Data Redundancy 10. Maintenance

2. Data Inconsistency

3. Data Dependence

4. Poor Enforcement of
Standards

5. Limited Data Sharing

6. Inflexible

7. Lack of Provision for Security

8. Limited Recovery from

Failure

9. Atomicity
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 Disadvantages of File-based Systems (cont.)

1. Redundancy of Data
• Redundancy means duplication of data
• Higher storage

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 Disadvantages of File-based Systems (cont.)
2. Data Inconsistencies or Data Anomalies
• Redundancy leads to data inconsistency or data anomalies.

• A data anomaly occurs if an operation (update, insert, delete) has not yet been
performed against all the occurrences. Consequently, same data stored at different
places will disagree with each other

3. Poor Enforcement of Standards

• Organization wide enforcement of standards is poor. This leads to the following
types of inconsistencies:

a) Synonym: Using different names for same data item

Example: Stud-Id, Reg-No.
b) Homonym: Using same name for different data items.
Example: “course” for a single subject or entire program.

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 Disadvantages of File-based Systems (cont.)
4. Data Dependence
• The definition of data is embedded in the application programs, rather than being
stored separately and independently.

• The applications are constrained to work only with the given file description. Any
change in the file structure or data requires changes to all the applications using
that file. Such applications are called Data Dependent Applications.

• Data dependence leads to excessive program maintenance.

• Often difficult to locate all programs affected by change.

• Errors are often introduced when making changes.

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 Disadvantages of File-based Systems (cont.)
5. Limited Data Sharing
• As each application has its own private files so little opportunity to share data with
others.

6. Inflexible
• A traditional file system can deliver routine scheduled reports after extensive
programming efforts, but it cannot deliver ad-hoc reports or respond to
unanticipated information requirements in a timely fashion.

7. Lack of Provision for Security

• File processing system does not provide adequate security on data. In some
situations, it is required to provide different types of access to data for different
users. For example, a data entry operator should only be allowed to enter data.

8. Limited Recovery from Failure

In case of file corruption, the recovery option is very limited as compared to that of
DBMS.
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 Disadvantages of File-based Systems (cont.)
9. Atomicity
• Atomicity is required to save the data values, it means that information is
completely entered or cancelled at all.

• Any system may fail at any time and at that time it is desired that data should be in
a consistent state.

For Example: If you are buying a ticket from railway and you are in the process of
money transaction. Suddenly, your internet got disconnected then you may or may
not have paid for the ticket. If you have paid then your ticket will be booked and if not
then you will not be charged anything. That is called consistent state, means you have
paid or not.

10. Maintenance
• Besides the above, the maintenance of the File Based System is complex and there
is no provision for security. Recovery is non-existent or inadequate.

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 Integrated Database Environment

• IDE has a single large repository of data, called database, where data definition is
separated from application programs.

• Emphasizes the integration & sharing of data throughout the organization.

• The organization wide requirements are analysed as a whole and there is no longer
concept of MY FILE or Private Files.

• A Database Management System (DBMS) is a software designed to assist in

maintaining and utilizing large collections of data.

• A database can handle any kind of records, like text, number, images, date, sounds
etc.

• The database in not owned by a single department, but it is owned by the whole
organization and is managed by a single person called Database Administrator
(DBA).
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 Advantages of Database Systems
• DBMS manages data resources like an operating system manages hardware
resources

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 Advantages of Database Systems
1. Reduced or Controlled Data
10. Data Independence
Redundancy

2. Improved Data Consistency

3. Enforcement of Standards

4. Reduced Program
Maintenance

5. Data Sharing

6. Data Integrity (Improved

Data Quality)
7. Improved Security
Restrictions
8. Improved Accessibility &
Responsiveness

9. Improved Decision Making

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 Advantages of Database Systems (cont.)
1. Reduced or Controlled Data Redundancy
• Since all the data items are stored in a single database, therefore Redundancy is
minimized.

• Separate data files are integrated into a single logical structure to reduce
redundancy.

• 100% elimination of redundancy is not possible in order keep the logical

connections among the data items.

2. Improved Data Consistency

• Reduction in redundancy automatically avoids inconsistency.

• If a data item appears only once, any change to its value needs to be performed
only for once and the database will always be in some consistent / correct state.

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 Advantages of Database Systems (cont.)
3. Enforcement of Standards
• This is possible as database is designed to meet the organization wide
requirements.

• The standards can be name of data items and their format, data codes,
documentation standards, operation standards, security policies etc.

4. Reduced Program Maintenance & Development Cost

• When all the organization’s requirements are satisfied by one database instead of
many separate files, the maintenance and development cost automatically
reduces.

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 Advantages of Database Systems (cont.)
5. Data Sharing
• Sharing means that the same data source is used by multiple applications.

