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Cambridge IGCSE
™

Information
and
Communicatio
n Technology
Third Edition

Graham Brown
 David Watson
Cambridge International copyright material in this publication is reproduced under licence and remains the intellectual property of
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Cambridge Assessment International Education bears no responsibility for the example answers to questions taken from its past question
papers which are contained in this publication.
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References to assessment and/or assessment preparation are the publisher’s interpretation of the syllabus requirements and may not fully
reflect the approach of Cambridge Assessment International Education.
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ISBN: 9781398318540
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First published in 2010
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A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library.

Contents
Introduction vi SECTION 1 THEORY 1
1 Types and components of computer systems 2 1.1
Hardware and software 2 1.2 Main components of computer systems 7
1.3 Operating systems 10 1.4 Types of computer 14 1.5 Emerging
technologies 20
2 Input and output devices 26 2.1 Input devices and their uses
26 2.2 Direct data entry (DDE) devices 37 2.3 Output devices and their
uses 44
3 Storage devices and media 60 3.1 Magnetic media and
magnetic storage devices 60 3.2 Optical media and optical storage
devices 64 3.3 Solid-state media and solid-state storage devices 68 3.4
The future of storage devices 72
4 Networks and the effects of using them 76 4.1 Networks
76 4.2 Network issues and communication 87
5 The effects of using IT 99 5.1 Microprocessor-controlled
devices 99 5.2 Potential health problems related to the prolonged
use of ICT equipment 106 6 ICT applications 110 6.1
Communication 110 6.2 Modelling applications 118 6.3 Computer controlled
systems 126 6.4 School management systems 128 6.5 Booking systems 131
6.6 Banking systems 135 6.7 Computers in medicine 140 6.8 Expert systems
143 6.9 Computers in the retail industry 148 6.10 Recognition systems 153
6.11 Satellite systems 160

iii

7 The systems life cycle 169 7.1 Analysis 170 7.2 Design 175 7.3
Development and testing 180 7.4 Implementation 185 7.5
Documentation 186 7.6 Evaluation 187
8 Safety and security 194 8.1 Physical security 194 8.2 E-safety
195 8.3 Security of data 200
9 Audiences 219 9.1 Audience appreciation 219 9.2 Copyright 223
10 Communication 226 10.1 Communication with other ICT users
using email 226 10.2 Effective use of the internet 233

SECTION 2 PRACTICAL 251

11 File management 252 11.1 Manage files effectively 252 11.2
Reduce file sizes for storage or transmission 259
12 Images 261 12.1 Software tools 261 12.2 Edit an image 262
13 Layout 276 13.1 Create or edit a document 277 13.2 Tables 285
13.3 Headers and footers 297
14 Styles 304 14.1 Corporate house styles 304 14.2 Create, modify,
update and apply consistent styles 306
15 Proofing 319 15.1 Software tools 319 15.2 Proofing techniques 325
16 Graphs and charts 328 16.1 Chart types 328 16.2 Create a
 chart 329 16.3 Label a chart 332 16.4 Use secondary axes 335

iv

17 Document production 341 17.1 Organise page layout 341

17.2 Format text 350
18 Databases 359 18.1 Create a database structure 359 18.2
Manipulate data 380 18.3 Present data 388
19 Presentations 405 19.1 Create a presentation 405 19.2 Use a
master slide 407 19.3 Edit a presentation 414 19.4 Output a presentation
434
20 Spreadsheets 439 20.1 Create a data model 439 20.2
Manipulate data 462 20.3 Present data 468
21 Website authoring 480 21.1 Web development layers 481 21.2
Create a web page 482 21.3 Use stylesheets 527
Index 551

v
INTRODUCTION

Introduction
Aims
This book has been written for students of Cambridge IGCSE®
Information and Communication Technology (0417/0983) for
examination from 2023. It fully covers the syllabus content, provides
guidance to support you throughout the course and helps you to
prepare for the examination.

Assessment
The information in this section is taken from the Cambridge IGCSE
Information and Communication Technology 0417/0983 syllabus for
examination from 2023. You should always refer to the appropriate
syllabus document for the year of examination to confirm the details and
for more information.
The syllabus document is available on the Cambridge International
website at: www.cambridgeinternational.org
There are three examination papers:
Paper 1 Theory Paper 2 Document Paper 3
Production, Spreadsheets and
Databases and Website Authoring
Presentations

Duration 1 hour 30 minutes 2 hours 15 minutes 2 hours 15 minutes

Marks 80 marks 70 marks 70 marks

Syllabus 1–21 11–16, 17, 18, 19 11–16, 20, 21

sections
examined

Papers 2 and 3 assess practical skills using a range of different

software applications.

How to use this book

Organisation
The content is organised into 21 chapters, corresponding to the
syllabus. The content is generally in the same order as the syllabus,
although the material within practical chapters is presented in a natural
teaching order to aid both teaching and learning, so may deviate
slightly.
The material directly relevant to practical skills are covered in the
practical chapters 11–21.

vi
Introduction

Features
Learning outline
Each chapter opens with an outline of the subject material to be covered. The
practical chapters 11–21 also state required prior knowledge and source files
used.

Exercise
Chapters 1–10 contain short exercises to help recap and confirm knowledge and
understanding of the concepts covered.

Exam-style questions
Chapters 1–10 conclude with exam-style questions, to provide practice with
theory questions. Where these are taken from past papers, the details of the
specific past paper appear at the end of the question. Any questions without
this reference have been written by the authors of this book.

vii

INTRODUCTION

Task
Chapters 11–21 contain tasks throughout. Each task is a step-by-step
worked example of a practical examination-style question. They often
include the use of source files. The text demonstrates techniques used to
solve the task using easy-to-follow step-by-step instructions, along with
numerous screenshots, so that practical skills are developed alongside
knowledge and understanding.
 Activities
These are examination-style questions in the practical section, usually at
the end of a chapter or section. These often include the use of source files.
Answers and mark schemes are available on Boost:

Advice
These provide helpful tips and background throughout the book.

Links
Numerous topics in ICT are connected together. The Links feature
states where relevant material is covered elsewhere in the book.

Colour codes and symbols used

Some words or phrases within the text are printed in red. Definitions
of these terms can be found in the glossary within the Teacher
Resource on Boost.

viii

In the practical section, words that appear in blue indicate an action or location found within the software package.
Blue text that is in chevrons <like this> indicated that this is a key to be pressed on the computer’s keyboard, for
example:

In Chapter 18 Databases, words in orange show

field names, for example:
In Chapter 20, words in green show the functions or formulae entered into the cell of a spreadsheet, for example:

In Chapter 21 all HyperText Markup Language (HTML) is shown is a blue proportionally spaced font and Cascading
Stylesheets appear in a cerise proportionally spaced font, for example:

Introductionix
INTRODUCTION

Hardware and software used

The practical elements of the syllabus can be undertaken on any suitable hardware platform and using any
appropriate software packages. For the purposes of giving examples in this book, we have chosen specific software
packages – but the functionality of many other packages is very similar. Many of the skills demonstrated in
Chapters 11 to 21 are transferable and can be adapted for other hardware and software platforms.
All the tasks and activities within the practical chapters have therefore been created using a PC platform with
Microsoft Windows 10 operating system and include the use of Notepad. Independent packages used for the
practical sections include packages from Microsoft 365, including Word, Excel, Access and PowerPoint. Google
Chrome has been used as the web browser, although we would recommend testing all web pages in at least three
different web browsers. For the website authoring section of the book (Chapter 21), all work has been produced in
HTML code without the use of a What You See Is What You Get (WYSIWYG)
package such as Adobe Dreamweaver and Microsoft Expression Web.
Although you may have a WYSIWYG package, it is important to realise that
you are expected to have knowledge of underlying HTML and CSS. All HTML
written within this chapter is written in HTML version 5, and is W3C validated (at the time of going to print). All
cascading stylesheets used have been W3C validated.

Using source files

Source files that are required for the practical chapters can be found at: www.
hoddereducation.co.uk/cambridgeextras and will need to be downloaded onto your local machine or network drive in
order to use them. Copy them and give them read/write access. This is essential to ensure that you can use some of
the
file types included.

Changing the source files to match your regional settings

Before attempting any of these processes, back up all source files. The .csv (comma separated value) files have
commas as separators between fields and full stops within currency values. If your regional settings for these values
are different (for example, if you use commas within currency values rather than full stops and your software
settings require you to use semicolons for separators between fields), then the source data files will need to be
edited for use with the regional settings for your software. You can do this in many different software packages, but
the easiest (at this level) is Word.
Open the .csv file in Word using FILE and Open. Select the file from the list to open the file, which will look similar to
this:

x
Introduction

Select the HOME tab, then the Editing section followed by the Replace
icon.

Enter a , (comma) into the Find what: box and a ; (semicolon) into the Replace
with: box, then click on .
Repeat this process, replacing a . (full stop) with a , (comma). All the characters
will have been replaced within the file like this:

Save the file with the same file name using the File tab and Save. This will
ensure that the file is saved in .csv format.

Additional support
The Theory Workbook and Practical Workbook provide additional opportunity for
practice. These write-in workbooks are designed to be used throughout the
course.

xi
INTRODUCTION

Command words
Command word What it means

Analyse examine in detail to show meaning, identify elements and

the relationship between them

Compare identify/comment on similarities and/or differences

Contrast identify/comment on differences

Define give precise meaning

Demonstrate show how or give an example

Describe state the points of a topic/give characteristics and main features

Discuss write about issue(s) or topic(s) in depth in a structured way

 Evaluate judge or calculate the quality, importance, amount, or value
of something

Explain set out purposes or reasons/make the relationships between

things evident/provide why and/or how and support with
relevant evidence

Give produce an answer from a given source or recall/memory

Identify name/select/recognise

Justify support a case with evidence/argument

State express in clear terms

Suggest apply knowledge and understanding to situations where

there are a range of valid responses in order to make
proposals/put forward considerations

Disclaimers
Cambridge International copyright material in this publication is
reproduced under licence and remains the intellectual property of
Cambridge Assessment International Education.
Exam-style questions and sample answers have been written by the
authors. In examinations, the way marks are awarded may be different.
References to assessment and/or assessment preparation are the
publisher’s interpretation of the syllabus requirements and may not fully
reflect the approach of Cambridge Assessment International Education.

xii

SECTION 1
Theory
Chapters
 1 Types and components of computer systems
2 Input and output devices
3 Storage devices and media
4 Networks and the effects of using them
5 The effects of using IT
6 ICT applications
7 The systems life cycle
8 Safety and security
9 Audiences
10 Communication

Types and components of

1 computer
systems
In this chapter you will learn about:
★ hardware
★ software
★ analogue and digital data
★ central processing unit (CPU)
★ internal memory (RAM and ROM)
★ input and output devices
★ backing store
★ operating systems
★ types of computer – desktop computers and mobile computers (laptop,
smartphone, tablet and phablet)
★ emerging technologies – artificial intelligence (AI) and extended reality
(virtual and augmented).

Computer systems are now commonplace in every part of our daily life.
This first chapter introduces the basic components that make up these
computer systems; most of which will be described in much greater depth
in later chapters. Basic components, including hardware (both external and
internal) and software (both applications and system), are all briefly
introduced in the following sections.
Comparing books with computers is a good analogy: the actual pages
and the ink used on the pages are equivalent to the hardware used to
make up computers; the words written on these pages are equivalent to
the software. Without the words, the book is useless. Similarly, without
software, computers would be of little use to any of us.

1.1 Hardware and software

1.1.1 Hardware
Hardware is the general term for the physical components that make up a
typical computer system. For example:
» keyboard
» mouse input device
» camera
» monitor
» printer output device
» plotter
Hardware falls into two categories: internal and external. The list
 above are examples of external hardware, which is discussed in
detail in Chapter 2. Figure 1.1 considers the following internal
hardware devices:
» motherboard
» central processing unit (CPU)/processor
» random access memory (RAM)
2
1.1 Hardware and software

» read-only memory (ROM)

» graphics card
» sound card
» network interface card (NIC)
» internal storage devices (hard disk drive and solid-state drive).
Because it is not always possible to see the internal hardware devices, the
photographs in Figure 1.2 will give you some idea of the physical appearance of
the components described in Figure 1.1.
Motherboard • a cooling mechanism (often in the computer with the ability to produce sounds. These
The motherboard is a printed circuit form of a heat sink since these cards sounds can be heard by the user either through speakers
board found in all computers. It allows the processor and generate a lot of heat) or headphones. Sound cards also allow a user to record
other computer • connections to a display unit sound input from a microphone connected to the
hardware to function and communi (monitor, TV or projector). computer, and manipulate sound stored on a disk.
cate with each other. One of the major functions of a Read-only memory (ROM)
typical motherboard is Read-only memory (ROM) is a memory used to store
to act as a kind of 'hub' which other information that needs to be permanent. It is often used to
▲ Figure 1.1 Internal computer hardware
computer devices connect to. A typical motherboard contain, for example, configuration data for a computer
Random access memory (RAM) Random access memory
consists of a sheet of system. These chips cannot be altered and can only be
(RAM) is an internal chip where data is temporarily stored
non-conductive material, such as hard read from (hence their name). One of the main advantages
when running applications. This memory can be written to
plastic. Thin layers of copper or is that the information stored on the ROM chip is not lost
and read from. Since its contents are lost when power to
aluminium are printed onto this sheet. These form the even when power is turned off to the computer. They are
the computer is turned off, it is often referred to as a
circuits between the often referred to as non-volatile memories.
volatile or temporary memory.
various components. In addition to RAM stores the data, files or part of the operating system
circuits, a motherboard contains currently in use.
several sockets and slots to connect
the other components.

Central processing unit

(CPU)/processor Network interface card (NIC) A network interface card
A central processing unit (CPU) or (NIC) is a component that allows a computer or any other
processor is an electronic circuit board device (for example, a printer) to be connected to a
in a computer that can execute network (for example, the internet); it can be wired or
instructions from a computer program. The two main wireless.
components are: Each NIC is hard-coded with a unique MAC (media access
• arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) where arithmetic and control) address code – refer to Chapter 4)
logical operations are
carried out
• control unit (CU) which takes
instructions the decodes and executes the instructions.
INTERNAL COMPUTER
HARDWARE

Internal hard disk drive/

Graphics card solid-state drive (HDD/SSD) These two devices are
A graphics card allows the computer to send graphical covered in considerably more depth in later chapters of
information to a video this book. Basically, hard disk drives (HDDs) are magnetic
display device such as a monitor, in nature and are one of the main methods for storing
television, or projector. It usually data, files (text, photos and music) and most of the system
connects to the motherboard (see and applications software. More modern computers (and
above). Graphics cards are usually made up of: all tablets) use the newer storage systems which make
• a processing unit use of solid-state (SSD) technology and are replacing
Sound card
• memory unit (usually RAM) HDDs in many cases. Their function is the same as an
A sound card is an integrated circuit board that provides a
HDD.

3
1 Types and components of computer systems
 Motherboard: RAM: ROM:

Graphics card: Sound card: SSD:

HDD:

▲ Figure 1.2 Examples of internal hardware

1.1.2 Software
Software is the general term used for the
programs that control the computer system and process data. The
software considered in this book falls into two categories: applications
and system.
Applications software provides the services that the user requires to
solve a given task. For example:
» word processing
» spreadsheet
» database (management system)
» control and measurement software
» apps and applets
» video editing
» graphics editing
» audio editing
» computer-aided design (CAD).
(Refer to Figure 1.3 for more details.)
System software is the software designed to provide a platform on
which all other software can run. For example:
» compilers
» linkers
» device drivers
» operating systems
» utilities.
(Refer to Figure 1.4 for more details.)
4

Word processing manipulating text Control and measurement software

Word processing software is used to • copy and paste functions Control and measuring software is designed
manipulate a text document, such as an essay • spell checkers and thesaurus to allow a computer or
or a report. Text is entered using a keyboard • import photos/images into a structured page microprocessor to interface with sensors so
and the software provides tools for copying, format that it is possible to:
deleting and various types of formatting. Some • translation into foreign language. • measure physical quantities in the real
of the functions of word processing software world (such as temperatures)
include: • control applications (such as a
• creating, editing, saving and chemical process) by comparing sensor data
 with stored data and sending out signals to APPLICATIONS SOFTWARE Apps and applets
alter process parameters (for example, open Programs that allow the Applets are small applications that perform a
a valve to add acid and change the pH). user to do specific tasks single task on a device (they are usually
embedded in an HTML page on a website
and can be executed from within a browser).
Apps refer to software which can perform a
fairly substantial task (such as, video and
music streaming, banking application or
social media). The term originally referred to
software that ran on a smartphone and could
be
downloaded from an ‘app store’.

