DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Digestion is defined as the process by which food is broken down into simple chemical substances that
can be absorbed and used as nutrients by the body. Most of the substances in the diet cannot be utilized
as such. These substances must be broken into smaller particles, so that they can be absorbed into blood
and distributed to various parts of the body for utilization.

FUNCTIONS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

1. Ingestion or consumption of food substances

2. Breaking them into small particles

3. Transport of small particles

to different areas of the digestive tract

4. Secretion of necessary enzymes and other substances for digestion

5. Digestion of the food particles

6. Absorption of the digestive products (nutrients)

7. Removal of unwanted substances from the body

FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Digestive system is made up of gastrointestinal tract (GI tract) or alimentary canal and accessory
organs, which help in the process of digestion and absorption . GI tract is a tubular structure extending
from the mouth up to anus, with a length of about 30 feet. It opens to the external environment on both
ends.

GI tract is formed by two types of organs: 1. Primary digestive organs. 2. Accessory digestive organs.

1. Primary Digestive Organs - Primary digestive organs are the organs where actual digestion takes
place. Primary digestive organs are: Mouth, Pharynx , Esophagus, Stomach, Small intestine and Large
intestine.

2. Accessory Digestive Organs - Accessory digestive organs are those which help primary digestive
organs in the process of digestion. Accessory digestive organs are: Teeth, Tongue, Salivary glands
Exocrine part of pancreas, Liver, Gallbladder.
WALL OF GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT

wall of the GI tract is formed by four layers

which are from inside out:
1. Mucus layer

2. Submucus layer

3. Muscular layer

4. Serous or fibrous layer.

1. MUCUS LAYER- Mucus layer is the innermost layer of the wall of GI tract. It is also called
gastrointestinal mucosa or mucus membrane. It faces the cavity of GI tract.

Epithelial Lining - Epithelial lining is in contact with the contents of GI tract. The type of cells in this
layer varies in different parts of GI tract. The inner surface of mouth, surface of tongue, inner surface
of pharynx and esophagus have stratified squamous epithelial cells. However, mucus membrane lining
the other parts such as stomach, small intestine and large intestine has columnar epithelial cells.

Lamina Propria- Lamina propria is formed by connective tissues, which contain fibro blasts,
macrophages, lymphocytes and eosinophils.

Muscularis Mucosa- Muscularis mucosa layer consists of a thin layer of smooth muscle fibers. It is
absent in mouth and pharynx. It is present from esophagus onwards

2. SUBMUCUS LAYER

Submucus layer is also present in all parts of GI tract, except the mouth and pharynx. It contains
loose collagen fibers, elastic fibers, reticular fibers and few cells of connective tissue. Blood vessels,
lymphatic vessels and nerve plexus are present in this layer. „

3. MUSCULAR LAYER

Muscular layer in lips, cheeks and wall of pharynx contains skeletal muscle fibers. The esophagus
has both skeletal and smooth muscle fibers. Wall of the stomach and intestine is formed by smooth
muscle fibers.

4. SEROUS OR FIBROUS LAYER

Outermost layer of the wall of GI tract is either serous or fibrous in nature. The serous layer is also
called serosa or serous membrane and it is formed by connective tissue and mesoepithelial cells. It
covers stomach, small intestine and large intestine. The fibrous layer is otherwise called fibrosa and
it is formed by connective tissue. It covers pharynx and esophagus

MOUTH AND SALIVARY GLANDS

 Mouth is otherwise known as oral cavity or buccal cavity. It is formed by cheeks, lips and
palate. It encloses the teeth, tongue and salivary glands. Digestive juice present in the mouth is saliva,
which is secreted by the salivary glands.

FUNCTIONS OF MOUTH

Primary function of mouth is eating and it has few other important functions also.
Functions of mouth include:

1. Ingestion of food materials

2. Chewing the food and mixing it with saliva

3. Appreciation of taste of the food

4. Transfer of food (bolus) to the esophagus by swallowing

5. Role in speech

6. Social functions such as smiling and other expressions

SALIVARY GLANDS

In humans, the saliva is secreted by three pairs of major (larger) salivary glands and some minor
(small) salivary glands.