• Data is centralized and hence can be shared not only by the existing applications
but also new applications can be developed to operate against the same data.

• The applications that can access same data simultaneously are called Online
Transaction Processing (OLTP) applications and DBMS uses Concurrency Control
Mechanism to ensure that multiple users can access and update data correctly.

45
 Advantages of Database Systems (cont.)
6. Data Integrity (Improved Data Quality)
• Data integrity refers to the correctness of data.

• Integrity constraints or rules ensure that the data stored in the database is purified
and accurate.

7. Improved Security Restrictions

• Database security is the protection of database from unauthorized disclosure,
alteration or destruction.

• DBMS provides strong security measures against such threats. Some of them are:
• Password checks
• User defined procedures
• Defining user privileges
• Audit trial system
• Data encryption

46
 Advantages of Database Systems (cont.)
8. Improved Accessibility & Responsiveness
• In File Processing System, data accessibility is quite difficult as it is procedural
based. You should know the detailed procedural steps. HOW TO DO?

• On the other hand, accessing data is lot easier in DBMS with the help of a non
procedural language – SQL. You only need to know the simple commands or in
other words WHAT TO DO?

9. Improved Decision Making

• Consolidated reports
• Ad-hoc queries
• Multiple views of data

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 Advantages of Database Systems (cont.)
10. Data Independence
• The separation of data descriptions from the applications using the data is called
data independence.

• Data Independence can also be defined as: “The immunity of an application to

change in storage structure – which implies that the applications don’t depend on
any particular storage structure”.

• Allows change & evolution of database systems without changing the application
programs.

• Without data independence, it is must to understand the arrangements of data

elements in order to perform an operation against them.

• Different data arrangements will need different algorithms even for the same
operation.

48
 Advantages of Database Systems (cont.)
10. Data Independence (cont.)
• Clearly, data dependence is not desired because of the following reasons:

a) Each user should be able to access data in a customized way.

b) Users should not have to deal directly with the physical database storage
details.

c) Different application may need different physical structure for the efficiency of
their operations.

d) The DBA should have freedom to change the storage structure or access
technique or both in response to changing requirements without much disturbing
the existing applications.

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 Disadvantages of Database Systems

1. Need for new specialized personnel

2. Installation cost & complexity
3. Conversion from legacy system to modern database system
4. Organizational conflict
5. Higher impact of failure

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Contrasting Database & File Systems

51
Contrasting Database & File Systems (cont.)

52
Contrasting Database & File Systems (cont.)

53
Introduction to Database Environment

54
 Components of Database Environment

1. Hardware
2. Software
3. Data
4. Procedures
5. People/User Groups

55
Components of Database Environment (cont.)

1. Hardware

• The DBMS and the applications require hardware to run. The hardware can range
from a single personal computer to a single mainframe or a network of computers.

• The particular hardware depends on the organization’s requirements and the DBMS
used.

• Some DBMSs run only on particular hardware or operating systems, while others
run on a wide variety of hardware and operating systems.

• A DBMS requires a minimum amount of main memory and disk space to run, but
this minimum configuration may not necessarily give acceptable performance.

56
Components of Database Environment (cont.)

2. Software

• The software component comprises the DBMS software itself and the application
programs, together with the operating system, including network software if the
DBMS is being used over a network.

• Typically, application programs are written in a third-generation programming

language (3GL), such as C, C++, C#, Java, Visual Basic, COBOL, Fortran, Ada, or
Pascal, or a fourth-generation language (4GL), such as SQL, embedded in a third
generation language.

• The target DBMS may have its own fourth-generation tools that allow rapid
development of applications through the provision of nonprocedural query
languages, reports generators, forms generators, graphics generators, and
application generators.

• The use of fourth-generation tools can improve productivity significantly and

produce programs that are easier to maintain.
57
Components of Database Environment (cont.)
3. Data

• Perhaps the most important component of the DBMS environment—certainly from

the end-users’ point of view—is the data.

• In Figure (slide # 55) , we observe that the data acts as a bridge between the
machine components and the human components.

• The database contains both the operational data and the metadata, the “data about
data.”

• The structure of the database is called the schema.

4. Procedures

• Procedures refer to the instructions and rules that govern the design and use of the
database.

58
Components of Database Environment (cont.)
4. Procedures (cont.)

• The users of the system and the staff who manage the database require
documented procedures on how to use or run the system.

• These may consist of instructions on how to:

o Log on to the DBMS.
o Use a particular DBMS facility or application program.
o Start and stop the DBMS.
o Make backup copies of the database.
o Handle hardware or software failures. This may include procedures on how to
identify the failed component, how to fix the failed component (for example,
telephone the appropriate hardware engineer), and, following the repair of the
fault, how to recover the database.
o Change the structure of a table, reorganize the database across multiple disks,
improve performance, or archive data to secondary storage.