Audio editing software

Audio editing software allows a user to edit, Computer-aided design (CAD)
manipulate and generate audio data on a software
computer. It allows the user to alter: • length of This is software used to help in the
track creation, manipulation, modification and
• start/stop time of track analysis of a drawing/design. It can be
Video editing software used to produce 2D or 3D diagrams
• conversion between audio file formats •
Video editing software allows a user the ability which:
volume of track
to manipulate videos to produce a new video. • can be rotated to view the drawing from
• fading in/out It enables the addition of titles, colour
• combine multiple sound tracks any angle
correction and altering/ adding sound to the • can produce full dimensions
• noise reduction original video. Essentially it includes:
• to create another version of the sound track • can be used to estimate
• rearranging, adding and/or removing
(for example, a continuous loop or phone ring manufacturing costs of the
sections of video clips and/or audio clips
tone). final product
• applying colour correction, filters and other
• predict any structural problems.
video enhancements
• creating transitions between clips in the
▲ Figure 1.3 Applications software video footage. Graphics editing software
1.1 Hardware and software Graphics editing software allows bitmap and
vector images to be changed. Bitmap images
are made up of pixels which contain information
about image brightness and colour. Bitmap
graphics editors can change the pixels to
Spreadsheet Database (management system) Database produce a different image. Vector graphic
Spreadsheet software is used to organise and software is used to organise, manipulate and editors operate in a different way and do not
manipulate numerical data (in the form of analyse data. A typical database is made up use pixels. This type of software manipulates
integer, real, date, and so on). Numbers are of one or more tables. Tables consist of rows lines, curves and text to alter the stored image
organised on a grid of lettered columns and and columns. Each row is called a 'record' as required. Both types of editing software are
numbered rows. The grid itself is made up of and each column is called a 'field.' This chosen depending on the format of the original
cells, and each cell is identified using a unique provides the basic structure for the image.
combination of columns and rows; for organisation of the data within the database.
example: B6. Some of the functions of Some of the functions include: • ability to carry
spreadsheets include: • use of formulae to out queries on database data and produce a
carry out report (DBMS) • add, delete and modify data in
calculations a table.
• ability to produce graphs
• ability to do modelling and 'what if'
calculations.

5
1 Types and components of computer systems

Compiler software running in the background of a by a compiler and combines them into a
A compiler is a computer program that computer system. It manages many of the single program that can be run on a
translates a program written in a high-level basic functions. Without the OS, most computer. For example, many programming
language (HLL) into machine code (code that computers would be very languages allow programmers to write
is understood by the computer) so that it can user-unfriendly and the majority of users different pieces of code, called modules,
be directly used by a computer to perform a would find it almost impossible to work with separately. This simplifies the programming
required task. The original program is called computers on a task since it allows the program to be broken
the source code and the code after day-to-day basis. Operating up into small, more manageable sub-tasks.
compilation is called the object code. Once a systems allow: However, at some point, it will be necessary
program is compiled, the machine code can • input/output operations to put all the modules together to form the
be used again and again to perform the same • users to communicate with the computer final program. This is the job of the linker.
task without recompilation. Examples of high- (for example, Windows) • error handling to
level languages include Java, Python, Visual take place • the loading and running of
Basic, Fortran, C++ and Algol. programs to occur
• managing of security (for example, user
accounts, log on passwords).

▲ Figure 1.4 System software

Operating systems (OS) Linkers
The operating system (OS) is essentially A linker (or link editor) is a computer program
that takes one or more object files produced
 SYSTEM SOFTWARE drivers. As soon as a device is plugged into Utility programs are software that has been
Programs that allow the the USB port of a designed to carry out specific tasks on a
hardware to run properly computer, the operating system looks for the computer. Essentially, they are programs
and allow the user to appropriate driver. An error message will be that help to manage, maintain and control
communicate with produced if it cannot be found. Examples of computer
the computer hardware devices that require drivers include resources. Examples include:
printers, memory sticks, mouse, CD drivers, • antivirus
Device driver
and so on. • anti-spyware
A device driver is the name given to software
that enables one or more hardware devices to • backup of files
communicate with the computer’s operating • disk repair
system. Without drivers, a hardware device • file management
(for example, a printer) would be unable to • security
work with the computer. All hardware devices • screensavers
connected to a computer have associated Utilities • disk defragmenter.

1.1.3 Analogue and digital data

Computers can only understand data which is in a binary format (that is, a
base 2 number system where only the values 0 and 1 can be used). This is
often referred to as digital data (because it can only have discrete,
discontinuous values). However, data in the real world is actually analogue
in nature. Analogue data is physical data that changes smoothly from one
value to the next, and not in discrete steps as with digital data.
6
6
5
5
4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
0
0

▲ Figure 1.5 Analogue and digital data

6
1.2 Main components of computer systems

In Figure 1.5, the graph on the left shows analogue data; an infinite number of
values can exist between 0 and 6 (for example, 2.5, 4.652, and so on) because
the curve is smooth in shape. The graph on the right shows digital data; notice
only the exact values of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 can be taken.
If analogue data is being sent to a computer, it must first be converted into
digital data; this is done by hardware known as an analogue to digital converter
(ADC). If the computer is controlling a device (such as a motor) then the digital
output from the computer needs to be converted into analogue form. This is
done by a digital to analogue converter (DAC).

1.2 Main components of computer systems

As already mentioned in Section 1.1, a typical computer system is made up
of hardware and software. The diagram in Figure 1.6 shows an example of a
computer system consisting of input devices, output devices and secondary
storage. These will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 2, but some examples
are listed in Table 1.1.

▼ Table 1.1 Examples of input, output and secondary storage devices

Device Examples

Input devices keyboard, mouse, camera, microphone, sensor, scanner

Output devices monitor, printer, speakers, projector, (graph) plotter

Secondary storage devices hard disk drive, solid-state drive, pen drive

The internal hardware devices were shown in Figure 1.2 – these consist of four
key components:
» the central processing unit (CPU) (contained on the motherboard)
» internal hard disk drive or solid-state drive
» random access memory (RAM)
» read-only memory (ROM).
microprocessor and
internal memory
and storage devices

computer
monitor

printer

mouse keyboard

▲ Figure 1.6 A typical computer system

7
1 Types and components of computer systems

1.2.1 CPU
The central processing unit (CPU) is the part of the computer that
interprets and executes the commands from the computer hardware
and software. It is normally part of the computer motherboard.
CPUs used to be made up of discrete components and numerous small
integrated circuits; these were combined together on one or more circuit
board(s). However, due to modern manufacturing techniques, the CPU is
now referred to as a microprocessor. This is a single integrated circuit
which is at the heart of most PCs and is also found in many household
devices and equipment where some control or monitoring is needed (for
example, the engine management system in a car).
The CPU/microprocessor is made up of a control unit, which controls the
input and output devices; an arithmetic and logic unit (ALU), which carries
out calculations and makes logical decisions, and small memory locations
called registers.
1.2.2 Internal memory
Random access memory (RAM) is an internal chip where data is
temporarily stored when running applications. This memory can be written
to and read from. Because its contents are lost when power to the
computer is turned off, it is often referred to as a volatile or temporary
memory. This was fully described in Figure 1.1.
Read-only memory (ROM) is a memory used to store information that
needs to be permanent. It is often used to contain, for example,
configuration data for a computer system. Chips used for ROM cannot be
altered and can only be read from (hence their name). One of the main
advantages is that the information stored on the ROM chip is not lost,
even when power is turned off to the computer. They are often referred to
as non-volatile memories. This was fully described in Figure 1.1.
It is worth noting that that ROM also contains some coding known as the
boot file. This code tells the computer what to do when it first starts up;
it is often referred to as the BIOS (basic input/output system).
When the computer is turned on, the BIOS carries out a hardware check
to find out if all the devices are present and whether they are functional.
Then it loads the operating system into the RAM.
The BIOS stores the date, time and system configuration in a non-volatile
chip called a CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor) –
this is usually battery powered.
Table 1.2 provides a summary of the main differences between RAM
and ROM. ▼ Table 1.2 RAM and ROM differences
RAM ROM

Temporary memory device Permanent memory device

Volatile memory Non-volatile memory device

Can be written to and read from Read-only, data stored cannot be altered

Used to store data, files, programs, part Used to store BIOS and other data needed
of operating systems (OS) currently in at start up
use

Can be increased in size to

improve operational speed of a
computer

8
1.2 Main components of computer systems

1.2.3 Input and output devices

Input devices are hardware that allows data to be entered into a computer
(these are covered in detail in Chapter 2). They use either manual entry
(such as a
keyboard or a mouse) or direct data entry (such as sensors or optical character
readers). Essentially, these devices turn input into a form the computer can
understand – for example, a mouse turns hand movements into cursor
movements on the screen. As mentioned earlier, sometimes the data has
to go through an
ADC before the computer can make any sense of it.
When a computer processes data, and the human operator wants to see the
results of the processing, then the computer sends the data to an output device.
An output device shows the computer’s output in a form that is understood by a
human – for example, as text on a printer or moving images on a monitor.
Some devices can act as both input and output. For example, a touch screen can
do both, as can a DVD writer/player; but most devices are only capable of either
inputting data into a computer or displaying the results of computer processing
(output device).
Table 1.3 summarises the differences between input and output devices.
▼ Table 1.3 Comparison of input and output devices
Input devices Output devices

An input device is any hardware device An output device is any hardware device
that allows a user to enter data or that takes the output data from a computer
instructions into a computer directly. and puts it into a human-readable format
or uses it to control another device.

An input device can send data to An output device is capable of receiving

another device, but it cannot receive data from another device in order to
data from another device. generate an output, but it cannot send
data to another device.

Input devices are necessary for a computer Output devices are needed by a
to receive commands from its users and computer so it can share the results of its
data to process; the devices are under the processing with a human; output devices
control of the user or can be direct data are under the control of the computer.
entry.

Input devices can be fairly complicated Output devices are less complex than
because they have to ensure that the input devices because they only have to
user can interact with the computer turn computer signals into an output.
correctly.

1.2.4 Backing storage

The main memories in a computer are RAM and ROM. However, to permanently
store large amounts of data it is necessary to use backing storage. This normally
takes the form of the internal hard disk drive (HDD) or solid-state drive
(SSD). This is the computer’s main internal storage where the applications
software,
disk operating system and files (for example, text, photo or music) are stored. A
key feature of a backing store is that it must store data permanently – that is, it
must be non-volatile.
Unlike RAM and ROM, backing storage is not directly addressable (that is, it
cannot be read directly by the CPU). The data access time for RAM and ROM is
much shorter than it is for backing storage. Backing storage is considerably
larger than RAM because it is considerably less expensive per byte.

9
1 Types and components of computer systems

Backing storage can either be fixed (very often internal to the computer) or
removable. The advantage of removable backing storage is that it can be
used as a backup in case of data loss or corruption. Data from the main
HDD or SSD can be copied onto another device (such as a pen drive or
portable HDD) and then stored in a separate location. If the original data
on the HDD/SSD has been lost or corrupted, it can be restored from the
backup device.
Examples of removable storage include external hard disk drives (HDD),
external solid-state drive (SSD) and Blu-ray discs.
Table 1.4 summarises the differences between backing storage and
internal memory.
▼ Table 1.4 Comparison of internal memory and backing storage
Internal memory Backing storage

RAM contents are lost when computer is Backing storage devices hold their
powered down; ROM contents are contents permanently, even when
readable only. powered down.

RAM and ROM are much smaller Have considerably larger capacity to
memories than backing storage. store data than RAM or ROM.

Data access time on RAM and Has much slower data access time
ROM is extremely fast. than RAM and ROM.

Much more expensive per byte than Is much cheaper per byte than RAM or
backing storage devices. ROM.

RAM and ROM are fixed inside the Backing storage can either be fixed
computer (internal memories). (external or internal) or it can be
removable.

RAM and ROM can be read directly by Before data on a backing storage device
the CPU. can be read by the CPU, it must first be
moved into RAM; this means backing
storage is not directly addressable by the
CPU.

1.3 Operating systems

Reference to operating systems has already been made earlier on in this
chapter (see Figure 1.4).
To enable computer systems to function and to allow users to
communicate with computer systems, special software, known as
operating systems (OS), have been developed. The general tasks for a
typical operating system include:
» control of the operation of the input, output and backing storage
devices » supervising the loading, running and storage of applications
programs » dealing with errors that occur in application programs
» maintaining security of the whole computer system
» maintaining a computer log (which details computer usage) »
allowing communication between user and the computer system
(user interface).

10
1.3 Operating systems

1.3.1 User interfaces

Operating systems offer various types of user interface. We will consider four
different types:
» command line interface (CLI)
» graphical user interface (GUI)
» dialogue-based user interface
» gesture-based user interface.
Command line interface (CLI)
A command line interface (CLI) requires a user to type in instructions to choose
options from menus, open software, etc. There are often a number of commands
that need to be typed in, for example, to save or load a file. The user has to
learn a number of commands just to carry out basic operations. It is also
slow, having
to key in these commands every time an operation has to be carried out.
However, the advantage of a CLI is that the user is in direct communication
with the
computer and is not restricted to a number of pre-determined options.
For example, Windows has a CLI called the ‘command prompt’. The following
command opens the desktop folder in Windows Explorer:
%windir%\explorer.exe C:\Users\YourName\Desktop

▲ Figure 1.7 Sample of CLI code

The statements in Figure 1.7 show how complex it is just to carry out a fairly
straightforward operation using CLI.
Graphical user interface (GUI)
A graphical user interface (GUI) allows the user to interact with a
computer (or MP3 player, gaming device, mobile phone, etc.) using
pictures or symbols (icons)
rather than having to type in a number of commands. For example, the whole of
the CLI code in Figure 1.7 could have been replaced by clicking on the Desktop
icon within Windows Explorer.
Simply selecting this icon would automatically execute all the commands shown
in Figure 1.7 without the need to type it in.
GUIs use various technologies and devices to provide the user interface. One
of the most common is WIMP (windows icons menu and pointing device)
which was developed for use on personal computers (PC). Here, a mouse is used
to control a cursor and icons are selected to open/run windows. Each window
11
1 Types and components of computer systems

contains an application and modern computer systems allow several

windows to be open at the same time. An example is shown in Figure 1.8
(here, a number of icons can be seen on the on the bottom of the screen
‘window’):
▲ Figure 1.8 Screen image showing icons
A window manager looks after the interaction between windows, the
applications and window system (which handles the pointing devices and
the cursor’s position).
In recent years, devices such as touch screen smartphones and tablets
use post WIMP interaction, where fingers are in contact with the screen
allowing actions such as pinching and rotating, which would be difficult
to do using a single pointer and device such as a mouse.
Table 1.5 summarises the main advantages and disadvantages of CLI and GUI.
▼ Table 1.5 Advantages and disadvantages of CLI and GUI interfaces
Interface Advantages Disadvantages

Command The user is in direct The user needs to learn a

line communication with the number of commands to carry
interface computer. out basic operations.
(CLI)
The user is not restricted to a All commands need to be typed
number of pre-determined in, which takes time and can be
options. error prone.
It is possible to alter Each command must be typed
computer configuration in using the correct format,
settings. spelling, and so on.

Graphical The user does not need to learn This type of interface uses
user any commands. up considerably more
interface computer memory than a
It is more user-friendly; icons CLI interface.
(GUI)
are used to represent
applications. The user is limited to the
icons provided on the
A pointing device (such as a screen.
mouse) is used to click on an icon
to launch the application – this is Needs a more complex operating
simpler than typing in commands. system, such as Windows, to
operate, which can be slower to
execute commands.

12
1.3 Operating systems

Who would use each type of interface?