MAJOR SALIVARY GLANDS

Major glands are:

1. Parotid glands 2. Submaxillary or submandibular glands 3. Sublingual glands.

PAROTID GLANDS

• Parotid glands are the largest of all salivary glands, situated at the side of the face just below
and in front of the ear.

• Each gland weighs about 20 to 30 g in adults.

• Secretions from these glands are emptied into the oral cavity by Stensen duct.

• This duct is about 35 mm to 40 mm long and opens inside the cheek against the upper second
molar tooth

SUBMAXILLARY GLANDS OR SUBMANDIBULAR GLANDS

• are located in submaxillary triangle, medial to mandible. Each gland weighs about 8 to 10 g.

• Saliva from these glands is emptied into the oral cavity by Wharton duct, which is about 40
mm long.
 SUBLINGUAL GLANDS

• Sublingual glands are the smallest salivary glands situated in the mucosa at the floor of the
mouth.

• Each gland weighs about 2 to 3 g. Saliva from these glands is poured into 5 to 15 small ducts
called ducts of Rivinus.

COMPOSITION OF SALIVA

Mixed saliva contains 99.5% water and 0.5% solids.

FUNCTIONS OF SALIVA

Saliva is a very essential digestive juice. Since it has many functions, its absence leads to many
inconveniences.

1. PREPARATION OF FOOD FOR SWALLOWING - When food is taken into the mouth, it
is moistened and dissolved by saliva. The mucus membrane of mouth is also moistened by
saliva. It facilitates chewing. By the movement of tongue, the moistened and masticated food
is rolled into a bolus. Mucin of saliva lubricates the bolus and facilitates swallowing.

2. APPRECIATION OF TASTE - Taste is a chemical sensation. By its solvent action, saliva

dissolves the solid food substances, so that the dissolved substances can stimulate the taste
buds. The stimulated taste buds recognize the taste.

3. DIGESTIVE FUNCTION Saliva has three digestive enzymes, namely salivary amylase,
maltase and lingual lipase

STOMACH

Stomach is a hollow organ situated just below the diaphragm on the left side in the abdominal
cavity. Volume of empty stomach is 50 mL. Under normal conditions, it can expand to
 accommodate 1 L to 1.5 L of solids and liquids. However, it is capable of expanding still further
up to 4 L.

PARTS OF STOMACH

In humans, stomach has four parts:

1. Cardiac region

2. Fundus

3. Body or corpus

4. Pyloric region

The cardia surrounds the superior opening of the stomach. The rounded portion superior to and to the
left of the cardia is the fundus.

Inferior to the fundus is the large central portion of the stomach, the body.

The pyloric part is divisible into three regions.

The first region, the pyloric antrum, connects to the body of the stomach.

The second region, the pyloric canal, leads to the third region,

the pylorus, which in turn connects to the duodenum. When the stomach is empty, the mucosa lies in
large folds, or rugae.

The pylorus communicates with the duodenum of the small intestine via a smooth muscle sphincter
called the pyloric sphincter.

The concave medial border of the stomach is called the lesser curvature; the convex lateral border is
called the greater curvature.

HISTOLOGY OF THE STOMACH

• The stomach wall is composed of the same basic layers as the rest of the GI tract, with certain
modifications.

• The surface of the mucosa is a layer of simple columnar epithelial cells - surface mucous
cells

• Epithelial cells extend down into the lamina propria, where they form columns of secretory
cells - gastric glands.

• Several gastric glands open into the bottom of narrow channels - gastric pits.
 • Secretions from several gastric glands flow into each gastric pit and then into the lumen of the
stomach.

The gastric glands contain three types of exocrine gland cells that secrete their products into the
stomach lumen

1. mucous neck cells- Both surface mucous cells and mucous neck cells secrete mucus

2. chief cells- secrete pepsinogen and gastric lipase

3. parietal cells- produce intrinsic factor (needed for absorption of vitamin B12) and
hydrochloric acid.

4. G cell- which is located mainly in the pyloric antrum and secretes the hormone gastrin

The secretions of the mucous, parietal, and chief cells form gastric juice, which totals 2000–3000 mL
(roughly 2–3 qt) per day.

FUNCTIONS OF THE STOMACH

1. Mixes saliva, food, and gastric juice to form chyme.

2. . Serves as reservoir for food before release into small intestine.

