Food Tests

1. The Iodine Test for Starch

(a) If the sample is in solid /powder form

• Place a small amount of sample on a white tile

• Add a few drops/2 drops of iodine solution to the sample; then observe and
record what happens.
(b) If the sample is in solution/suspension form

• Place 2 cm3 of sample solution into a clean and dry test tube.
• Add a few drops/2 drops of iodine solution to the test tube and shake;
• Then observe and record what happens.
The possible observations and corresponding conclusions are given in the table below:

Observation Conclusion
Solution remains yellowish-brown Starch absent
Solution turns blue-black Starch present

2. The Benedict’s test for Reducing Sugars

This test requires the sample to be in solution form and may be performed on suspensions. If the
sample is in solid form, it will first need to be ground /crushed/cut into very small pieces and to
be shaken with distilled water for extraction of reducing sugars if they are present. Filter and then
proceed with the following test method on the filtrate:

• Place 2 cm3 of sample solution into a clean and dry test tube.
• Add 2 cm3/an equal volume of Benedict’s solution to the sample solution and shake.
• Gently heat the mixture using a water bath; then observe and record what happens.
The possible observations and corresponding conclusions are given in the following table:

Observation Conclusion
Solution remains blue Reducing sugars absent
*Solution turns green/yellow/orange/brick red Reducing sugars present

*Only state the final colour observed and not all the colours mentioned in the table. The extent
of the colour change indicates the quantity of reducing sugars present i.e. green and yellow
colours indicate that little/traces/small amounts of reducing sugars are present, orange indicates

that reducing sugars are present and brick red indicates high concentrations of reducing sugars
present.

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3. The Benedict’s test for Non-reducing Sugars
• First carry out the Benedict‟s test for reducing sugars. If the colour of the solution remains
blue, proceed with the next steps.
• Place another 2 cm3 of sample solution into a clean and dry test tube.
• Add 1 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric, heat in water bath for 3 minutes and cool.
• Add sodium hydrogen carbonate solution or sodium hydroxide solution to the
mixture, a little at a time until fizzing stops.
• Add an equal volume of Benedict’s solution to the mixture.
• Gently heat the mixture using a water bath; then observe and record what happens.

The possible observations and corresponding conclusions are given in the following table:

Observation Conclusion
Solution remains blue Non-reducing sugars absent
Solution turns green/yellow/ orange/brick red Non-reducing sugar present

4. The Biuret Test for Proteins

This test also works best for solutions and suspensions. Extraction by grinding and shaking with
distilled water is therefore necessary where samples are in solid form. The filtrate will then be
tested as follows:
• Place 2 cm3 of sample solution into a clean and dry test tube.
• Either add 5 drops of sodium hydroxide solution to the sample solution followed by a
few/2 drops of copper (II) sulphate solution, drop by drop, shaking and observing after
each drop.
• Or add an equal volume of Biuret solution; then observe and record what happens. The
possible observations and corresponding conclusions are given in following table:
Observation Conclusion
Solution remains blue Proteins absent
Solution turns purple/violet/lilac/mauve Proteins present

Only one of these options needs to be mentioned. Candidates are advised to use colour names
which are commonly used e.g. it is better to use the name purple or violet instead of mauve or
lilac.

5. Testing for Lipids (Fats and Oils)

(a) The Emulsion Test

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 • Shake a small sample/a drop of sample solution with 2 cm3 absolute ethanol in a test
tube.
• Add a few drops of distilled water to the test tube; then observe and record what
happens.

The possible observations and corresponding conclusions are given in the following table:

Observation Conclusion
Solution remains clear Fats/oils absent
Emulsion formed/solution turns cloudy Fats/oils present

(b) The Grease Spot Test

• Place a drop of sample/sample solution on filter paper or brown paper.
• Place a drop of distilled water next to the drop of the sample.
• Hold the paper against light until the drop of water disappears; then observe and record
what happens to the sample spot.