CLI: a programmer, analyst or technician; basically, somebody who needs to have
direct communication with a computer to develop new software, locate
errors and remove them, initiate memory dumps (contents of the computer
memory at some
moment in time), and so on.
GUI: the end-user who does not have to (or does not need to) have any great
knowledge of how the computer works; a person who uses the computer to run
 software, play games or store/manipulate photographs, for example.
Dialogue-based user interfaces
Dialogue-based user interfaces use the human voice to give commands to a
computer system. An example of its use is in some luxury modern cars, where
voice activation is used to control devices such as the in-car entertainment
system or satellite navigation system. By speaking certain commends, such as
‘Hey BMW, drive me to the nearest airport’, the system allows natural speech to
enable the driver to intuitively interact with the car. The satellite navigation
system will automatically direct the driver to their chosen destination (in this
case, the nearest airport). This type of interface could also be used in the
home; by using voice commands, it is possible to switch on/off lights, operate
electronic equipment and so on. In recent years, devices such as Amazon Alexa,
Google Now, Apple Siri and Microsoft Cortana have all been developed to
interact with a human by recognising verbal commands. These devices act
as a personal
assistant.

Hey, Alexa, when is the next flight to Paphos? 100011

011001
11:45 from Terminal 1. 001110
Would you like me to 011111
make you a booking? 000001

Smart device is asked question by a stream

human Smart device processes the human command and
Human voice is converted into a binary outputs a verbal response

▲ Figure 1.9 Smart voice

activated devices

Gesture-based interfaces
Gesture-based interfaces rely on human interaction by the moving of
hands, head or even the feet. Gesture recognition allows humans to
interface with a computer in a more natural fashion without the need for
any mechanical devices. This type of interface uses techniques known as
computer vision and image processing. For example, using our car
example again, the following gestures can be used to carry out certain
functions:
» rotating a finger clockwise near the radio will increase the sound
volume (rotating the finger anti-clockwise will reduce the sound
volume)

13
1 Types and components of computer systems

» opening the thumb and next finger will change the track being listened to
(for example, in a playlist)
» moving the foot under the rear bumper of the car automatically opens
the boot lid
» moving a hand near a window switch automatically opens a window.

There are many other examples. Either a sensor or a camera is used to

pick up the gesture and a signal is sent to an on-board computer to carry
out the required action. It eliminates the need for an array of buttons and
dials on the dashboard.
Table 1.6 summarises the main advantages and disadvantages of
dialogue-based and gesture-based interfaces.
▼ Table 1.6 Advantages and disadvantages of dialogue-based and gesture-based interfaces
Interface Advantages Disadvantages

Dialogue- » no need for a driver to take their » still unreliable, with many
based hands off the steering wheel commands not being
interface » in a home, very useful for people recognised or needing
with disabilities, because many to be repeated several
tasks can be carried out by the times (especially if there
spoken word only is background noise)
» possible to use as a security » can be quite complex to
feature, because voice set up
recognition could be used to » user needs to know
identify a person which commands can be
used

Gesture- » replaces mechanical input devices » possible for unintentional

based » no physical contact required » movement to be picked
interface very natural interface for a human up
operator » only works fairly near to the
» no training needed to interface with camera or sensor
the computer (maximum of 1.5 metres)
» may only accept a limited
number of movements (for
example, it may take
several attempts to find
out exactly what finger
movements are
recognised)

1.4 Types of computer

There are many types of computer systems in existence.
The following summarises some of the more common types
currently available:

1.4.1 Desktop computers

Desktop usually refers to a general-purpose
computer that is
made up of separate monitor, keyboard, mouse and
processor
unit. It is distinguished from, for example, a laptop
computer
by the fact that it is made up of a number of separate
components, which makes them not very portable.
Because laptop and desktop computers tend to be used for very
similar purposes, it is worth making a comparison between the
two types of computer. ▲ Figure 1.10 Desktop computer
14
1.4 Types of computer

The advantages of desktop computers over laptop computers are:

» Spare parts and connections tend to be standardised, which usually results in
lower costs.
» Desktop computers are easier, and less expensive, to upgrade or expand.
 » The desktop tends to have a better specification (for example, faster
processor) for a given price (often due to size and construction constraints in
laptops).
» Power consumption is not critical because they usually plug straight into
a wall socket, and the larger casings allow a better dissipation of any heat
build-up.
» Because they are usually fixed in one location, there is less likelihood of
them being damaged or stolen.
» Internet access can be more stable because a desktop computer is more likely
to have a wired internet connection (the user will always have the same data
transfer rate); however, due to their portability, laptop computers usually use
wireless internet connectivity where the signal can be very variable (giving
variable data transfer rate).

They do have disadvantages when compared to laptop computers:

» The most obvious is that they are not particularly portable because they are
made up of separate components.
» They tend to be more complicated because all the components need to be
hooked up by wiring, which also clutters up the desk » general entertainment (for example, live or ‘catch-up’
space. streaming of television programmes).
» Because they are not particularly portable, it is
necessary to copy files on, for example, a memory stick,
when you want to do some work elsewhere (for example,
1.4.2 Mobile computers
doing office work at home); although cloud storage has Mobile computers, by their very name, suggest a group of
diminished this disadvantage recently, it still may not be computers which are considerably more portable than
possible to save sensitive data files on the cloud. desktop computers. Such computers fall into four
categories:
The main uses of desktop computers include: » laptop computers
» office and business work (word processing, » smartphones
spreadsheets, finance software and databases being the » tablets
main use) » phablets.
» educational use (using interactive software to teach or
learn from) » use as a gaming device (for example, games Link
such as chess, crossword puzzles, fantasy games, and
so on) For more on
cloud storage see Section 4.1.
 15
1 Types and components of computer systems to desktop computers:

Laptop (or notebook)

Laptop (or notebook) refers to a type of computer where
the monitor, keyboard, pointing device and processor are
all together in one single unit. This makes them extremely
portable.
Key features you would expect to find in a laptop:
» lightweight (to aid portability)
» low power consumption (and also long battery life)
» low heat output (cooling is very important). ▲ Figure

Laptop computers do have advantages when compared

1.11 Laptop computer

» The most obvious advantage is their portability; they can be taken

anywhere because the monitor, pointing device, keyboard, processor
and backing store units are all together in one single unit.
» Because everything is in one single unit, there are no trailing wires (only
one single cord is used).
» They take up much less room on a desk, so they can be used
anywhere (for example, in a café).
» Their portability allows them to take full advantage of Wi-Fi
features. » Because they are portable, they can link into any
multimedia system.

Laptop computers also have disadvantages when compared to

desktop computers:
» Because they are easily portable, they are also easier to steal! » They
have limited battery life so the user may need to carry a heavy power
adaptor.
» The keyboards and pointing devices can sometimes be more awkward
to use. » It is not always possible to upgrade them, for instance by
adding more RAM.

The main uses of laptop computers include:

» office and business work (word processing, spreadsheets, finance
software and databases being the main use)
» educational use (using interactive software to teach or learn from)
» used as a gaming device (for example, games such as chess,
crossword puzzles, fantasy games, and so on)
» general entertainment (for example, live or ‘catch-up’ streaming of
television programmes)
» used in control and monitoring (because they can be operated anywhere
using their internal battery, it is possible to use laptops to gather data
directly from the environment – for example, they can be plugged into a
gas boiler during maintenance to monitor its performance).

16
1.4 Types of computer
 Smartphones
Smartphones allow normal phone calls to be made, but
also have
an operating system (such as iOS, Android or Windows)
allowing
them to run a number of computer applications (known as
apps or
applets). They allow users to send/receive emails, use a
number of
apps, use a camera feature (to take photos or videos),
MP3/4 players
(for music and videos), and so on. Smartphones
communicate with
the internet either by using Wi-Fi hot spots or by using
3G/4G/5G
mobile phone networks.
Some of the typical features of smartphones include:
» high-definition, anti-glare displays
» front- and back-facing cameras (which are used to take photos,
videos or act as a webcam when doing video calls over the
internet)
» lower weight and longer battery life than laptops » use make use of flash (solid state) memory and cloud storage
Bluetooth for connection to printers and other devices » ▲ Figure 1.12 Smartphone

facilities to back up and synchronise (often just referred to as ‘sync’)

data sources
» they use a number of sensors to carry out the following functions: –
proximity sensors to detect if the device is close to, for example the
ear, which allows it to block unintended ‘touches’
– accelerometers, which detect movement and orientation of the device
(for example, move the display from portrait to landscape to view
videos, or allow it to be used as a ‘steering wheel’ in-car racing
games)
– can use sophisticated speech recognitions systems (such as Siri) to
enable the user to ask the device to look for things (such as search
the address book).
The new generation of smartphones are becoming even thinner and
lighter, because they make use of OLED (organic light emitting diode)
touch screens.
Future smartphones will also use OLED touch screens that are coated with
a crystalline layer that allows the phones to be partially solar powered; this
allows them to use Li-Fi (similar to Wi-Fi, except communication uses
visible light rather than radio waves). Communication using Li-Fi is
considerably faster than with Wi Fi (much higher data transfer rate); it is
also more secure (by stopping internet ‘piggybacking’). The Li-Fi system
can also be used during aeroplane flights because it does not use radio
waves and therefore does not interfere with flight control systems.
Advantages of smartphones:
» They are very small in size and lightweight – therefore they are very
easy to carry and have on your person at all times (this is more difficult
with laptops because they are much bulkier and much heavier).
» You can use them to make phone calls, but also connect to the internet
while on the move.
 17
1 Types and components of computer systems

» Because they use Wi-Fi and mobile phone networks they can be used
almost anywhere (this is not the case with laptops or desktops; although
tablets also use the same technology).
» They have apps which make use of sensor data provided by the
smartphone, for instance location data for maps – this can provide
services that are not available on desktops or laptops.
» They have a reasonable battery life compared to laptops.

Disadvantages of smartphones:
» The small screens and keyboards make pages difficult to read. » It is
more difficult and slower when typing things in (laptops and desktops
have much bigger screens and much larger keyboards).
» Web browsing and photography can quickly drain the battery. »
Memory size in most phones is not very large when compared to
laptops and desktops – although it is comparable with tablets (however,
the latest generation smartphones come with 1 TiB memories).
» Not all website features are compatible with smartphone operating
systems. » Because of their small size, it is much easier to lose a
smartphone or for it to be stolen compared to laptops or desktops.
» The data transfer rate using mobile phone networks can be slower than
with Wi-Fi – this makes streaming of video or music, for example,
less than satisfactory at times.

Tablets
Tablets are becoming an increasingly used type
of mobile
computer. They work in a similar way to a
smartphone. Tablets use touch screen
technology and do not have a conventional
keyboard. The keyboard is virtual; that is, it is
part of the
touch screen and keys are activated by simply
touching
them with a finger or a stylus. However, it is possible to
buy tablet cases which contain a normal-sized keyboard.
Internet access is usually through Wi-Fi or 3G/4G/5G (mobile
phone) connectivity. Like smartphones, tablets are equipped
with a series of sensors which include camera, microphone, accelerometer and touch screen.
▲ Figure 1.13 Tablet

The typical features of tablets are identical to those of a smartphone

(described earlier).
Advantages of tablets compared to laptops:
» very fast to switch on (no time delay waiting for the operating system to
load up)
» fully portable – they are so lightweight that they can be carried
anywhere » touch screen technology means they are simple to use and
do not need any other input devices
» can use several apps as standard (such as built-in camera, MP3/4
players and so on)

18
 1.4 Types of computer

» not much heat – they use solid-state technology

» battery life of a tablet is a lot longer
» when the power button is pressed, it goes into standby, but remains
connected to the internet so the user still hears alerts when emails or other
‘events’ are received.

Disadvantages of tablets compared to laptops:

» tend to be rather expensive when compared to laptops (but this will probably
change with time as they become more common)
» they often have limited memory or storage when compared to a laptop
(although some of the latest devices have 1 TiB memory capacity)
» if 3G/4G/5G mobile phone networks are used, they can be expensive to run if
the internet is being accessed frequently
» typing on a touch screen can be slow and error-prone compared to a standard
keyboard
» transferring of files often has to be done through an ‘application atore’; this
lack of ‘drag and drop’ facility can prove to be irritating to users
» laptops tend to support more types of file format than tablets and are also
better equipped to run different types of software.

Some of the latest smartphones have been designed as a hybrid between a

tablet and a smartphone; these are referred to as a phablet. They have
much larger
screens than a smartphone but are smaller than a tablet. All the features of a
smartphone (described earlier) also apply to phablets together with the typical
features of a tablet.

Smartphones between 5.1 inches and 7 inches (that is, 13 cm to 18 over 7 inches in size (that is, over 18 cm)
cm)
up to 5.1 inches in size (that is, 13 cm) Tablets
Phablets

▲ Figure 1.14 Comparison of smartphone, phablet and tablet

19
1 Types and components of computer systems

The main uses of smartphones, tablets and phablets include:

 » entertainment (streaming of music, videos and television
programmes) » gaming (including group games)
» as a camera or video camera (the quality of videos and photos now
matches a good digital cameras)
» internet use (online sales, social networks, using QR codes, and
so on) » sending/receiving emails
» global positioning system (use of maps to navigate to a
location) » calendar functions
» telephone banking (sending and receiving money using the banking
apps) » Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) – telephone network using
the internet which also allows video calling
» instant access to social networks (social contact with friends no matter
where you are in the world)
» instant messaging
» office and business management (particularly the features that allow
rapid voice and video communication)
» education use (using interactive software to teach or learn from) »
remotely control devices (it is possible to remotely operate devices in the
home, such as microwave ovens, which contain embedded
microprocessors; by using internet-enabled smartphones or tablets, it is
possible to start/stop the oven even while several kilometres away from
home by using an App and the internet).

Exercise 1a
Name a number of devices in the home that contain embedded
microprocessors, which can be controlled by smartphones, 1.5 Emerging technologies
tablets or phablets using an app and the internet. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using
smartphones, tablets or phablets to control these devices?

1.5.1 Impact of emerging technologies

Artificial intelligence
There are many definitions of artificial intelligence (AI). Essentially, AI
is a machine or application which carries out a task that requires some
degree of intelligence. For example:
– the use of language
– recognising a person’s face
– the ability to operate machinery, such as a car, aeroplane, train, and
so on – analysing data to predict the outcome of a future event, for
example weather forecasting.

20
1.5 Emerging technologies

AI duplicates human tasks which require decision-making and problem-solving

skills. Eventually, many tasks presently done by humans will be replaced by
robots or computers, which could lead to unemployment. However, the positive
side includes improvements in safety and quality of services and products. Some
examples are detailed below.
The impact of AI on everyday life
 Whenever AI is mentioned, people usually think of science fiction fantasies and
think of robots. The science fiction writer Isaac Asimov even went as far as
producing his three laws of robotics:
» robots may not injure a human through action or inaction
» robots must obey order given by humans without question
» a robot must protect itself unless it conflicts with the two laws above.

Many science fiction movies continue to fuel people’s imagination with

slightly sinister interactions between humans and machines. However, AI
goes way beyond robotics and covers many areas, such as those shown in
Figures 1.15–1.11

▲ Figure 1.15 An autonomous (driverless) ▲ Figure 1.16 Robotic research is leading tasks – for example, bomb disposal,
vehicle – we already have driverless to improvements in technology to help welding of car bodies, entering nuclear
trains and amputees and people with disabilities. disaster areas (such as Chernobyl or
autopilots on aeroplanes, but future ▲ Figure 1.17 Robots are used to help Fukushima) where the radiation would
developments include driverless cars. people carry out dangerous or unpleasant kill a human in under two minutes.

There are many more examples and the list becomes longer and longer with time.
Negative impacts of AI
All of the above examples give a very favourable view of the effect of AI
on our everyday lives. However, in any balanced argument, we should
also consider the drawbacks of the new technology:
» could lead to many job losses in a number of areas (although it is true to
say that new technical jobs would also be created); many jobs could
be lost in manufacturing, but other roles are likely to be affected (such
as bus, taxi, lorry and train drivers)

21
1 Types and components of computer systems

» dependency on technology and the inability to carry out tasks done by

robots, for example, could be an issue in the future
» loss of skills – even now, skills from previous generations have been
lost as humans have been replaced by machines and software
applications.

Extended reality
Extended reality (XR) refers to real and virtual combined environments,
and is a ‘catch all’ term for all immersive technologies. The three most
common examples at the moment are:
» augmented reality (AR)
» virtual reality (VR)
» mixed reality (MR).
All these immersive technologies extend the reality we experience by
either blending the virtual and real worlds or by creating a fully immersive
experience.
In this chapter, we will only consider the first two examples.
Augmented reality (AR)
The features of augmented reality include:
» allow the user to experience the relationship between digital (virtual)
and physical (real) worlds
» virtual information and objects are overlaid onto real-world
situations » the real world is enhanced with digital details, such as
images, text and animation
» the user can experience the AR world through special goggles
or via smartphone/phablet screens
» the user is not isolated from the real world and is still able to interact and
see what is going on in front of them
» examples include the Pokémon GO game which overlays digital
creatures onto real-world situations.