3. Secretes gastric juice, which contains HCl (kills bacteria and denatures protein), pepsin
(begins the digestion of proteins), intrinsic factor (aids absorption of vitamin B12), and gastric
lipase (aids digestion of triglycerides).

4. Secretes gastrin into blood

PANCREAS

Pancreas is a dual organ having two functions, namely endocrine function and exocrine function.
Endocrine function is concerned with the production of hormones . The exocrine function is
concerned with the secretion of digestive juice called pancreatic juice
Anatomy of the Pancreas

• The pancreas a retroperitoneal gland about 12–15 cm (5–6 in.) long and 2.5 cm (1 in.) thick,
lies posterior to the greater curvature of the stomach.

• The pancreas consists of a head, a body, and a tail and is usually connected to the duodenum
by two ducts

• The head is the expanded portion of the organ near the curve of the duodenum; superior to
and to the left of the head are the central body and the tapering tail.

• Pancreatic juices are secreted by exocrine cells into small ducts

• that ultimately unite to form two larger ducts, the pancreatic duct and the accessory duct.

• These in turn convey the secretions into the small intestine.

• The pancreatic duct, or duct of Wirsung is the larger of the two ducts.

• pancreatic duct joins the common bile duct from the liver and gallbladder and enters the
duodenum as a dilated common duct called the hepatopancreatic ampulla or ampulla of Vater

Histology of the Pancreas

The pancreas is made up of small clusters of glandular epithelial cells. About 99% of the clusters,
called acini , constitute the exocrine portion of the organ. The cells within acini secrete a mixture
of fluid and digestive enzymes called pancreatic juice.
The remaining 1% of the clusters, called pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans), form the
endocrine portion of the pancreas. These cells secrete the hormones glucagon, insulin,
somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide.

Composition and Functions of Pancreatic Juice

Each day the pancreas produces 1200–1500 mL (about 1.2–1.5 qt) of pancreatic juice, a clear,
colorless liquid consisting mostly of water, some salts, sodium bicarbonate, and several enzymes.

The enzymes in pancreatic juice include

starch-digesting enzyme - pancreatic amylase

proteins into peptides- trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase and elastase

triglyceride (fat and oil)- pancreatic lipase

nucleic acid digesting enzymes - ribonuclease and deoxyribonuclease that digest ribonucleic acid

(RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) into nucleotides.

FUNCTIONS OF PANCREAS

The pancreas has two main functions:

• Exocrine function: The pancreas produces enzymes that help to digest food in the small
intestine. These enzymes include amylase, which breaks down carbohydrates; lipase, which
breaks down fats; and trypsin and chymotrypsin, which breaks down proteins.

• Endocrine function: The pancreas also produces hormones, including insulin and glucagon,
which help to regulate blood sugar levels. Insulin promotes the uptake of glucose into cells,
while glucagon promotes the release of glucose from the liver

LIVER AND GALLBLADDER

• The liver is the heaviest gland of the body, weighing about 1.4 kg (about 3 lb) in an average
adult. The liver is inferior to the diaphragm and occupies most of the right part of the
abdominopelvic cavity

• The gallbladder (gall- bile) is a pear-shaped sac that is located in a depression of the posterior
surface of the liver. It is 7–10 cm (3–4 in.) long and typically hangs from the anterior inferior
margin of the liver
 ANATOMY OF THE LIVER AND GALLBLADDER

• The liver is almost completely covered by visceral peritoneum and is completely covered by a
dense irregular connective tissue layer that lies deep to the peritoneum.

• The liver is divided into two principal lobes—a large right lobe and a smaller left lobe—by
the falciform ligament

• the right lobe include an inferior quadrate lobe and a posterior caudate lobe based on
internal morphology

• The falciform ligamentextends from the undersurface of the diaphragm between the two
principal lobes of the liver to the superior surface of the liver, helping to suspend the liver in
the abdominal cavity.

• The parts of the gallbladder include the broad fundus, which projects inferiorly beyond the
inferior border of the liver; the body, the central portion; and the neck, the tapered portion.
The body and neck project superiorly.