The possible observations and corresponding conclusions are given in the following table:

Observation Conclusion
Sample spot disappears Fats/oils absent
Permanent translucent/oily/greasy spot Fats/oils present
formed

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PLANT NUTRITION

Photosynthesis

This is the process by which green plants manufacture their own food by using sunlight energy
to combine carbon dioxide and water. Oxygen is produced as a by product. This process takes
place in leaves and may be summarised by the following word and chemical equations:

Word Equation

Chemical Equation

The products for photosynthesis are glucose and oxygen. The oxygen is released out of the plant
while some of it is used for respiration. The glucose formed is metabolically active and takes part
in the following reactions:

Some of it is used for respiration

• Some of it is converted to cellulose and becomes part of cell walls

• Some of it is combined with nitrogen and used to synthesise amino acids
• Some of it is converted to sucrose in order to be transported
• Some of it is converted to fats and oils
• Some of it is converted to nucleic acids
• The excess is converted to starch for storage

To determine whether photosynthesis has taken place, the leaves of plants are tested for starch.
The steps involved in testing a leaf for starch are:

• Boil the leaf in water (to kill the protoplasm and make it permeable to Iodine solution)
• Boil the leaf in alcohol using a water bath. This is to extract the chlorophyll so that it does
not interfere with colour changes; a water bath is used because alcohol is highly
flammable. However the alcohol also makes the leaf brittle.
• Place the leaf in warm water to soften it.

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 • Spread the leaf on a white tile and add a few drops of Iodine solution. If the Iodine
solution turns blueblack, starch is present and if it remains yellowish brown, starch is
absent.
Requirements for Photosynthesis

These factors that need to be present for photosynthesis to take place are carbon dioxide, water,
sunlight and chlorophyll. Those that also affect the rate of photosynthesis are called limiting
factors of photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide enters the plant by diffusing through small openings
in the leaf called stomata (singular = stoma).

Water enters the plant through the roots by osmosis and moves up the plant through xylem
vessels. Light energy (mainly solar energy) is captured/trapped and stored by a green pigment
called chlorophyll found in the chloroplasts. During photosynthesis, this solar energy is
transformed into chemical energy. Since photosynthesis is an enzyme-catalysed reaction, its rate
gets affected by all factors that affect enzyme activity.

Experiment to show that Carbon Dioxide is necessary for Photosynthesis

• Destarch a well-watered potted plant by placing it in the dark for at least 24 hours. During
this time, all the starch present in the potted plant is used up.
• Set up the experiment as shown in the following diagram:

• Place the potted plant in sunlight for 4-6 hours.

• Test leaves A and B for starch
Leaf A turns blue-black (showing the presence of starch), while leaf B turns yellowish brown
(showing the absence of starch). This shows that carbon dioxide is necessary for
photosynthesis.

Exercise: What are the uses of sodium hydrogen carbonate, distilled water and soda lime in
this experiment?

Experiment to show that light is necessary for Photosynthesis

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 • Destarch a well-watered potted plant by placing it in the dark for at least 24 hours. During
this time, all the starch present in the potted plant is used up.
• Set up the experiment as shown in the following diagram:

• Place the potted plant in sunlight for 4-6 hours. While the plant is in sunlight, draw the
selected leaf showing the exposed parts and the covered parts.
• Test parts A (exposed part) and B (covered part) for starch
Part A turns blue-black (showing the presence of starch), while part B turns yellowish brown
(showing the absence of starch). This show that light is necessary for photosynthesis.

Experiment to show that Chlorophyll is necessary for Photosynthesis

• Destarch a well-watered potted plant which has variegated leaves by placing it in the dark
for at least 24 hours. During this time, all the starch present in the potted plant is used up.
• Place the potted plant in sunlight for 4-6 hours. While the plant is in sunlight, draw a
selected leaf showing the green parts and the white parts so that they can easily be
identified even after chlorophyll has been removed from the leaf. Label the green parts
as A and the white parts as B.
• Test the parts A (green part) and B (white part) for starch.
Part A turns blue-black (showing the presence of starch), while part B turns yellowish brown
(showing the absence of starch). This shows that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis.