In the future, augmented reality will have an impact on all the following areas:
» safety and rescue operations (for example, it is possible to provide 3D
images of an area where a rescue mission is to take place, giving the
team the opportunity to interact with the environment and try out rescue
procedures before doing the real thing)
» entertainment (for example, AR takes users into a virtual environment
where it is possible to interact with the characters; imagine the
characters of your favourite film interacting with you at home)
» shopping and retail (this is one of the big areas – for example, using your
smartphone camera you can try out make-up and see how it looks on
you before buying it, or you can experience a virtual tour of a new car
where you can ‘sit’ in the interior and try out the driving experience
before buying the car)

22
1.5 Emerging technologies

» healthcare (doctors can make use of AR to have a better understanding of a

patient’s body; software, such as Echopixel enables doctors to use CT scans
from patients to build up a 3D image of their body to help with surgery and
diagnosis).

Virtual reality (VR)

The features of virtual reality include:
» the ability to take the user out of the real-world environment into a virtual
(unreal) digital environment
» in contrast to AR, the user is fully immersed in a simulated digital world
» users must wear a VR headset or a head-mounted display which allows a 360°
view of the virtual world (this ‘fools’ the brain into believing they are walking
on an ocean bed, walking in an alien world or inside a volcano)
» this technology can be used to good effect in: medicine (teaching operation
procedures), construction, engineering and the military.

In the future, virtual reality will have an impact on all the following areas:
» military applications (for example, training to operate a new tank)
» education (for example, looking inside an ancient building as part of a
history lesson)
» healthcare (for example, as a diagnostic tool to recommend treatment)
» entertainment (for example, games where gloves, goggles or helmets are
worn to fully immerse players and make it seem very real)
» fashion (for example, to do fashion shows before doing the real thing – see
the clothes on people, check out the venue and so on)
» heritage (for example, allowing users to walk around and close up to
monuments like Stonehenge)
» business (for example, training courses and role-playing scenarios for staff)
» engineering (for example, seeing how new designs like bridges will look in an
existing environment)
» sport (for example, a golfer trying to improve his swing can use this
technology and get feedback to improve his game)
» media (for example, interactive special effects in movies)
» scientific visualisation (for example, part of a molecular structure in
chemistry, or a cell in biology).

23
1 Types and components of computer systems

Exam-style questions
1 There are a number of different types of computer. Write down the
type of computer that best fits the following descriptions.
a A computer that is difficult to move and has a separate monitor and
keyboard. [1] b A portable computer that includes a physical keyboard.
[1] c A thin portable computer that has a touch screen and a battery in a
single unit, not normally used to make phone calls. [1] d A mobile phone
that can be used as a computer. [1]
Cambridge IGCSE Information and Communication Technology (0417)
Paper 12 Q1,
February/March
2016
2 Tick (✓) whether the following are features of operating
systems containing a command line interface (CLI) or a
graphical user interface (GUI). [2]
CLI GUI
(✓) (✓)

Instructions have to be typed.

Applications are represented by icons.

 Options are chosen from a menu.

Many instructions have to be memorised.

Cambridge IGCSE Information and Communication Technology (0417)

Paper 12 Q2,
February/March
2016
3 Most smart phones can carry out many functions which, until recently,
only a computer could perform. Explain why computers of all types are
still needed. [7]
Cambridge IGCSE Information and Communication Technology (0417)
Paper 12 Q10,
February/March
2015

4 Computer operating systems have developed since early

computers used Command Line Interfaces (CLI). Many computers
now use Graphical User Interfaces (GUI), some of which are
capable of using touch screen technology.
Compare and contrast CLI and GUI. [8]
Cambridge IGCSE Information and Communication Technology (0417)
Paper 11
Q14,
May/June
2017

24
Exam-style questions

5 Nine statements about random access memory (RAM) and read-only

memory (ROM) are given below. By putting a tick (✓) in the appropriate
box, indicate whether each statement refers to RAM or ROM. [9]
RAM ROM
(✓) (✓)

Data on a chip is stored permanently and cannot be deleted

It is not possible to alter or delete the data stored on the chip

Data on the chip is stored temporarily and can be deleted by the user

Data is retained even when the computer is powered down

Stores data, files or part of the operating system which is currently in

use

Data is lost when power to the computer is turned off

 It contains the basic input/output system used to boot up the
computer when it is first powered up

It is a form of volatile memory

It is a form of non-volatile memory

6 a Describe what is meant by augmented reality and virtual reality. [4]

b Describe how augmented reality and virtual reality could affect
society in the near future. [4]
7 Six descriptions are shown on the left and six computer terms are
shown on the right.
Draw lines to link each statement to its correct computer term. [6]

Method whereby a person uses their voice

to carry out a function output device

Physical component that allows data to analogue

be entered into a computer system

computer-
Physical component, such as a monitor, printer aided design
or projector under the control of the computer

dialogue-
Small application that carries out a single based
task; usually embedded in the html page on a interface
website

input device
Software used to help in the creation,
manipulation, modification and analysis of
a drawing

applet

Physical data that changes smoothly and is

not step wise; has an infinite number of
25
possible values

2 Input and output devices

In this chapter you will learn about: ★ input devices ★ uses
★ direct data entry (DDE) devices ★ output devices. ★ advantages and disadvantages.
For each device you will learn about: ★ characteristics

As the name suggests, these are hardware devices that allow data to be input
into a computer. Many such devices exist, ranging from the more common
ones, such as the keyboard, through to more specialist devices, such as
 barcode readers. Some of these are described in this section.

2.1 Input devices and their uses

2.1.1 Keyboards
Keyboards are by far the most common
method used
for data entry. They are used as the input
device on
computers, tablets, mobile phones and many
other
electronic items.
The keyboard is connected to the computer through a
USB or wireless connection. In the case of tablets and
mobile phones, the keyboard is often virtual or a type of ▲ Figure 2.1 Keyboard
touchscreen technology (see later).

When the character on the keyboard is pressed, it is converted into a

digital signal, which the computer interprets.
They are a relatively slow method of data entry and are also prone to
errors. But keyboards are probably still the easiest way to enter text into
a computer. However, frequent use of these devices can lead to injuries,
such as repetitive strain injury (RSI) in the hands and wrists.
Ergonomic keyboards can help to
overcome this
problem – these have the keys arranged
differently,
as shown in Figure 2.2. They are also
designed to
give more support to the wrists and
hands when
doing a lot of typing.
Figure 2.3 and the following description
summarises
how the computer can recognise a letter
pressed on
the keyboard:
» There is a membrane or circuit board at the base
of the keys.
» In Figure 2.3, the ‘H’ key is pressed and this
completes a circuit as shown.
▲ Figure 2.2 Ergonomic keyboard

26
2.1 Input devices and their uses

» The CPU in the computer can then determine which key has been pressed.
» The CPU refers to an index file to identify which character the key press
represents.

Letter “H” has been

Conductive layers Insulating layer Letter “H”
G pressed and now makes contact with bottom conductiveinterpreted
G layer by computer
J

▲ Figure 2.3 Diagram of a keyboard customer can key in their PIN, amount of money, etc.
» Mobile phones to allow phone numbers, etc. to be keyed
Uses of keyboards in. » Point of sale terminals (POS) in case the barcode
» Input of data into applications software (for example, reader fails to read the barcode – the number has to be
text into word processors, numbers into spreadsheets, keyed in manually by the operator.
and so on).
» Typing in commands to the computer (for example, Prnt
Scrn, Ctrl+P to print out, and so on).
Advantages of keyboards
» Fast entry of new text into a document.
» Well-known method.
» Easy to use for most people.
» Easier to do verification checks as data is entered (can
immediately compare the source document with typed
data on the screen).
Disadvantages of keyboards
» Can be difficult to use if the user has limited arm/wrist
use. » Slow method when compared to direct data entry
(for example, Optical Mark Recognition – see Section
2.2).
» Fairly large device that uses up valuable desk space.

Exercise 2a
Find out about a number of applications that use input/output
devices and discuss the reasons why they were chosen (that is,
their advantages and disadvantages).

2.1.2 Numeric keypads

A numeric keypad is used to enter numbers only
(although some have a function key to allow alphabetic
characters to be input).
Uses of numeric keypads
» Automatic teller machines (ATMs), where the ▲ Figure 2.4 Numeric keypad

27
2 Input and output devices Disadvantages of numeric keypads
» Sometimes have small keys which can make input more
» Chip and PIN devices when paying by credit/debit cards difficult. » Sometimes the order of the numbers on the
(key in PIN, amount of money, etc.). keypad is not intuitive.
» Fast entry of numeric data into a spreadsheet.
Advantages of numeric keypads
2.1.3 Pointing devices
» Faster than standard keyboards when entering numeric Mouse
data. » Because many are small devices (for example, The mouse is an example of a pointing device. The user
mobile phones) they are very easy to carry around. controls the position of a pointer on the screen by moving
the mouse around. There are usually two buttons which
have different functions; the left button is used to select
items by double clicking, while the right button brings up
drop-down menus.
Many also have a scroll button, which speeds up the ▲ Figure 2.5 Mouse
process of moving through a document.
The optical mouse (where movement is detected by
reflected light rather than the position of a moving ball)
and the cordless or wireless mouse (which transmits
signals to a USB wireless receiver plugged into the
computer) are in use on modern computers. The
advantage of an optical mouse is it has no moving parts
and it also does not pick up any dirt. This makes it more
robust and improves its performance because the older
type of mouse can ‘skid’ on certain surfaces reducing the
control of the pointer.
Uses of a mouse
Almost anything, depending on the software, but includes:
» opening, closing and minimising software ▲ Figure 2.6 Example of a drop-down menu
» grouping, moving and deleting files
» image editing, for example, controlling the size and
position of a drawing pasted into a document
» controlling the position of a pointer on the screen to
allow selection from a menu or selecting an icon, and for
scrolling up and down/left and right.
Advantages of a mouse
» Faster method for choosing an option rather than using
a keyboard. » Very quick way of navigating through
applications and the internet. » Does not need a large
desk area when compared to a keyboard.

28
2.1 Input devices and their uses

Disadvantages of a mouse
» Can be more difficult for people with restricted hand/wrist movement than
using a keyboard for data entry.
» Easy to damage, and the older type of mouse quickly becomes clogged
up with dirt.
» Difficult to use if no flat surface readily available (for example, on an
aeroplane).
 Touchpad
Touchpads are used as a pointing device in many laptop computers.
The pointer
is controlled by the user moving their finger on the touchpad and then
gently
tapping it to simulate the left-hand button of a mouse (that is,
selection). They
also have buttons under the touchpad which serve the same function as the left
and right buttons on a mouse.
Use of a touchpad screens.
Their uses are the same as those of a mouse. » Used in some luxury cars to select functions such as
radio, telephone, music, satnav and so on.
Advantages of a touchpad ▲ Figure 2.7 Touchpad
» Same as the mouse (faster than a keyboard for
choosing options, used to navigate applications and the
internet, etc.).
» Because the touchpad is integrated into the laptop
computer there is no need for a separate mouse – this
aids the portability and is a big advantage if there are no
flat surfaces available.

Disadvantages of a touchpad
» People with limited hand/wrist movement find the device
difficult to use. » Can be more difficult to control the
pointer when compared to a normal mouse.
» More difficult to use when doing certain operations such
as drag and drop.

Trackerball
Trackerballs are similar to a mouse, except that a ball is
on the top or the side of the device; the user controls the
pointer on the screen by rotating the ball with their hand. ▲ Figure 2.8 Trackerball
It is easier to use for people with limited hand/wrist
movement. Some trackerballs have two buttons, which
have the same function as the left and right-hand mouse
buttons. If they have a third button, it is equivalent to a
double click. Because trackerballs do not physically move,
there is no need for a large amount of desk space.
Uses of a trackerball
» Can be a good alternative to a mouse for people with
conditions such as RSI.
» Used in an industrial control room environment where it
is faster than a mouse to navigate through process
▲ Figure 2.9 Trackerball used in a luxury car

29
2 Input and output devices » Not supplied with the computer as standard, therefore
more costly. » User may need training because it is not
standard equipment.
Advantages of a trackerball
» Does not need the same fine control as a mouse.
» Easier to use than a mouse if the operator has problems
2.1.4 Remote control
with their wrist or hand. A remote control is used for the operation of other
» More accurate positioning of the pointer on screen than devices using infrared signals.
a mouse. » They are more robust than a mouse. The buttons on the keypad are used to select options
» Needs less desk space than a mouse or keyboard. (such as television channels, sound levels on a Hi-Fi,
timings on a DVD recorder, etc.).
Disadvantages of a trackerball
Uses of a remote control
» Televisions, satellite systems, DVD/Blu-ray players and
Hi-Fi systems all use remote controls to alter functions
such as sound volume, on/off, change channels, open the
disc drawer, and so on.
» Used to control multimedia systems.
» Used in industrial applications to remotely control
processes, stop and start machinery, etc.

Advantages of a remote control

» Can be operated from any reasonable distance, unlike, ▲ Figure 2.10 Remote control
for example, a wired mouse which is restricted by the
length of the wire. Some industrial processes are
hazardous, so it is a big advantage to be able to select
operations from a distance.
Disadvantages of a remote control
» Difficult to use if the operator has limited hand/wrist
movement. » It is easier to block the signal if, for example,
the walls in the building are very thick.

2.1.5 Joysticks and driving wheels

Joystick
Joysticks have similar functions to a mouse and a
trackerball. By gripping the stick, a pointer on the screen
can be controlled. Buttons are used to make selections.
Often they have another button on the top of the stick that
is used

for gaming purposes for example to fire a weapon. ▲ Figure 2.11 Joystick

30
2.1 Input devices and their uses

Uses of a joystick
» Used in video/computer games.
» Used in simulators (for example, flight simulators) to mimic actual controls.

Advantages of a joystick
» Easier than a keyboard to navigate the screen.
» Control is more realistic for some applications than, for example, using a
mouse.

Disadvantages of a joystick
» More difficult to control the on-screen pointer than with other devices, such
as a mouse.
Driving wheel
A driving (steering) wheel is an example of an input device that is
similar to
a joystick in many ways. It connects to a computer (or games
machine), usually
 through a USB port. The wheel allows you to simulate the turning of a steering
wheel, and there are associated devices (such as buttons or pedals) which allow
you to accelerate and brake. Sensors are used to pick up left/right movement so that the user gets the sensation of
steering a car around a circuit or on the road.
Uses of a driving wheel
» Used in video/computer games (for example, car racing games). » Used in simulators (for example, car-driving
simulators) to mimic actual vehicle controls.
Advantages of a driving wheel
» Easier than a keyboard or joystick to control steering movements; it is more natural.
» The ‘driving experience’ is nearer to how an actual steering wheel and other controls operate in real life.
Disadvantages of a driving wheel
» It can be a rather expensive input device compared to mouse or joystick. » Movements in the steering can be too
sensitive, giving an unrealistic ‘feel’. » Unless it is an expensive simulator, feedback to the driving wheel is non-
existent.

2.1.6 Touch screens (as an input device)

With a touch screen the user can choose an option by simply touching a button/icon on the screen. The selection is
automatically made without the need for any pointing device.
Uses of touch screens
» Self-service tills, for example, petrol stations, where the user just

▲ Figure 2.12 Driving wheel

touches the screen to select the fuel grade and payment method.
▲ Figure 2.13 Touch screen

31
2 Input and output devices » Automatic teller machines (ATMs) to choose from on-
screen options. » Point of sale terminals such as in
restaurants.
» Public information systems at airports, railway stations, » Scan in old/valuable documents/books, thus protecting
tourist offices, etc. » Mobile phones, tablets and satellite the originals, as well as producing records in case the
navigation systems. paper copies are lost/destroyed (this is also known as
» Interactive white boards in education. archiving).
» Computer-based training (CBT) where answers are » Scan in photographs (not all cameras are digital and
selected during on-screen testing. therefore photographs are still printed on paper, requiring
» They can obviously also be used as an output device conversion to computer format for storage).
because they also work as a flat-screen monitor (see » Scan in barcodes at POS terminals.
Section 2.3.2).