HISTOLOGY OF THE LIVER AND GALLBLADDER

1. Hepatocytes (hepat- liver; -cytes cells). Hepatocytes arethe major functional cells of the
liver and perform a wide array of metabolic, secretory, and endocrine functions. These are
specialized epithelial cells with 5 to 12 sides that make up about 80% of the volume of the
liver. Hepatocytes form complex three-dimensional arrangements called hepatic laminae

• The hepatic laminae arehighly branched, irregular structures. Grooves in the cell membranes
between neighboring hepatocytes provide spaces for canaliculi into which the hepatocytes
secrete bile.
• Bile, a yellow, brownish, or olive-green liquid secreted by hepatocytes, serves as both an
excretory product and a digestive secretion.

2. Bile canaliculi- small canals

 These are small ducts between hepatocytes that collect bile produced by the hepatocytes.
From bile canaliculi, bile passes into bile ductules and then bile ducts. The bile ducts merge
and eventually form the larger right and left hepatic ducts, which unite and exit the liver as
the common hepatic duct .
 The common hepatic duct joins the cystic duct from the gallbladder to form the
common bile duct. From here, bile enters the small intestine to participatein digestion.

3. Hepatic sinusoids

• These are highly permeable blood capillaries between rows of hepatocytes that receive
oxygenated blood from branches of the hepatic artery and nutrient-rich deoxygenated blood
from branches of the hepatic portal vein.

• the hepatic portal vein brings venous blood from the gastrointestinal organs and spleen into
the liver. Hepatic sinusoids converge and deliver blood into a central vein. From central
veins the blood flows into the hepatic veins, which drain into the inferior vena cava

FUNCTIONS OF THE LIVER

 Carbohydrate metabolism- The liver is especially important in maintaining a normal blood

glucose level. When blood glucose is low, the liver can break down glycogen to glucose and
release the glucose into the bloods When blood glucose is high, the liver converts glucose to
glycogen and triglycerides for storage
 Lipid metabolism. Hepatocytes store some triglycerides, break down fatty acids to generate
ATP; synthesize lipoproteins, which transport fatty acids, triglycerides, and cholesterol to and
from body cells
 Protein metabolism. Hepatocytes deaminate (remove the amino group, NH2, from) amino
acids so that the amino acids can be used for ATP production. Hepatocytes also synthesize
most plasma proteins, such as alpha and beta globulins, albumin, prothrombin, and
fibrinogen.
 Processing of drugs and hormones. The liver can detoxify substances such as alcohol and
excrete drugs
 Excretion of bilirubin. bilirubin, derived from the heme of aged red blood cells, is absorbed
by the liver from the blood and secreted into bile. Most of the bilirubin in bile is metabolized
in the small intestine by bacteria and eliminated in feces.
  Synthesis of bile salts. Bile salts are used in the small intestine for the emulsification and
absorption of lipids.
 Storage- the liver is a prime storage site for certain vitamins (A, B12, D, E, and K) and
minerals(iron and copper), which are released from the liver
 Phagocytosis. The stellate reticuloendothelial (Kupffer) cellsof the liver phagocytize aged red
blood cells, white blood cells,and some bacteria.
 Activation of vitamin D. The skin, liver, and kidneys participate in synthesizing the active
form of vitamin D.

SMALL INTESTINE

 Most digestion and absorption of nutrients occur in a long tube called the small intestine.

 Its length alone provides a large surface area for digestion and absorption, and that area is
further increased by circular folds, villi, and microvilli.

 The small intestine begins at the pyloric sphincter of the stomach, coils through the central
and inferior part of the abdominal cavity, and eventually opens into the large intestine.

 It averages 2.5 cm (1 in.) in diameter; its length is about 3 m (10 ft) in a living person and
about 6.5 m (21 ft) in a cadaver due to the loss of smooth muscle tone after death.

ANATOMY OF THE SMALL INTESTINE

The small intestine is divided into three regions

The duodenum - the shortest region, is retroperitoneal.

It starts at the pyloric sphincter of the stomach and is in
 HISTOLOGY OF THE SMALL INTESTINE

• The wall of the small intestine is composed of the same four layers that make up most of the
GI tract: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa

• The mucosa is composed of a layer of epithelium, lamina propria, and muscularis mucosae.
• The epithelial layer of the small intestinal mucosa consists of simple columnar epithelium that
contains many types of cells

• Absorptive cells- of the epithelium digest and absorb nutrients in small intestinal chyme
• goblet cells- which secrete mucus

• the intestinal glands also contain paneth cells and enteroendocrine cells.