5. People
• The final component is the people involved with the system. 59
 Types of Database Users/Roles
• Database users are the persons who interact with the database and take the
benefits of database.

• Users are differentiated by the way they expect to interact with the system.

• Following are the types of database users in DBMS.

1. Data and Database Administrators

The database and the DBMS are corporate resources that must be managed like any
other resource. Data and database administration are the roles generally associated
with the management and control of a DBMS and its data.

• The Data Administrator (DA) is responsible for the management of the data
resource, including database planning; development and maintenance of
standards, policies and procedures; and conceptual/logical database design.

• The DA consults with and advises senior managers, ensuring that the direction
of database development will ultimately support corporate objectives. 60
 Types of Database Users/Roles (cont.)
• The Database Administrator (DBA) is responsible for the physical realization of
the database, including physical database design and implementation,
security and integrity control, maintenance of the operational system, and
ensuring satisfactory performance of the applications for users.

• The role of the DBA is more technically oriented than the role of the DA,
requiring detailed knowledge of the target DBMS and the system environment.

• In some organizations there is no distinction between these two roles; in

others, the importance of the corporate resources is reflected in the allocation
of teams of staff dedicated to each of these roles.

2. Database Designers

• Database Designers are the users who design the structure of database which
includes tables, indexes, views, constraints, triggers, stored procedures.
He/she controls what data must be stored and how the data items to be
related.
61
 Types of Database Users/Roles (cont.)
3. Application Programmers/Developers

• Once the database has been implemented, the application programs that
provide the required functionality for the end-users must be implemented.

• This is the responsibility of the application developers.

• Typically, the application developers work from a specification produced by

systems analysts.

• Each program contains statements that request the DBMS to perform some
operation on the database, which includes retrieving data, inserting,
updating, and deleting data.

62
 Types of Database Users/Roles (cont.)
4. End Users
The end-users are the “clients” of the database, which has been designed and
implemented and is being maintained to serve their information needs. End-users can
be classified according to the way they use the system:

• Naïve users
o They are typically unaware of the DBMS. They access the database through
specially written application programs that attempt to make the operations as
simple as possible.

o They invoke database operations by entering simple commands or choosing

options from a menu. This means that they do not need to know anything
about the database or the DBMS.

o For example, the checkout assistant at the local supermarket uses a bar code
reader to find out the price of the item. However, there is an application
program present that reads the bar code, looks up the price of the item in the
database, reduces the database field containing the number of such items in
stock, and displays the price on the till. 63
 Types of Database Users/Roles (cont.)
4. End Users (cont.)

• Sophisticated users
o At the other end of the spectrum, the sophisticated end-user is familiar with
the structure of the database and the facilities offered by the DBMS.

o Sophisticated end-users may use a high-level query language such as SQL to

perform the required operations.

o Some sophisticated end-users may even write application programs for their
own use.

64
Database Design: The Paradigm Shift
(History of Databases Systems)

65
 History of Database Systems
1. Early Data Management (1960s)

• File Systems: Early data storage relied on flat file systems, where data was stored in
individual files without structured relationships.

2. Hierarchical and Network Models (1970s)

• Hierarchical Databases: Introduced by IBM (IMS), these used tree-like structures to

represent data, allowing one-to-many relationships.

• Network Databases: Emerged as an evolution, using graph structures for more

complex relationships (e.g., IDMS).

3. Relational Model (1970s)

• E.F. Codd's Relational Model (1970): Proposed a way to manage data using tables
(relations), leading to the development of SQL.

• First Relational Database Management Systems (RDBMS): IBM’s System R and Oracle
in the late 1970s. 66
 History of Database Systems (cont.)
4. SQL and Commercialization (1980s)

• SQL Standardization: SQL became the standard query language for RDBMS,
enhancing data manipulation capabilities.

• Commercial Systems: Emergence of products like Oracle, Microsoft SQL Server,

and Sybase.

5. Object-Oriented and NoSQL (1990s)

• Object-Oriented Databases: Integrated object-oriented programming with

databases, supporting complex data types.

• NoSQL Databases: Developed to handle unstructured data, scalability, and

flexibility (e.g., MongoDB, Cassandra).

67
 History of Database Systems (cont.)
6. NewSQL and Cloud Databases (2010s)

• NewSQL: Aimed to provide the scalability of NoSQL with the ACID guarantees of
traditional RDBMS (e.g., VoltDB).

• Cloud Databases: Emergence of database services on cloud platforms (e.g., Amazon

RDS, Google Cloud SQL).

7. Current Trends (2020s)

• Distributed Databases: Increasing focus on distributed systems for scalability and

fault tolerance.

• AI and Automation: Integration of AI for data management and query optimization.

• Multi-Model Databases: Support for multiple data models (e.g., document, graph)
within a single database.

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