Advantages of touch screens

» Faster entry of options than using keyboard or mouse.
» Very easy method for choosing options.
» User-friendly method – no training necessary in its use.
» Option to expand the size of the display if necessary.

Disadvantages of touch screens

» Limited number of input options available.
» Can lead to problems if an operator has to use the
system frequently (straining of arm muscles, RSI, etc. are
all possible).
» The screen can get very dirty with constant touching
(giving a risk of spreading infections, and reduce its
responsiveness which makes it more difficult to read in
strong sunlight).

2.1.7 Scanners
Scanners are used to enter information from hard copy
(for example, text documents, photographs) into a
computer. The most common type is the flatbed scanner
(see Figure 2.14), which is made up of a glass panel and
lid. The hard copy document or photo is scanned by a
light source and produces a computer-readable image.
The subsequent image can then be manipulated using a
drawing package. Images of text can also be used with
optical character recognition (OCR) software to produce
editable text documents (see Section 2.2). There are also
specialist scanners which are designed to carry out a
specific task, for example, barcode scanners (see later).
Uses of scanners
» Scan in documents and convert into a format for use in
various software packages.
▲ Figure 2.14 Flatbed scanner
 32
2.1 Input devices and their uses

Advantages of scanners
» Images can be stored for editing at a later date.
» When used with OCR, much faster and more accurate (no typing errors) than
typing in documents again.
» It is possible to recover damaged documents and photographs by scanning in
and then using appropriate software to produce an acceptable copy.
Disadvantages of scanners
» Quality can be limited depending on how good a resolution the scanner is
capable of (most scanners have a range of resolutions you can choose from).
» They can be fairly slow at scanning, especially if the colour scanning mode is
chosen or if the chosen scanning resolution is high.

2.1.8 Digital cameras

Digital cameras have largely replaced traditional film-based
cameras.
The images are stored on a memory card (solid-state memory) and
can be
transferred to a computer by:
» directly reading the memory card (by slotting it into a card reader
attached
to a computer or a printer)
» connecting the camera to the computer using a USB port
» using wireless data transfer (Wi-Fi or Bluetooth). used to improve colour matching when doing dental
fillings.
The images are uploaded from the camera and stored in a
» The creation of virtual reality tours around houses,
file in the computer; the user can select which photos to
historical buildings, industrial plants, and so on.
upload and which to discard. The images are then
available for printing out as photos, can be used in a ‘slide Advantages of digital cameras
show’, imported into software such as a word processor,
or uploaded on to the internet. » Easier to produce better-quality photographs than with a
traditional camera. » Easier and faster to upload
Uses of digital cameras photographs to a computer rather than having to scan in
hard copies when using traditional methods.
» Taking photographs; they still take better photgraphs
» No need to develop film and print out photographs
than smartphones or tablets due to the use of expensive
anymore – this saves money and is also environmentally
lenses and dedicated software. » Used as a data-capture
more acceptable (saves paper and reduces the use of the
device; for example, as a reversing aid in a car where
chemicals used in developing traditional film). » Memory
small cameras (in the bumpers) help the driver to see their
cards can store many thousands of photographs.
immediate surroundings.
» Dentists use digital cameras to take photos of a patient’s ▲ Figure 2.15 Digital camera
teeth to help them diagnose any problems; they are also
 33
2 Input and output devices

Disadvantages of digital cameras

» Need to be computer literate to use the cameras properly; also, the
transferring, storing and manipulating of the images via a computer
requires some understanding of how computers work.
» There is some artistry lost because clever software now corrects errors in
the photographs (for example, incorrect exposure, removal of red eye,
etc.). » Images often need to be compressed to reduce the amount of
memory used (a single image can use more than 12 MB of memory, for
example).
Many smartphones and tablets are now capable of taking photographs of
a very high quality. Some of the latest smartphones are essentially
making cameras almost obsolete for the casual photographer. Because
the quality of the lens is an important feature, professional photographers
will continue to use digital cameras for a number of years. However, it is
now possible to get special attachments for many smartphones to allow
special effects, zooming functions and even light filters.

2.1.9 Microphones
Microphones are either built into the computer or are external devices
connected through the USB port or using Bluetooth connectivity. Figure
2.16 shows how a microphone can convert sound waves into an electric
current. The current produced is converted to a digital format so that a
computer can process it or store it (for example, on a CD).

copper coil surrounded by

diaphragm cone output from
the microphone

sound waves
a permanent magnet

▲ Figure 2.16 Diagram of how a microphone works

» When sound is created, it causes the air to vibrate.

» When a diaphragm in the microphone picks up the air vibrations,
the diaphragm also begins to vibrate.
» A copper coil is surrounded by a permanent magnet and the coil is
connected to the diaphragm using a cone. As the diaphragm vibrates,
the cone moves in and out causing the copper coil to move backwards
and forwards relative to the magnet.
» This forwards and backwards motion cuts through the magnetic field
around the permanent magnet, inducing an electric current.
» The electric current is then either amplified or sent to a recording device.
The electric current is analogue in nature.

34
2.1 Input devices and their uses

The electric current output from the microphone can also be sent to a computer
where a sound card converts the current into a digital signal which can then be
stored in the computer.
 Uses of microphones
» To input speech/sounds to be used in various applications, for example, in
presentations, sampling (in films, music, etc.) and special effects (films).
» Input in voice-recognition software:
– the software converts the speech into text that can be used in, for
example, a word processor or to input commands into a computer
– to recognise commands; for example, some cars now have voice-activated
systems to switch on the lights, turn up the radio volume, etc. (see Chapter 1).
» Microphones can also be used as a sensor to pick up sound (for
example, in an intruder alarm system).
» Used in video-conferencing or Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
applications.
Advantages of microphones
» Faster to read in text than to type it in using a keyboard.
» It is possible to manipulate sound in real time using special software rather
than work on a recording done at some earlier stage.
» If used in a voice activation system, it has the advantage of improving safety
(because the car driver, for example, does not need to take their hands off the
wheel to operate a switch or alter the radio station, etc.).
Disadvantages of microphones
» Sound files can use up a lot of computer memory.
» Voice-recognition software is not as accurate as typing in manually (for
example, the software cannot distinguish the difference between ‘their’
and ‘there’).

2.1.10 Sensors
This section deals with analogue sensors. A sensor is a various types of sensors are used depending on the
device that inputs data to a computer; the data is a application (see Table 2.1). When monitoring, the data
measurement of some physical quantity that is sent to the computer is often transferred directly to a
continuously changing (for example, temperature, light, spreadsheet package (for example, taking measurements
moisture, etc.). These physical quantities are analogue in in a scientific experiment, measuring atmospheric
nature. Because computers only understand digital data pollution, etc.).
(1s and 0s), the information from the sensors needs to be Link
converted; this is done using an analogue to digital
converter (ADC). For more on the differences between analogue and digital data
see Section 1.13.
Sensors are used in monitoring and control applications –

35
2 Input and output devices
Type of sensor Applications

Uses of sensors
▼ Table 2.1 Uses of sensors
 Temperature
are still at the development stage.
Used in automatic washing machines, central heating
systems, automatic glasshouses, ovens
Uses of light pens
Pressure Used in intruder alarm systems, washing machines,
» Selecting objects on CRT screens.
robotics, environmental monitoring
» Drawing on screen (for example, with CAD packages).
Light Used in automatic glasshouses, automatic doors, intruder
alarm systems, street lighting control

Sound/acoustic Used in intruder alarm systems, monitoring liquid and powder flow in
pipes

Humidity/moisture Used in automatic glasshouses, environmental

monitoring, in factories where moisture levels are crucial
(for example, manufacture of microchips, paint spraying)

pH Used in automatic glasshouses, chemical processes,

environmental monitoring

Advantages of using sensors

» More accurate readings taken when compared to
human operators. » Readings are continuous – no break
in the monitoring.
» Because it is a continuous process, any necessary
action (control system) or warning (monitoring system)
will be initiated immediately.
» Systems can be automatic, removing the need for
human intervention (very important if the process is
hazardous or needs precise control/ monitoring).

Disadvantages of using sensors

» Faulty sensors can give spurious results – for example,
sensors on the rear bumper of a car that monitors
obstacles; if these become dirty, they may either not
identify an obstacle or give a continuous alarm.
» Most sensors are analogue, therefore they require
conversion using an ADC.

2.1.11 Light pens

Light pens are used with computers as an input device.
They contain sensors that send signals to a computer
whenever light changes are detected. The devices only
work with CRT monitors (see Output devices section as
they rely on the screen image being built up row by row
by an electron beam. The screen is refreshed 50 times
every second; because of this, the computer is able to
determine the pen’s position by noting exactly when the ▲ Figure 2.17 Light pen
device detected the electron beam passing its tip.
Systems to allow light pens to operate with LCD monitors

36
2.2 Direct data entry (DDE) devices
 Advantages of light pens
» Greater accuracy than touch screens.
» Small (can be used where space is an issue).
» Easy-to-use technology.
Disadvantages of light pens
» Problems with lag when drawing on screen.
» Only works with CRT monitors (at the moment).
» Not that accurate when drawing.
» Rather dated technology.

2.2 Direct data entry (DDE) devices

Direct data entry (DDE) devices are used to input data into a computer without
the need for very much, if any, human interaction. For example, barcode readers
are DDE and the only human involvement is to point a reader at the barcode. The
transfer of the data to the computer is done automatically.

2.2.1 Card readers

Magnetic stripe readers
These are used to read information on the magnetic stripe found on,
for
example, the back of a credit or debit card. The stripe contains useful
information, such as: account number, sort code, expiry date and start
date.
Uses of magnetic stripe readers
» On credit/debit cards for use at ATMs or EFTPOS
Services on
0840 5661 496

+44 5568 123 123

(electronic funds transfer at point of sale) terminals. TO BE USED ONLY BY THE AUTHORISED SIGNATORY

» Security devices to allow entry to buildings, hotel rooms,

▲ Figure 2.18 Magnetic stripe reader
etc. Advantages of magnetic stripe readers
02.02 IGCSE ICT
» Fast data entry, rather than keying in with a keyboard or Barking Dog Art
keypad. » Error-free (because no typing is involved).
» Secure (information not in human readable form and,
because there is no typing, removes the risk of somebody
observing your key strokes). » Prevents access to
restricted/secure areas.
» Not affected by oil, water, moisture, etc. Hodder Bank
» No moving parts – so physically very robust.
Disadvantages of magnetic stripe readers some applications.
» If the magnetic stripe gets damaged (for example, due VALID
FROM

to exposure to a strong magnetic field) the data is lost.

» Does not work at a distance (card needs to be in close Contactless debit card readers
contact with reader). » Because the information is not VISA END EXPIRES

human readable, this can be a disadvantage in

Chip
Magnetic stripe
Contactless debit or credit cards allow customers to pay
for items worth up to a certain amount of money without
AUTHORISED SIGNATURE
entering their PIN. All contactless cards have
S.J.Driver
▲ Figure 2.19 Contactless debit card
or from abroad

Contact Customer

37
2 Input and output devices terminal to pay for an item; the terminal picks up the
signal from the chip and allows the transaction to be
processed.
a small chip that emits radio waves embedded in them.
The card is held within a few centimetres of the payment The steps taken are:
1 Customers look out for the contactless symbol on the and PIN).
payment terminal. » Transactions are usually limited to a small maximum
value (for example, $50). » Transactions have been
2 The shop assistant enters the amount for payment. carried out, in some countries, without the card holder
3 The card reader informs the customer to present their being aware of this while they were just standing in the
contactless card. 4 The customer holds their card close to payment queue (although it should be pointed out that
the front of the card reader. 5 The terminal display will this is much rarer today with new technologies in most
indicate that the card has been read successfully. countries).
Advantages of using contactless cards
» Faster transactions (typical transaction takes 10 Chip and PIN readers
seconds as opposed to 30 seconds using magnetic stripe Chip and PIN readers are similar to smart card readers
reader). but are used at EFTPOS terminals. The device has a slot
» The contactless card system uses 128-bit encryption into which the card is placed and the chip is read; the PIN
systems to protect the data. is entered using the keypad. The reader also has a small
» Customers do not have to worry about typing errors screen which gives instructions to the operator. They are
(such as incorrectly typing in a PIN). similar to the contactless system, except for two points:
» Retailers no longer have access to the customer’s 1 The customer has to key in their PIN to make a
credit/debit card information. transaction. 2 These cards do not make use of radio
» The chip in the contactless credit card responds to the frequency technology.
payment terminal reader with a unique number used for
that transaction only; it does not simply transmit the
consumer’s account number; this number is also
encrypted.

Disadvantages of using contactless cards:

» They are more expensive than normal credit/debit cards.
» A thief with a suitable reader could monitor your
contactless card transaction while standing at the counter
with you, or just behind you (the third point above
reduces this risk considerably however; because you do
not have to type in a PIN, somebody standing behind you
could not steal your PIN and use it).
» Can take money twice if the customer uses it as a chip
and PIN card (one is contactless and the other is chip ▲ Figure 2.20 Contactless card reader
 38
2.2 Direct data entry (DDE) devices

Uses of chip and PIN readers

» Where payments are made using cards (restaurants, supermarkets, travel
agents, etc.).
Advantages of chip and PIN readers
» More secure system than contactless payments (PIN typed in must match up
with PIN stored on chip).
» More robust system than magnetic stripe cards.

Disadvantages of chip and PIN readers

» Fraud – need to be careful to ensure PIN is not read by somebody else while
typing it in.

2.2.2 Radio frequency identification (RFID) readers

Radio frequency identification (RFID) readers use radio waves to read and
capture information stored on a tag. In some applications, the tag can be
read from a distance of several metres, which is one of its advantages over the
barcode system. The RFID tag is made up of two components:
» a microchip that stores and processes information
» an antenna which is used to receive and transmit data/information.

The tags can be passive or battery-powered. Passive tags use the reader’s radio
wave energy to relay back the information; battery-powered tags use a small
embedded battery to power the RFID.
RFID tag
antenna
reader

computer

▲ Figure 2.21 RFID

Uses of RFID
» Livestock tracking (so that the whereabouts of each animal on a farm is
known; it also identifies which farm owns the animal).
» Retail (it is similar to barcodes, but does not require any scanning; details
such as price can be stored on the tag and then automatically read at a
checkout – a big advantage is that several tags can be read at the same time,
thus speeding up the checkout process).
» Admission passes (for example, in theme parks RFID cards eliminate the
need to scan or swipe people before ‘rides’, reducing the waiting time; it
also allows the
tracking of people in the theme park and certain information, such as height or
age, can be stored to prevent entry to certain rides on safety grounds).
» Libraries (books can be tracked in and out automatically by readers at the
library entrance; no need to scan barcodes or use magnetic stripe cards,
making the process quicker and more accurate).

39
2 Input and output devices Advantages of RFID
» No line-of-sight contact is necessary; the tags can be
read from a distance. » It is a very robust and reliable user input.
technology. » Because there is no typing, they are more accurate than
» Very fast read-rate (typically less than 100 milliseconds keying in the data. » They are more accurate than OCR
to respond). » Bidirectional data transfer (that is, it allows methods.
read and write operations to take place).
» Bulk detection is possible (that is, it can detect several Disadvantages of OMR devices
RFID tags at the same time).
» The forms need to be carefully designed to make sure
Disadvantages of RFID the marks/shading are correctly positioned to gather
accurate information.
» Tag collision (this is when the signals from two or more » There can be problems if they have not been filled in
tags overlap, interfering with each other). correctly; sometimes they have to be manually checked
» Because RFID uses radio waves, they are relatively before being read, which is both time consuming and
easy to jam or interrupt. » It is relatively easy to hack into expensive.
the data/signal transmitted by the tag. » RFID is more
expensive than a comparable barcode system.