• Paneth cells - lysozyme, a bactericidal enzyme, and are capable of phagocytosis.

• Three types of enteroendocrinecells are found in the intestinal glands of the small intestine:
• S cells- hormone secretin, CCK cells- cholecystokinin, K cells- glucose-dependent
insulinotropic peptide
  The lamina propria of the small intestinal mucosa contains areolar connective tissue and an
abundance of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT).

• Groups of lymphatic nodules referred to as aggregated lymphatic follicles, or Peyer’s

patches, are also present in the ileum. The muscularis mucosae of the small intestinal mucosa
consists of smooth muscle.

• The submucosa of the duodenum contains duodenal glands, also called Brunner’s glands
which secrete an alkaline mucus and bicarbonate that helps neutralize gastric acid in the
chyme.

• The muscularis of the small intestine consists of two layers of smooth muscle. The outer,
thinner layer contains longitudinal fibers; the inner, thicker layer contains circular fibers.

• the serosa completely surrounds the small intestine.

• special structural features of the small intestine facilitate the process of digestion and
absorption. These structural features include circular folds, villi, and microvilli.

Circular folds or plicae circulares are folds of the mucosa and submucosa These permanent ridges,
which are about 10 mm (0.4 in.) long, begin near the proximal portion of the duodenum and end at
about the midportion of the ileum. Circular folds enhance absorption by increasing surface area and
causing the chyme to spiral, rather than move in a straight line, as it passes through the small
intestine.

the small intestine contains villi (tufts of hair), which

are finger like projections of the mucosa that are 0.5–
1 mm long. The large number of villi (20–40 per
square millimeter) vastly increases the surface area of
the epithelium available for absorption and digestion
and gives the intestinal mucosa a velvety appearance.
Each villus (singular form) is covered by epithelium
and has a core of lamina propria; embedded in the
connective tissue of the lamina propria are an
arteriole, a venule, a blood capillary network, and a
lacteal, which is a lymphatic capillary. Nutrients
absorbed by the epithelial cells covering the villus
pass through the wall of a capillary or a lacteal to
enter blood or lymph.
The small intestine also has microvilli which are projections of the apical (free) membrane of the
absorptive cells. Each microvillus is a 1-_m-long cylindrical, membrane-covered projection that
contains a bundle of 20–30 actin filaments. When viewed through a light microscope, the microvilli
are too small to be seen individually; instead they form a fuzzy line, called the brush border,
extending into the lumen of the small intestine
There are an estimated 200 million microvilli per square milli meter of small intestine.
Because the microvilli greatly increase the surface area of the plasma membrane, larger amounts of
digested nutrients can diffuse into absorptive cells in a given period. The brush border also contains
several brush-border enzymes.

Role of Intestinal Juice and Brush-Border Enzymes

About 1–2 liters (1–2 qt) of intestinal juice, a clear yellow fluid, is secreted each day. Intestinal juice
contains water and mucus and is slightly alkaline (pH 7.6). Together, pancreatic and intestinal juices
provide a liquid medium that aids the absorption of substances from chyme in the small intestine.
The absorptive cells of the small intestine synthesize several digestive enzymes, called brush-border
enzymes, and insert them in the plasma membrane of the microvilli.
carbohydrate digesting enzymes - dextrinase, maltase, sucrase, and lactase;
protein-digesting - peptidases (aminopeptidase and dipeptidase)
nucleotide-digesting enzymes- nucleosidases and phosphatases.

FUNCTIONS OF THE SMALL INTESTINE

1. Segmentations mix chyme with digestive juices and bring food into contact with mucosa for
absorption; peristalsis propels chyme through small intestine.

2. Completes digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids; begins and completes digestion of
nucleic acids.

3. Absorbs about 90% of nutrients and water that pass through digestive system.

LARGE INTESTINE

The large intestine is the terminal portion of the GI tract. The overall functions of the large intestine
are the completion of absorption, the production of certain vitamins, the formation of feces, and the
expulsion of feces from the body.