2.2.3 Optical mark recognition/reader

(OMR) Optical mark recognition (OMR) is a device
which can read marks written in pen or pencil on a form.
The places where the pen or pencil marks can be made
are clearly shown on the form, for example:

123

In this example a pencil mark has been made between the

dots on option 1. The position of the mark is stored in the
computer’s memory after being read by the OMR device.
Uses of OMR devices
» Used to read questionnaires, multiple-choice
examination papers, voting papers and many other types
of form where responses are registered in the form of
lines or shaded areas.
Advantages of OMR devices
» Very fast way of inputting the results of a survey, etc.
▲ Figure 2.22 OMR
The documents are fed in automatically and there is no
 40
2.2 Direct data entry (DDE) devices

2.2.4 Optical character recognition/reader (OCR)

Optical character recognition (OCR) is the name given to a device that
converts the text on hard copy documents into an electronic form. OCR
software converts
this electronic data into a form that can then be used in various application
packages, such as word processors or presentation software.
Uses of OCR
» One of the most recent uses is the processing of passports and
identity cards.
» Converting hard copy documents into electronic form which can be
stored on
a computer.
» Used in automatic number plate recognition (ANPR) systems in car parks.
» Digitising historic newspapers and rare books so they can be archived and
used by researchers, preventing damage to the originals. Comparison of OMR and OCR features
A company has decided to produce a questionnaire to
Advantages of OCR gain information from customers. What features of OCR
» It is a much faster data entry system than manually or OMR need to be considered when designing the data-
keying in data. » Because there is no manual data entry, capture form? This comparison is needed before the form
the number of errors is also reduced. is designed and the appropriate input method chosen.
Table 2.2 summarises the features of both methods.
Disadvantages of OCR
▼ Table 2.2 Comparison of OCR and OMR
» The system still has difficulty reading some handwriting. ▲ Figure 2.23 Using OCR to process a passport
» Still not a very accurate technique.

OCR OMR

Because this method reads handwriting, it is possible Because this involves shading in lozenges to answer set
for customers to extend their answers to questions questions, the information obtained is limited to the
choices offered in each question

This method can read handwriting – but if the handwriting OMR relies on simply detecting where marks have been
is poor it may cause reading errors made on a page; the position of the marks is compared to
a template stored in memory

OCR is used for converting printed documents to an OMR simply reads the position of marks so it is ideal
editable electronic format for multiple-choice exam papers

OCR requires a complex recognition system This method requires complex (and expensive) forms to
be completed; but the recognition system is simpler than
OCR

Fewer ‘how to fill in’ instructions are needed for forms While this method requires more ‘how to fill in’
designed to be completed and then read by OCR instructions, it is easier and faster for customers to
complete OMR forms than to complete OCR
forms

While OCR is more accurate than data entered into a OMR is essentially a more accurate method for
computer by keyboard, there are still problems recognising reading data than OCR
all types of handwriting leading to inaccuracies

41
2 Input and output devices of a bar code (see barcode example in Figure 2.24).
The readers are usually in the form of a barcode scanner
and are often built into POS terminals in supermarkets.
2.2.5 Barcode readers Handheld scanners or wands (as shown in Figure 2.25)
Barcode readers are used to read information in the form are also very common for reading barcodes if portability is
required (for example, if the barcodes are on large or compares to the 30 digits which is the maximum for a
fixed objects). barcode. However, as more and more data is added, the
structure of the QR code becomes more complex.
Uses of barcode systems
» Used in supermarkets and other shops where the goods
are marked with a barcode; the barcodes are used to give
information about the product which enables automatic
stock control, itemised billing, etc. to take place. » Used in
libraries to keep track of books on loan.
» Used as a safety function in many companies to ensure
that electrical equipment is checked on a regular basis
(barcodes are placed on an item to identify it and a ▲ Figure 2.24 Sample barcode
database holds all the information related to that barcode
so it is possible to interrogate the system as part of a
safety audit).

Advantages of barcode systems

» Much faster than keying in data manually and fewer
mistakes will be made. » If used as a way of recording
safety testing of components (for instance electrical ▲ Figure 2.25 Portable barcode reader
(scanner)
components) they can help improve safety.
» They allow automatic stock control.
» They are a tried and trusted technology.

Disadvantages of barcode systems

» Relatively expensive system to administer.
» Not fool-proof (barcodes can be swapped around on
items). » Can be more easily damaged than RFID tags or
magnetic stripes.

2.2.6 Quick response (QR) code

scanners (readers) Another type of barcode is the
quick response (QR) code. This is made up of a matrix
of filled-in dark squares on a light background. For
example, the QR code in Figure 2.26 is a website
advertising rock music merchandise. It includes a web
address in the code.
QR codes can hold considerably more information than
the more conventional barcodes described earlier.
Description of QR codes
A QR code consists of a block of small squares (light and
dark) known as pixels. It can presently hold up to 4296
characters (or up to 7089 digits) and allows internet ▲ Figure 2.26 Sample QR code
addresses to be encoded within the QR code. This

42
2.2 Direct data entry (DDE) devices

The three large squares at the corners of the code function as a form of
alignment; the remaining small corner square is used to ensure the correct size
 and correct angle of the camera shot when the QR code is read.
Because of modern smartphones and tablets, which allow internet access on the
move, QR codes can be scanned anywhere. This gives rise to a number of uses:
» advertising products (for example, the QR code in Figure 2.26)
» giving automatic access to a website or contact passwords and type of encryption used – when the QR
telephone number » storing boarding passes electronically code is scanned using a smartphone/tablet, it will be able
at airports and train stations (Figure 2.27). to automatically join that network.
By using the built-in camera on a mobile smartphone or » QR codes can be used to deliver augmented reality
tablet and by downloading a QR app (application), it is (see Chapter 1) experiences, by helping an AR system to
possible to read QR codes on the move using the determine the positions of objects in three-dimensional
following method: space.
» QR codes have been used to establish virtual online
» Point the phone or tablet camera at the QR code. stores, where a gallery of product information and QR
» The apps will now process the image taken by the codes are presented to the customer, for example, on a
camera converting the squares into readable data. train station wall. The customers scan the QR codes, and
» The browser software on the mobile phone or tablet the products are automatically delivered to their homes.
automatically reads the data generated by the apps; it will
also decode any web addresses contained within the QR Advantages of QR codes
code. » They can hold much more information than normal
» The user will then be sent to a website automatically (or barcode. » There will be fewer errors than with barcodes;
if a telephone number was embedded in the code, the the higher data capacity of the QR code allows the use of
user will be sent to the phone apps ). built-in error-checking systems; normal barcodes
» If the QR code contained a boarding pass, this will be Boarding Pass
automatically sent to the phone/tablet. BX 885
Uses of QR codes
» Used in advertising to contain data such as business
addresses, phone numbers, email addresses and website
addresses; scanning the QR code gives all the necessary
data on the smartphone screen, or the user is sent
automatically to the website embedded in the QR code. LHR to BUH
» Contain links to apps (for example, they can be found in March 15 2023
app stores to enable the appropriate apps to be quickly
downloaded onto a user’s device). » Wi-Fi authentication;
QR codes can be used to store Wi-Fi network
authentication (proof of identity) details, including ▲ Figure 2.27 Sample boarding pass
 43
2 Input and output devices Cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors are the least
expensive type of monitor, although they are becoming
increasingly rare as LCD monitors are now taking over.
contain almost no data redundancy (that is, data which is They come in various sizes and make use of an electron
duplicated) therefore it is not possible to guard against gun firing against a phosphor screen. The picture is made
badly printed or damaged barcodes. » QR codes are up of tiny dots which are coloured red, green or blue – the
easier to read; they do not need expensive laser or LED intensity of each coloured dot makes up the vast range of
(light emitting diode) scanners like barcodes – they can colours interpreted by the eye.
be read by the cameras used on smartphones and
tablets.
» It is easy to transmit QR codes either as text messages
or images. » It is also possible to encrypt QR codes,
which gives them greater protection than traditional
barcodes.

Disadvantages of QR codes
» More than one QR format is available.
» QR codes can be used to transmit malicious codes;
known as attagging. Because there are a large number
of free apps available to a user for generating QR codes,
that means anyone can do this. It is relatively easy to
write malicious code and embed this within the QR code.
When the code is scanned, it is possible the creator of
the malicious code could gain access to everything on the
user’s smartphone/tablet (for example, photographs,
address book, stored passwords, etc.). The user could
also be sent to a fake website, or it is even possible for a
virus to be downloaded.

2.3 Output devices and their

uses
As the name suggests, these are devices that usually
show the result of computer processing in a format that
can be understood by a human (for example, on a
monitor or printed on paper). However, some output
devices are part of a control system. In these examples,
the computer is controlling a process and sends signals
to these output devices.

2.3.1 Monitors (screens)

In this section we will consider two types of monitor:
» the cathode ray tube (CRT) monitor
» LCD (or TFT) screen (TFT means ‘thin film technology’;
a general term for modern thin screens).

While CRT monitors have just about been phased out

everywhere, they are included here because these are
the only type of device which allows the use of light pens
(see Section 2.1.11). Consequently, some companies
using CAD still use large CRT monitors to enable the use
of light pens as part of the drawing environment.
CRT monitors ▲ Figure 2.28 CRT monitor
 44
2.3 Output devices and their uses

Uses of CRT monitors

» They are only used in specialist areas, such as computer-aided design (CAD);
the screens are usually very large to enable complex diagrams to be created or
modified.
» They are used with light pens to allow designs to be created on screen.
Advantages of CRT monitors
» The screen can be clearly seen at a wider range of viewing angles than with
most LCD monitors.
» They allow the use of light pens in, for example, CAD/CAM applications.
Disadvantages of CRT monitors
» They tend to be rather heavy and present a weight hazard if not supported
properly; they also have a very large footprint on a desk (they cover about ten
times the area of an LCD monitor).
» They run very hot and can cause fires if left unattended (especially as they
get older).
» They consume considerably more power than LCD monitors.
» They can flicker, which can lead to headaches and eyesight problems with
prolonged use.
LED and LCD screens
LED screens
An LED screen is made up of tiny light emitting diodes (LEDs). Each LED is either
red, green or blue in colour. By varying the electric current sent to each LED, its
brightness can be controlled, producing a vast range of colours.
This type of screen tends to be used for large outdoor displays, due to the
brilliance of the colours produced. Recent advances in LED technology
have led to the introduction of OLED (organic LED) screens.
Many monitors and television screens are advertised as LED when in fact
they are LCD screens which are backlit using LEDs.
LCD screens
LCD screens are made up of tiny liquid crystals. These tiny crystals make up an
array of pixels which are affected by changes in applied electric fields. How this
works is outside the scope of this book, but the important thing to realise is
that for LCD screens to work, they require some form of backlighting.
Modern LCD screens are backlit using light emitting diode (LED) technology and
must not be confused with pure LED screens. When LEDs are used, a matrix of
tiny blue-white LEDs is used behind the LCD screen. The use of LED backlighting
gives a very good contrast and brightness range.
Before the use of LEDs, LCD screens used cold cathode fluorescent lamps (CCFL)
as the back lighting method. Essentially, CCFL used two fluorescent tubes behind
the LCD screen to supply the light source.
The reason that LEDs have become increasingly more popular as the method of
backlighting is due to a number of advantages over older CCFL technology:
» LEDs reach their maximum brightness almost immediately (there is no need to
‘warm up’ before reaching full efficiency).
45
2 Input and output devices light, which sharpens
a slightly yellowish tint. definition. using CCFL
the image and makes » LEDs produce a » Screens using LED technology.
the colours appear brighter light which technology are much » LEDs last almost
» LEDs give a whiter more vivid; CCFL had improves the colour thinner than screens indefinitely; this makes
the technology more light colour filter
source
reliable and makes for
a more consistent
product. polarising
» LEDs consume very filter
little power which polarising filter
means they produce
less heat as well as display
using less energy. surface

liquid crystal

Uses of LCD screens » Used as the main output device for electrodes
electrodes
most modern

computers. » Many LCD screens offer touch-screen input.

▲ Figure 2.29 Inside an LCD screen

» Mobile phones, tablets, laptops and portable video games all use LCD screens.

Advantages of LCD screens

» Very efficient, low power consumption.
» Lightweight devices.
» Unlike CRT monitors, do not suffer from screen image burn-in (that is,
a permanent image burned into the screen due to unchanging
images over a period of time).
» Screens can be made in large variation of sizes.
» Do not suffer from a flickering image, unlike CRT monitors.
» Very sharp image resolution (allow a vast range of colours).
» Produce low electromagnetic fields compared to CRT monitors.

Disadvantages of LCD screens

» Colour and contrast from various viewing angles can be
inconsistent. » Motion blur is a common issue.
» Lower contrast than CRT monitors, because it is harder to produce a
deep, rich level of black.
» LCDs can have weak or stuck pixels, which are permanently on or off;
some pixels may be improperly connected to adjoining pixels, rows or
columns. » The LCD panel may not be uniformly illuminated by the back
light, resulting in uneven intensity and shading over the screen.

2.3.2 Touch screen (as an output device)

Touch screens can work as both an input device (see Section 2.1.6) and as
an output device. This is one of the few devices that can be used in this
way. When options appear on the screen, for example a food selection at a
fast food outlet, a user can make a selection by touching the screen (this is
the input). Another set of options then appear on the screen, such as
choosing another drink – this is the output produced based on the previous
input.

46
2.3 Output devices and their uses

Uses of touch screens (acting as both input and output)

 » Smartphones and tablets (allowing interaction with apps).
» ATMs at banks (where screen options displayed depend on previous input
response).
» Ticket collection machines at theatres, cinemas and railway stations (again
on-screen outputs will depend on previous inputs).
» Information kiosks at museums or art galleries.
Advantages of touch screens
» Faster entry of options than using a keyboard or mouse.
» Very easy method for choosing options.
» User-friendly method – no training necessary in its use.
» Option to expand the size of the display if necessary.
Disadvantages of touch screens
» Limited number of options available.
» Not very good if large amounts of data are being input or output because
they are not very accurate and the interface is not fast.
» The screen can get very dirty with constant touching (giving a risk of
spreading infections, as well as reducing its responsiveness and making it
more difficult to read in strong sunlight).
» Easier for a third party to track a user’s interactions, which is a security risk
(for example, entering credit card details).

2.3.3 Multimedia projectors

Multimedia projectors receive signals that can be either analogue or
digital
(although most modern projectors only work with digital inputs). The
signal
source is usually from a computer, television or DVD player. The image from the
source is magnified and projected onto a large screen. The devices work with
a remote control which acts like a cordless mouse when » Home cinema systems (projecting the images from a
interfacing with the screen. It is then possible to direct the DVD or television).
computer presentation without being tied to the computer
(another feature of the virtual mouse is the laser pointer). Advantages of multimedia projectors
Most multimedia projectors take input from various types
of video format. » Enables many people to see a presentation rather than
crowding around a small computer screen.
Uses of multimedia projectors » Avoids the need for several networked computers (for
» Training presentations (to allow the whole audience to example, when looking at a video clip on an internet site,
see the images from a computer). everybody can see the video on the large screen rather
» Advertising presentations (large images showing than logging on to a number of computers).
product features, for example a new car; can be shown at ▲ Figure 2.30 Multimedia projector
exhibitions, shopping malls, etc.).
 47
2 Input and output devices electric charge from the drum, making it ready to print the
next page.
Disadvantages of multimedia projectors Uses of laser printers
» Images can sometimes be fuzzy. » They are used where low noise is required (for example,
» Expensive to buy. in an office). » If fast, high-quality, high-volume printing is
» Setting up projectors can be a little difficult. required then laser printers are the best option.

2.3.4 Printers Advantages of laser printers

This section will consider the use of the three most » Printing is fast (unless only a few pages are to be
common types of printer: printed, in which case they are little faster than inkjet
printers).
» laser printer » They can handle very large print jobs.
» inkjet printer » The quality is consistently high.
» dot matrix printer. » Toner cartridges last for a long time (and the printers
can sometimes be a cost-effective option, particularly if
Laser printers colour outputs are not required).
Laser printers produce very high-quality hard copy
output. The print rate per page is very quick if a large
number of pages are being printed. They rely on large
buffer memories where the data for the whole document is
stored before pages can be printed out.
Let us briefly consider how a page is printed:
» The start of the printing process involves a printing drum
being given a positive charge; as this drum rotates, a
laser beam is scanned across it removing the positive
charge in certain areas; this leaves negatively charged
areas which exactly match the text/images of the page to
be printed.
» The drum is then coated with positively-charged toner
(powdered ink); because the toner is positively charged, it
only sticks to the negatively charged parts of the drum.
» A negatively-charged sheet of paper is then rolled over
the drum. » The toner on the drum now sticks to the paper
to produce an exact copy of the page sent to the printer.
» To prevent the paper sticking to the drum, the electric
charge on the paper is removed after one rotation of the
drum.
» The paper finally goes through a fuser, which is a set of
heated rollers; the heat melts the ink so that it fixes
permanently to the paper.
» At the very end, a discharge lamp removes all the ▲ Figure 2.31 Laser printer
 48
2.3 Output devices and their uses

Disadvantages of laser printers

» Only really fast if several copies are being made.
» Colour laser printers tend to be expensive to run (four-colour/black cartridges
are needed, plus diffuser kits, which are expensive to purchase).
» They produce ozone and volatile organic compounds because of their method
of printing and type of toner/ink used (these have been linked to health
hazards in the office).