Anatomy of the Large Intestine

The large intestine, which is about 1.5 m (5 ft) long

• Hanging inferior to the ileocecal valve is the cecum, a small pouch about 6 cm (2.4 in.) long.
Attached to the cecum is a twisted, coiled tube, measuring about 8 cm (3 in.) in length, called
the appendix or vermiform appendix
• The open end of the cecum merges with a long tube called the colon ( food passage), which is
divided into ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid portions.
• the ascending colon ascends on the right side of the abdomen, reaches the inferior surface of
the liver, and turns abruptly to the left to form the right colic (hepatic) flexure.
• The colon continues across the abdomen to the left side as the transverse colon. It curves
beneath the inferior end of the spleen on the left side as the left colic (splenic) flexure and
passes inferiorly to the level of the iliac crest as the descendingcolon.
• The sigmoid colon (sigm- S-shaped) begins near the left iliac crest, projects medially to the
midline, and terminates as the rectum at about the level of the third sacral vertebra.
• The rectum, the last 20 cm (8 in.) of the GI tract, lies anterior to the sacrum and coccyx.
• The terminal 2–3 cm (1 in.) of the rectum is called the anal canal
• The mucous membrane of the anal canal is arranged in longitudinal folds called anal
columns that contain a network of arteries and veins.
• The opening of the anal canal to the exterior, called the anus, is guarded by an internal anal
sphincter of smooth muscle (involuntary) and an external anal sphincter of skeletal muscle
(voluntary).
• Normally these sphincters keep the anus closed except during the elimination of feces

Histology of the Large Intestine

 • The wall of the large intestine contains the typical four layers found in the rest of the GI tract:
mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa.

• The mucosa consists of simple columnar epithelium, lamina propria (areolar connective tissue),
and muscularis mucosae (smooth muscle) . The epithelium contains mostly absorptive and
goblet cells

• The absorptive cells function primarily in water absorption; the goblet cells secrete mucus that
lubricates the passage of the colonic contents.

• Both absorptive and goblet cells are located in long, straight, tubular intestinal glands (crypts
of Lieberkühn) that extend the full thickness of the mucosa.

lymphatic nodules are also found in the lamina

propria of the mucosa and may extend through
the muscularis mucosa into the submucosa

The submucosa of the large intestine consists

of areolar connective tissue.

The muscularis consists of an external layer

of longitudinal smooth muscle and an internal
layer of circular smooth muscle

FUNCTIONS OF LARGE INTESTINE

Absorptive function- Large intestine plays an important role in the absorption of various substances
such as: Water, Electrolytes, Organic substances like glucose, Alcohol Drugs like anesthetic agents,
sedatives and steroids.

Formation of feces- After the absorption of nutrients, water and other substances, the unwanted
substances in the large intestine form feces. This is excreted out.

Secretory function - Large intestine secretes mucin and inorganic substances like chlorides and
bicarbonates.
Synthetic function - Bacterial flora of large intestine synthesizes folic acid, vitamin B12 and vitamin
K. By this function, large intestine contributes in erythropoietic activity and blood clotting
mechanism.

DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION IN SMALL INTESTINE

Digestion, Absorption of Carbohydrates

CARBOHYDRATES IN DIET

Human diet contains three types of carbohydrates

MONOSACCHARIDES

Monosaccharides consumed in human diet are mostly glucose and fructose.

DISACCHARIDES

Two types of disaccharides are available in the diet.

Sucrose (Glucose + Fructose), which is called table sugar or cane sugar

Lactose (Glucose + Galactose), which is the sugar available in milk.

POLYSACCHARIDES

Large polysaccharides are glycogen, amylose and amylopectin, which are in the form of starch
Glycogen is available in non-vegetarian diet.

Amylose and amylopectin are available in vegetarian diet because of their plant origin.

DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES

IN THE MOUTH

Enzymes involved in the digestion of carbohydrates are known as amylolytic enzymes. The only
amylolytic enzyme present in saliva is the salivary amylase or ptyalin
IN THE STOMACH

Gastric juice contains a weak amylase, which plays a minor role in digestion of carbohydrates.

IN THE INTESTINE

Amylolytic enzymes present in the small intestine are derived from pancreatic juice and intestinal juice

Amylolytic Enzyme in Pancreatic Juice

• Pancreatic juice contains pancreatic amylase

Amylolytic Enzymes in intestine

• Amylolytic enzymes present in succus entericus are maltase, sucrase, lactase, dextrinase

FINAL PRODUCTS OF CARBOHYDRATE DIGESTION

Final products of carbohydrate digestion are monosaccharides, which are glucose, fructose and
galactose. Glucose represents 80% of the final product of carbohydrate digestion. Galactose and
fructose represent the remaining 20%.