Inkjet printers
Inkjet printers are used to produce good-quality hard copies.
Unlike laser
printers, inkjet printers do not have large buffer memories,
therefore printing is
done a bit at a time. This is why printing is sometimes paused – the
whole print
job cannot be stored in the buffer, and it has to wait for the computer to send
more data.
Inkjet printers are essentially made up of:
» a print head, which consists of nozzles which spray » Piezoelectric – a crystal is located at the back of the ink
droplets of ink on to the paper to form characters reservoir for each nozzle. The crystal is given a tiny
» an ink cartridge or cartridges; either one cartridge for electric charge which makes it vibrate. This vibration
each colour (blue, yellow and magenta) and a black forces ink to be ejected onto the paper; at the same time
cartridge, or one single cartridge containing all three more ink is drawn in for further printing.
colours plus black (note: some systems use six colours)
» a stepper motor and belt, which moves the print head Uses of inkjet printers
assembly across the page from side to side » Used where low-output volumes are required (high-
» a paper feed which automatically feeds the printer with volume jobs are difficult to do because the ink cartridges
pages as they are required. tend to be used up very quickly). » If high-quality printing
is required for single pages (or only a small print job) then
The ink droplets are produced using two different these printers are ideal; for example, they are very good
technologies: at producing photo-quality printouts.
» Thermal bubble – tiny resistors create localised heat » 3D inkjet printers are now being used in industry to
which makes the ink vaporise. This causes the ink to form produce prototypes (see Section 2.3.6).
a tiny bubble; as the bubble expands, some of the ink is
ejected from the print head onto the paper. When the Advantages of inkjet printers
bubble collapses, a small vacuum is created which allows » High-quality output.
fresh ink to be drawn into the print head. This continues » Cheaper to buy than laser printers.
until the printing cycle is completed.
▲ Figure 2.32 Inkjet printer
 49
2 Input and output devices

» Very lightweight and have a small physical footprint.

» Do not produce ozone and volatile organic compounds, unlike laser printers.

Disadvantages of inkjet printers

» Slow output if several copies are needed (little buffer capacity to store
the pages).
» Cannot do large print jobs (ink cartridges run out too
quickly). » Printing can ‘smudge’ if the user is not careful.
» Can be expensive if used a lot (original ink cartridges are expensive to buy).

Dot matrix printers

Dot matrix printers are a type of impact printer where a
print head (made up of a matrix of pins) presses against
an inked ribbon. They tend to be slow, noisy and the
output is not that good compared to inkjet and laser
printers. They are still useful, however, where multi
part stationery (carbon copies) or continuous rolls of paper
(rather than individual sheets) are being used. They also
work well in dirty atmospheres (such as on a factory floor),
unlike inkjet or laser printers.
Uses of dot matrix printers
» They can be used in noisy or dirty environments (for print quality is not that important.
example, garage workshops) and in applications where ▲ Figure 2.33 Dot matrix printer

» They are used in applications where multi-part stationery or the fact that
they are an impact printer is of value (for example, when producing
physical ‘carbon copies’ such as when producing wage slips).
» Still widely used in till receipts.

Advantages of dot matrix printers

» They can be used in environments which would be a problem for laser or
inkjet printers (for example, dusty/dirty or moist atmospheres).
» Carbon copies or multi-part outputs can be produced.
» Very cheap to run and maintain.
» Easy to use if continuous stationery is required (for example, long print
jobs such as wages slips).

Disadvantages of dot matrix printers

» Very noisy – not good in an office environment.
» Actually cost more than an inkjet printer to buy initially.
» Very slow, poor-quality printing.

2.3.5 (Graph) plotters

A (graph) plotter is an output device. Although they print on
paper, they work very differently to printers. Instead of toner or
ink cartridges, plotters use a pen, pencil or marker pen to draw
multiple continuous lines, rather than a series of dots like a
printer. The size of the paper can be anything from A4 up to
several metres. They produce vector graphic drawings and are often
used in conjunction with CAD and CAM (computer aided manufacturing).
▲ Figure 2.34 (Graph) plotter

50
 2.3 Output devices and their uses

Some plotters are used to cut out material by replacing the pen with a cutting
blade. However, in general, plotters are being phased out, as wide-format inkjet
printers are being produced at lower cost.
Uses of plotters
» Producing architectural drawings.
» Producing engineering drawings.
» Drawing animation characters (cartoon characters).

Advantages of plotters
» Very high-quality output.
» Able to produce large, monochrome and colour drawings to a high accuracy.
» Able to print on a variety of materials (for example, aluminium, cardboard,
plastic, steel and wood) as well as paper.

Disadvantages of plotters
» Very slow at printing.
» Expensive equipment (and software) to purchase initially; although running
costs are low once purchased.
» Have a very large physical footprint compared to a printer.

2.3.6 3D printers
3D printers are primarily used in computer-aided design (CAD)
applications.
They are primarily based on inkjet and laser printer technology and
can produce
solid objects that actually work. The solid object is built up layer by
layer using
materials such as powdered resin, powdered metal, paper or ceramic.
The alloy wheel in Figure 2.36 was made using an industrial 3D printer.
It was made from many layers of powdered metal (0.1 mm thick) using a
technology known as binder 3D printing.
Other examples are discussed below.
The following information describes some of the features
of 3D printing:
» Various types of 3D printers exist; they range from the
size of a microwave oven up to the size of a small car.
» 3D printers use additive manufacturing (i.e. the object
is built up layer by layer); this is in sharp contrast to the
more traditional method of subtractive manufacturing
(i.e. removal of material to make the object). For
example, making a statue using a 3D printer would ▲ Figure 2.35 3D printer
involve building it up layer by layer using powdered stone
until the final object was formed. The subtractive method
would involve carving the statue out of solid stone (i.e.
removing the stone not required) until the final item was would produce the same item by building up the object
produced. Similarly, CNC (computer-controlled machine – from layers of powdered metal.
a type of lathe) removes metal to form an object; 3D ▲ Figure 2.36 Alloy wheel made by 3D printing
printing

51
2 Input and output devices
» Direct 3D printing uses inkjet technology; a print head can move left to
right as in a normal printer. However, the print head can also move up
and down to build up the layers of an object – each layer being less than
a tenth of a millimetre (less than 0.1 mm).
» Binder 3D printing is similar to direct 3D printing, but this method uses
two passes for each of the layers; the first pass sprays dry powder,
then, on the second pass, a binder (a type of glue) is sprayed to form a
solid layer.
» Newer technologies are using lasers and UV light to harden liquid
polymers; this further increases the diversity of products which can be
made.

Uses of 3D printers
3D printing is regarded as being possibly the next ‘industrial revolution’
because it will change the manufacturing methods in many industries. The
following list is just a glimpse into what we know can be made using these
printers; in the years that follow, the applications list could probably fill an
entire book:
» Prosthetic limbs can be made to fit exactly on the injured body part. »
Making items to allow precision reconstructive surgery (for example,
facial reconstruction following an accident); the parts made by this
technique are more precise in their design as they can be made from an
exact scan of the skull.
» In aerospace, manufacturers are looking at making wings and other
aeroplane parts using 3D technology; the bonus will be lightweight,
precision parts. » Fashion and art – 3D printing allows new creative ideas
to be developed. » Making parts for items no longer in production, for
example, parts for a vintage car.

How to create a solid object using 3D printers

The steps in the process of producing an object using 3D printers is
summarised in Figure 2.37.

A design is made using computer-aided design (CAD) software.

The finalised drawing is imported into some special software that

prepares it in a format that is understood by the 3D printer.

The 3D printer is set up to allow the solid object to be made.

The solid object is built up layer by layer (often only 0.1 mm

thick); this can take several hours depending on the thickness of
the layers, the material used and the size of the final object.

The object is removed from the printer and is then prepared; for
example, some use a jelly-like support that needs to be washed
away by immersion in water, some require the removal of excess
plastic powder, and others require the cutting away of unused
material. In many cases, the object has to be left to ‘cure’ for
a few hours.

▲ Figure 2.37 Creating a solid object using 3D printers

52
2.3 Output devices and their uses

Advantages of 3D printers
» The manufacturing of items has become much easier than ever before. It is
now theoretically possible to manufacture any product a user wants using only
 a 3D printer. This has led the way for customised products, as it allows a user
to create their own designs in 3D and have them printed in solid form.
» Because 3D printers can manufacture items relatively quickly, it allows rapid
prototyping. This means that it will take a really short length of time for
designs to be converted into working prototypes.
» Even though the cost of 3D printing is very high, it is still less when
compared to labour costs and other costs involved in manufacturing a
product in the
more conventional way. The fact that the cost of manufacturing using 3D
printers is the same for both small-scale and mass production is also a very
useful benefit.
» Medical benefits are emerging, such as producing artificial organs,
prosthetics and precision-made items for reconstructive surgery.
» Parts for machinery that are no longer made could now be manufactured
using 3D printers. A car made in the 1930s, for example, will no longer
have parts
available off-the-shelf. By scanning the broken part (using a 3D scanner), or
by obtaining its blueprint, it will be possible to simply email the file to a
company and have the part made on an industrial 3D printer. This clearly has
many benefits in a number of applications.

Disadvantages of 3D printers
» The biggest possible drawback of 3D printers is the potential to make
counterfeit items or items that infringe others’ copyright. 3D printing
technology essentially turns every owner of one of these printers into a
potential manufacturer. Thus, it could become very difficult to trace the
source of fake items; copyright holders would also have great difficulty in
protecting their rights.
» All new technologies in the hands of the wrong people can lead to dangerous
or illegal activities. With the possibility of creating almost anything with the
use of a 3D printer, this technology could be used to manufacture dangerous
items by almost anyone.
» There is the potential for job losses if this technology takes over from some
types of manufacturing. Of course, this could also be seen as a benefit by some
companies as it could lead to lower manufacturing costs for certain items.

2.3.7 Speakers
Speakers (or loudspeakers) are output devices that produce sound. When
connected to a computer system, digitised sound stored on a file needs to be
converted into sound as follows:
» The digital data is first passed through a digital to analogue converter
(DAC) where it is changed into an electric current.
» This is then passed through an amplifier (because the current generated by
the DAC will be very small); this creates a current large enough to drive a
loudspeaker.
» This electric current is then fed to a loudspeaker where it is converted into
sound.

53
2 Input and output devices

The schematic in Figure 2.38 shows how this is done.

1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 …. DAC amplifier
 ▲ Figure 2.38 Digital to analogue conversion
As Figure 2.38 shows, if the sound is stored in a computer file, it must
pass through a digital to analogue converter (DAC) to convert binary
(digital) data into an analogue form (electric current) which can then drive
the loudspeaker. Figure 2.39 shows how the loudspeaker converts the
electric current into sound.

plastic or sound waves produced coil of wire wrapped around an iron core
paper cone sound waves permanent magnet

electric current fed to wire

▲ Figure 2.39 Diagram showing how a loudspeaker works

» When an electric current flows through the coil of wire that is wrapped
around an iron core, the core becomes a temporary electromagnet; a
permanent magnet is also positioned very close to this electromagnet.
» As the electric current through the coil of wire varies, the induced
magnetic field in the iron core also varies. This causes the iron core to
be attracted or towards or repelled from the permanent magnet and as
the current varies this will cause the iron core to vibrate.
» Because the iron core is attached to a cone (made of paper or thin
synthetic material), this causes the cone to vibrate, producing sound
waves.

Uses of speakers
» Used in all phones and built in to most computers.
» Outputs sound from multimedia presentations.
» Helps visually impaired people (together with speech generation
software) through reading aloud text on the screen.
» Plays downloaded sound files.

Advantages of speakers
» Sounds amplified through speakers can be much louder than the
original sound – this is important whenever more than a few people
need to listen to something.
» Everyone in a conference, for example, can hear the output from a
computer. » It can create a good atmosphere when making a
presentation.

54
2.3 Output devices and their uses

» They can help visually impaired people as discussed.

» Very simple technology.

Disadvantages of speakers
» Speaker output can be disturbing to others in, for example, an office
environment.
» To get high-quality sound, the required speakers can be quite expensive.
» Speakers can take up a lot of desk space.

2.3.8 Actuators
When a computer is used to control devices, such as a conveyer belt or a
valve, it is usually necessary to use an actuator to, for example, start/stop
the conveyer
belt or open/close the valve. An actuator is a mechanical or electromechanical
device such as a relay, solenoid or motor. We will consider a solenoid as the
example; this converts an electrical signal into a magnetic field producing linear
motion:

electromagnetic field

solenoid coil

current out current in

▲ Figure 2.40 Solenoid

If a plunger (for example, a magnetised metal bar) is placed inside the coil, it
will move when a current is applied to the coil (see Figure 2.40). This would
allow the solenoid to operate a valve or a switch, for example. There are
also examples
of rotary solenoids, where a cylindrical coil is used. In this case, when a current
is supplied to the coil, it would cause a rotational movement of the plunger.
Uses of actuators
» They are used to control motors, pumps, switches, buzzers and so on.
» They allow a computer to control physical devices that normally require
analogue inputs.

Advantages of actuators
» They allow remote operation of many devices (for example, pumps in a
nuclear reactor where remote operation is a big safety factor).
» They are relatively inexpensive devices.

Disadvantages of actuators
» They are an additional device in the system that could go wrong.
» Because they are usually analogue devices, computer signals need to
converted using a DAC to enable computer control.

55
2 Input and output devices

Exam-style questions
1 a State one suitable application for each of the following
printers. A different application should be given in each case.
» inkjet printer
» 3D printer [2] b Name another type of printer and describe one way
in which it is different from the two printers named in part a. [3]
2 Contactless debit cards are replacing standard debit cards. Some
countries are introducing contactless debit card transactions at ATM
machines. Give three disadvantages to the customer of using these cards
at an ATM. [3]
Cambridge IGCSE Information and Communication Technology (0417)
Paper 12 Q12,
October/November
2017
3 In each of the following questions, only one of the responses is correct.
Choose one of the five options given. [10] a Which one of the following is
the most suitable device for inputting a short report into a computer?
a trackerball

b scanner

c keyboard

d optical mark reader (OMR)

e joystick

b Which one of the following would you use to produce a

digital image of a hard copy photograph?
a touch screen

b keyboard

c optical character reader (OCR)

d scanner

e QR scanner

c Which one of the following is NOT a suitable use for an optical mark reader?
a reading barcodes

b multiple-choice exam papers

c choice of candidate in voting forms

d opinion poll survey

e data collection with limited options

d Which one of the following is the most appropriate device for printing
out wage slips, where carbon copies are also required?
a laser printer

b (graph) plotter

c inkjet printer

d actuator

e dot matrix printer

56
Exam-style questions

e Which one of the following devices could be used to produce a very large
drawing on plastic sheeting?
a (graph) plotter

b laser printer
 c dot matrix printer

d 3D printer

e touch screen

f Which one of the following printers is most suitable for printing a very
large number of high-quality black and white leaflets?
a (graph) plotter

b laser printer

c dot matrix printer

d inkjet printer

e computer-aided design (CAD)

g Which one of the following cannot be directly measured using a sensor?

a temperature

b light intensity

c heat

d air humidity

e pressure

h Which one of the following devices allows the use of a light pen?
a CRT monitor

b LCD monitor

c barcode reader

d QR reader

e touch screen

i Which one of the following cannot be used as an output device?

a touch screen

b (graph) plotter

c actuator

d speaker

e mouse

j Which one of the following cannot be used as an input device?

a touch screen

b 3D printer
 c optical mark reader (OMR)

d QR reader

e (graph) plotter

57
2 Input and output devices

4 Five devices are shown on the left and five descriptions are shown on the
right. By drawing lines, connect each device to its correct description. [4]
Display that uses light modulating prop
of crystals
Inkjet printer