ABSORPTION OF CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates are absorbed from the small intestine mainly as monosaccharides, glucose, galactose
and fructose.

ABSORPTION OF GLUCOSE- glucose is absorbed into the portal vein by facilitated diffusion.

ABSORPTION OF GALACTOSE- is absorbed into the portal vein by facilitated diffusion.

ABSORPTION OF FRUCTOSE- Fructose is absorbed into blood by means of facilitated diffusion.

DIGESTION, ABSORPTION OF PROTEINS

Foodstuffs containing high protein content are meat, fish, egg and milk. Dietary proteins are formed
by long chains of amino acids, bound together by peptide linkages.

DIGESTION OF PROTEINS

Enzymes responsible for the digestion of proteins are called proteolytic enzymes.

IN THE MOUTH

Digestion of proteins does not occur in mouth, since saliva does not contain any proteolytic enzymes.
So, the digestion of proteins starts only in stomach

IN THE STOMACH
Pepsin is the only proteolytic enzyme in gastric juice

IN THE SMALL INTESTINE

Most of the proteins are digested in the duodenum and jejunum by the proteolytic enzymes of the
pancreatic juice( trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase and elastase ) and intestine (peptidases)

ABSORPTION OF PROTEINS

Proteins are absorbed in the form of amino acids from small intestine. The amino acids are actively
absorbed by means of sodium cotransport and facilitated diffusion.

Absorption of amino acids is faster in duodenum and jejunum and slower in ileum

DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF LIPIDS

Lipids are mostly consumed in the form of fats, which are also known as triglycerides. Triglycerides
are made up of glycerol nucleus and free fatty acids. Triglycerides form the major constituent in foods
of animal origin and much less in foods of plant origin.

Dietary fats are classified into two types:

1. Saturated fats

2. Unsaturated fats.

SATURATED FATS

Saturated fats are the fats which contain triglycerides formed from only saturated fatty acids. The fatty
acids having maximum amount of hydrogen ions without any double bonds between carbon atoms are
called saturated fatty acids.

UNSATURATED FATS

fats containing unsaturated fatty acids are known as unsaturated fats.

DIGESTION OF LIPIDS

Lipids are digested by lipolytic enzymes.

IN THE MOUTH

Saliva contains lingual lipase. This enzyme is secreted by lingual glands of mouth and swallowed
along with saliva. So, the lipid digestion does not commence in the mouth

IN THE STOMACH

Gastric lipase is the lipolytic enzyme present in gastric juice

IN THE INTESTINE
Almost all the lipids are digested in the small intestine because of the availability of bile salts,
pancreatic lipolytic enzymes and intestinal lipase.

Lipolytic Enzymes in Pancreatic Juice

Pancreatic lipase is the most important enzyme for the digestion of fats.

Lipolytic Enzyme in intestine

Intestinal lipase is the only lipolytic enzyme present in intestine

ABSORPTION OF LIPIDS

Monoglycerides, cholesterol and fatty acids enter the cells of intestinal mucosa by simple diffusion.

Triglycerides and cholesterol esters are coated with a layer of protein, cholesterol and phospholipids
to form the particles called chylomicrons.

Chylomicrons cannot pass through the membrane of the blood capillaries because of the larger size.
So, these lipid particles enter the lymph vessels and then are transferred into blood from lymph.

**************************************************
 IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

1. Describe digestion in small instestine ------ 5 M/10M

2. Write the structure and functions of stomach ------ 5 M

3. Name salivary glands and write the composition of saliva ------2M

4. Digestion in stomach-------5M

5. Functions of small intestine ------2M

6. Enlist the organs of digestion in order ------2M

7. Explain how digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats take place---10M

8. Functions of liver ------2M

9. Functions of saliva------2M

10. Write the anatomy of pancreas . Discuss endocrine and exocrine secretion ---10M

11. Name digestive enzymes------2M

12. Functions of stomach------2M

13. Composition of bile ------2M

14. Name digestive enzymes of pancreatic and gastric juice ------2M

15. Mention the functions of pancreatic enzymes ------2M

16. Anatomy of liver mention its functions ------10M