Image from a source is magnified and

LCD screen
on a large screen

3D printer
Droplets of ink are ejected onto a shee

Digital projector
Electrically-charged powdered toner is
melted onto paper

Laser printer
Produces solid objects using CAD soft

5 Which ten computer terms are being described below? [10] a A matrix of
filled-in dark squares on a light background; read using a smartphone
camera or tablet using an app.
b A device that can read marks written in pen or pencil; the pencil
or pen marks must be made in the correct position.
c An input device that takes physical readings from the surroundings
and sends the data back to a computer.
d An input device that converts sound into electric signals that can
be stored digitally on a computer.
e A device that converts a photograph or document into a
computer-readable file.
f A device used to control the operation of other electronic devices
using infrared signals.
g A direct data entry device that uses radio waves to read and
capture information stored on an electronic tag.
h A device that produces very high-quality hard copy output; uses dry
ink cartridges and an electrically charged drum.
i A device that prints by impacting a print head made up of an array
of pins against an inked ribbon.
j A pointing device that moves around on a surface in an X–Y
direction to control a cursor on a computer screen.
6 a i Describe how a QR reader works.
ii What are QR codes used for? [4] b Give two advantages and two
disadvantages of using QR codes. [4] c A touch screen can be used as
both an input device and an output device. Explain how this is possible.
[2]
 7 Give a use for each of the following input and output devices. [10]
a Keyboard f Touch screen
b Driving wheel or joystick c QR code reader g 3D printer
d Barcode reader h Dot matrix printer i RFID
e Microphone j chip and PIN reader
58
Exam-style questions

8 A home is fitted with a microprocessor-controlled burglar alarm system.

It is not connected to a police station.
Tick (✓) three sensors which would be used in such a system. [3]
(✓ )

Pressure sensor

Oxygen level sensor

Wind speed sensor

Sound sensor

Body sensor

Moisture sensor

Infra-red sensor

Touch sensor

Cambridge IGCSE Information and Communication Technology (0417) Paper 11 Q7 a,

May/June 2015
9 A school is holding an athletics competition. The timings of each running
event will be measured electronically using sensors at the start and finish.
Runners
begin a race in starting blocks. When the starting pistol is fired the electronic
timing starts. The winner of the race is the first to break the light beam at the
end of the race.
a Complete the table using the most appropriate words from the list below.
Infra-red sensor Light sensor Moisture sensor Motion sensor
pH sensor Pressure sensor Sound sensor Temperature sensor
Device

Data from the starting pistol is read by this device

This device detects that the athlete has left the starting
block

When the light beam is broken the data is read by this

device

[3]
Cambridge IGCSE Information and Communication Technology (0417) Paper 12 Q3,
October/November 2017
b A member of the sports department will use a computer to produce a
magazine of the competition. He will include photographs stored in a digital
 camera as well as printed photographs.
Identify the methods he would use to transfer the photographs to the computer.
[2]
10 Tick (✓) whether the following statements are True or False. [2]
True (✓) False
(✓ )

Answers to multiple-choice examination papers can be

read using an optical mark reader (OMR)

The PIN is stored on the magnetic stripe on a credit card

The chip on a credit card is read by a PIN reader

An RFID chip can be used to track stock

59

Storage devices and

3 media

In this chapter you will learn about:

★ storage devices:
– magnetic (hard disk drive (HDD) and magnetic tape drive)
– optical (CD, DVD and Blu-ray read/write devices)
– solid state (solid-state drive (SSD), pen drive and flash drive)
★ storage media:
– magnetic media (magnetic disks and magnetic tape)
– optical (CD, DVD and Blu-ray discs)
– solid state (including SD, XD and CFast).

Secondary storage includes all non-volatile devices that are not part of
primary memory. They allow data to be stored as long as required by the
user. This type of storage is much larger than RAM and ROM (primary
memory), but data access time is considerably longer. All applications,
the operating system, device drivers and general files (for example,
documents, photos and music) are stored in secondary storage. There
are three different categories of secondary storage which are based on
technology that uses the following media:
l magnetic
l optical
l solid state.

It is very important to distinguish between the terms storage media and

storage device. Media is the hardware on which the data is actually stored
(for example, a CD or a DVD); whereas the storage device is the hardware
used to read from or write to the media (for example, a CD/DVD reader or
writer).

3.1 Magnetic media and magnetic

storage devices
Using the properties of magnetism is one of the oldest known methods
for the electronic storage of data; its roots go back to the nineteenth
 century.
Today, magnetic media rely on the property that an iron oxide coating can
be magnetised to represent a binary 1-value and demagnetised to
represent a binary 0-value. Because each magnetised area is very small,
this allows a huge amount of data to be stored. One of the big advantages
of this technology is that the magnetic state of the iron oxide is permanent
unless it is written over again. The two most common devices that use
these magnetic properties to store data are magnetic tape drives and hard
disk drives (HDD).

60
3.1 Magnetic media and magnetic storage devices

3.1.1 Magnetic tape drives

A magnetic tape is a very thin strip of plastic which is coated in a
magnetic
layer (iron oxide). They are read from or written to by a read/write
head in a
magnetic tape storage device. The data is stored as a magnetised
area (which
represents a 1) or demagnetised area (which represents a 0). Data
is read from
the tape using serial access (in other words, data can only be read
in the
same order that it was written). This type of storage is useless in
real-time or
online applications (due to the very slow data access speeds) and is best suited
to offline or batch processing. However, due to their vast storage capacity,
magnetic tapes are still used on large industrial or university computers.
Uses of magnetic tape
» Use in applications where batch processing is used (for example, clearing
bank cheques, utility billing (gas, electricity, water), and producing pay slips).
In these applications there is no need for any specific Disadvantages of magnetic tape
processing order and speed of data access is not ▲ Figure 3.1 Magnetic tape drive
essential).
» Used as a backup media where vast amounts of data
need to be stored. » Used in long-term archiving of data;
magnetic tapes have huge data storage capacities and
are known to be very stable, which makes them ideal for
long-term storage.
Advantages of magnetic tapes
» They are generally less expensive (per byte) than the
equivalent hard disk drive. » It is a very robust technology
(they do not deteriorate much over time and remain
stable).
» They have a huge data storage capacity.
» The data transfer rate is actually fast (this should not
be confused with data access time which is very slow for (Old) master file
magnetic tapes).
» Very slow data access times (they data is found) - whilst magnetic tape needed to store the final updated
use serial access, A data access time is slow, the data version; this requires the use of a
which means all the previous data transfer rate is still high. master tape (the original tape) and a
needs to be read until the required » When updating, another tape is transaction tape (which B
contains all the changes to be made) why magnetic New data to be used to update
master file
to produce a new master tape. This is Old data New tape produced from A
clearly a slow way of updating data, stored
tape
on magnetic
and B
and can also introduce errors, which is

tapes are no longer a common method of storing data). » ▲ Figure 3.2 Updating a magnetic tape
They are affected by magnetic fields; a strong magnet

(for example, one found in a loudspeaker) can corrupt data stored on the tape.

Advice
Data transfer rate is the rate at which data can be sent from a storage device to
a computer (or vice versa). Data access time is the time it takes to locate specific
data stored on the storage media.

61
3 Storage devices and media

3.1.2 Hard disk drives (HDD)

Hard disk drives (HDD) are still one of the most common
methods used to store data on a computer. Data is stored
in a digital format on the magnetic surfaces of the hard
disks (or platters, as they are usually called). A hard disk
drive will very often have more than one
platter depending on its capacity. A number of read/write
heads can access all of the platter surfaces in the disk
drive (normally each platter will have two surfaces where
the data is stored). These read/ write heads can move
very quickly – typically they can move from the centre of
the disk to the edge of the disk (and back again) 50 times
a second. Data on an HDD can be read using direct
access – this means, unlike magnetic tape, earlier data
does not have to be read first before the required data is
found. We will now look in more detail at how HDD works:
» Actuators are used to move the read/write heads (voice ▲ Figure 3.3 Hard disk drive – the hard disk (platter) is the media and the
coils are used as the actuators; these are similar to the hard disk drive (HDD) is the storage device
electromagnets used in speakers – hence their name).
» There are two read/write heads per platter (one for the
» A read/write arm swings the read/write head back and
top surface and one for the bottom surface).
forth across the platter; the platter is rotating at up to
» Data is stored in concentric, circular tracks; each track is
10000 rpm (revolutions per minute).
broken up into sectors (see Figure 3.4).
» Each read/write head contains a tiny magnet which
» A map of the sectors is stored on the HDD and is known
allows the data on the platter to be read.
as a file allocation table (FAT); when the computer wants
» Platters are made from glass, ceramic or aluminium
to store new data, it looks at the FAT map to find out
which are coated in iron oxide.
which sectors are free and then moves the read/write
heads to the correct location – this greatly speeds up the
writing process.

While hard disk drives have much faster data access

times than magnetic tape, there are still small delays.
Many applications require the read/write heads to
constantly seek the correct
blocks of data; this means a large number of head
movements. The effects of latency then become very
significant. (Latency is defined as the time it takes for a
specific block of data on a data track to rotate around to track sector
the read/write head). Users

will sometimes notice the effect of latency, especially if

many different applications are open, when they see
messages such as: ‘Please wait’ or, at its worst, ‘not
responding’. HDDs can be either fixed or portable.
▲ Figure 3.4 Hard disk platter (showing tracks and sectors)

62
3.1 Magnetic media and magnetic storage devices

Uses of fixed hard disk drives

» To store the operating system, systems software and working data/files.
» Storing applications software.
» Used in real-time systems (for example, robots, control of a chemical plant)
and in online systems (for example, booking airline tickets, automatic stock
control (using EPOS)).
» Used in file servers for computer networks.

Advantages of fixed hard disk drives

» They have a very fast data transfer rate and fast access times to data.
» They have very large memory capacities.

Disadvantages of fixed hard disk drives

» They can be fairly easily damaged (for example, if the correct shut-down
procedure on a computer has not been correctly carried out, it is possible to
sustain a head crash).
» They have many moving parts which can affect their overall reliability.
» Their read/write operation can be quite noisy when compared to solid-state
drives.

3.1.3 Portable hard disk drives

Portable hard disk drives are essentially HDDs external to the computer and
can be connected to the computer using one of the USB ports. In this way, they
can be used as a backup device or another way of transferring files between
computers.
Uses of portable hard disk drives
» They can be used as backup systems to prevent loss of data.
» They can be used to transfer data/files/software between computers.

Advantages of portable hard disk drives

» The data access time and data transfer rate are very fast.
» They have a large memory capacity.
» They can be used as a method of transferring information between computers.

Disadvantages of portable hard disk drives

» As with fixed disk drives, they can be easily damaged if the user accidentally
drops it or does not correctly shut down the drive after use.
» Data transfer rate is not as fast as for fixed hard drives.

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3 Storage devices and media

3.2 Optical media and optical storage devices

single spiral track runs from
the centre to outer part of disk
pits and lands

▲ Figure 3.5 Optical media

3.2.1 CD/DVD optical disks

CDs and DVDS are described as optical media and are read from or
written to by optical storage devices. Optical storage devices can be built
in to a computer or connected externally via a USB cable. They rely on the
optical properties of laser light, which is used to read data and to write data
on the surface of the disk.
CDs and DVDs can be designated as: ‘R’ (write once only), ‘RW’ (can be
written to or read from many times) or ‘ROM’ (read-only).
Both CDs and DVDs use a thin layer of metal alloy or a light-sensitive
organic dye coating to store the data. As can be seen from the diagram in
Figure 3.5, both systems use a single, spiral track, which runs from the
centre of the disk to the edge. When the disk spins, an optical head in the
drive unit moves to the start of the track. The laser beam then follows the
spiral track from the centre outwards. The read/write head does not
actually touch the CD or DVD surface. As with an HDD, a CD/DVD is
divided into sectors, allowing direct access of data. Also, as in the case of
HDD, the outer part of the disk runs faster than the inner part of the disk.
The data is stored in pits and lands on the spiral track (lands are the gaps
between pits). A red laser is used to read and write the data. The depth of
these pits is only about 20 per cent of the wavelength of the laser light
used to read the disc. This means the wavelength of the reflected laser
light is slightly different to the original laser light, causing destructive
interference. This allows the pits and lands to be read and then be
converted into binary data.
DVD technology is slightly different to that used in CDs. One of the main
differences is the potential for dual-layering which considerably
 increases the storage capacity. Basically, this means that there are two
individual recording layers. Two layers of a standard DVD are joined
together with a transparent (polycarbonate) spacer, and a very thin
reflector is also sandwiched between the two layers. Reading and
writing of the second layer is done by a red laser focusing at a fraction of
a millimetre difference compared to the first layer.

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3.2 Optical media and optical storage devices laser reads
first layer

second
layer

laser reads
layer 1 layer 2

▲ Figure 3.6 Dual-layering in a DVD

Standard, single-layer DVDs still have a larger storage capacity than CDs
because the ‘pit’ size and track width are both smaller. This means that
more data can be stored on the DVD surface. DVDs use lasers with a
wavelength of 650 nanometres; CDs use lasers with a wavelength of 780
nanometres. The shorter the wavelength of the laser light, the greater the
storage capacity of the medium.
Uses of CD-R and DVD-R
» Home recordings of music (CD-R) and films (DVD-R).
» Used to store data to be kept for later use or to be transferred to
another computer.

Advantages of CD-R and DVD-R

» Cheaper medium than RW disks.
» Once burned (and finalised) they behave like a ROM.

Disadvantages of CD-R and DVD-R

» Can only be recorded once; if an error occurs then the disk has to be
thrown away.
» Not all CD/DVD players can read CD-R/DVD-R.

Uses of CD-RW/DVD-RW
» Used to record television programmes which can be recorded over,
time and time again (although increasingly replaced by HDD recording
systems). » Used in CCTV systems.
» Can be used as a backup device for files and data.

Advantages of CD-RW/DVD-RW
» Can be written over many times.
» Can use different file formats each time it is used.
» Not as wasteful as R format because the files/data can be added at a
later stage (with CD-R/DVD-R it is only possible to do a write operation
at the time and you cannot come back a few days later to add more
files).

Disadvantages of CD-RW/DVD-RW
» Can be relatively expensive media.
» Possible to accidentally overwrite data.
 65
3 Storage devices and media of two 0.6 mm thick disks (i.e. 1.2 mm thick).
» Blu-ray disks automatically come with a secure
encryption system which helps to prevent piracy and
Uses of CD-ROM/DVD-ROM copyright infringement.
» These optical disks are read-only memory (ROM) which » The data transfer rate for a DVD is 10 Mbps and for a
means they cannot be written over and can only be read. Blu-ray disc it is 36 Mbps (this equates to 1.5 hours to
They are a permanent method of data storage. store 25 GB of data).
» CD-ROM is used to store music files and to store
software, computer games and reference software (such Because Blu-ray discs can come in single-layer or dual-
as an encyclopaedia). layer format it is probably also worth comparing the
» DVD-ROM has much larger storage and is used to store differences in capacity and interactivity of the two
films; but now it is increasingly used to store computer technologies.
data and the evermore sophisticated games.
» CD-ROMs and DVD-ROMs are used in applications
where there is a real need to prevent the deletion or
overwriting of important data.

Advantages of CD-ROM/DVD-ROM
» They are less expensive than hard disk drive systems.
Disadvantages of CD-ROM/DVD-ROM
» The data transfer rate/data access time is slower than
for hard disks.
It should also be noted that there is another type of DVD,
called DVD-RAM. It is constructed and operates
differently to the other DVD formats and has been used
as RAM in computers and camcorders. The format is now
quite old.

3.2.2 Blu-ray discs

Blu-ray discs are another example of optical storage
media. However, they are fundamentally different to
DVDs in their construction and in the way they carry out
read/write operations. Blu-ray discs are read from or
written to using a Blu ray optical storage device.
Note: it is probably worth mentioning why they are called
Blu-ray rather than Blue-ray; the simple reason is it was
impossible to copyright the word ‘Blue’ and hence the use
of the word ‘Blu’.
The main differences between DVD and Blu-ray are:
» A blue laser, rather than a red laser, is used to carry out
Blu-ray read and write operations; the wavelength of blue
light is only 405 nanometres (compared to 650 nm for red
light).
» Using blue laser light means that the pits and lands can
be much smaller; consequently, Blu-ray can store up to
five times more data than normal DVD. » Single-layer Blu-
ray discs use a 1.2 mm thick polycarbonate disk; however, ▲ Figure 3.7 Blu-ray disc
dual-layer Blu-ray and normal DVDs both use a sandwich
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