Measuring the Rate of Photosynthesis

This can be measured by counting the number of oxygen bubbles produced by an aquatic plant
(e.g. pondweed/Elodea sp) per unit time. A typical setup for such an experiment is shown in the
following diagram.

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Leaf Structure

External Structure

Internal Structure (Cross Section)

Adaptations of the Leaf for Photosynthesis

• Thin lamina for easy penetration of light

• Large surface area to capture as much light as possible
• Presence of veins/vascular bundles to supply the leaf with water (the xylem) and to
transport end products of photosynthesis (the phloem)
• Presence of stomata for entry of carbon dioxide and exit of oxygen

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 • Presence of chloroplasts to trap sunlight for photosynthesis. The highest concentration of
chloroplasts is found in the palisade cells, followed by the spongy cells and finally the
guard cells.
The Importance of Photosynthesis

• It produces food for all organisms directly or indirectly

• It maintains the balance (equilibrium) of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
by using carbon dioxide from animals and producing oxygen for animals.

Applications of photosynthesis in Greenhouses

A greenhouse is an enclosure with walls of transparent glass or plastic where plants are grown.
By having transparent walls, light and heat are allowed to reach the plants. In some green houses,
plants are supplied with artificial light from electric bulbs. The walls minimize escape of heat
from the greenhouse thereby keeping temperatures high inside the greenhouse for optimum
enzyme activity. Sometimes the greenhouse is artificially supplied with carbon dioxide. These
factors make a green house more productive than an open piece of land.

Plant Storage Organs

The food manufactured by plants is normally converted to starch and oils for storage. Oils are
mainly stored in seeds e.g. in groundnuts and sunflower. Starch is stored in a range of modified
plant organs, some of which are discussed below.

(i) Root tuber: This a fibrous root swollen with stored food e.g. sweet potato (Ipomea batatas)
tuber
(ii) Stem tuber: This is an underground stem swollen with stored food e.g. Irish potato (Solanum

tuberosum)
(iii) Bulb: A bulb is made of underground fleshy leaves growing from a short stem e.g. onion
(Allium sp)
(iv) Rhizome: This is a swollen underground horizontal stem e.g. ginger
(v) Corm: This is swollen underground and vertical short stem e.g. Crocus sp.
(vi) Seed: A sexually produced structure containing a plant embryo and its food store protected
by a testa.

Mineral Nutrition in Plants

Plants require several elements in order to grow properly. These elements are absorbed by the
roots from the soil in the form of mineral ions. There are two groups of elements needed by plants
for proper growth namely major elements and minor elements. Major elements are required by
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plants in large quantities. Three examples of major elements are nitrogen, phosphorous and
potassium (NPK). Minor elements are needed by the plant in small quantities. Examples of
mineral ions needed by plants are magnesium and nitrates.

Magnesium

This forms part of the chlorophyll molecule. Deficiency causes chlorosis which is characterised
by yellowing of leaves beginning from the bottom of the plant.

Nitrogen

This is absorbed from the soil in the form of nitrate ions (NO-3) or ammonium ions (NH+4). It is
important for synthesis of proteins. Deficiency leads to stunted growth, weak stems and
yellowing of leaves.

Potassium

Potassium is important for flowering and fruit formation and is absorbed in the form of potassium
ions (K+). Deficiency of potassium causes poor flowering and fruit formation.

Phosphorous

It is absorbed in the form of phosphate ions (PO3-4). It is important for the formation of Nucleic
acids and ATP. Deficiency leads to purple leaves and poorly developed roots.

Effects of Sulphur dioxide Pollution on Plant Nutrition

Sulphur dioxide is emitted in industrial and exhaust fumes which are released into the
atmosphere. It dissolves in rain water forming sulphuric acid which falls as acid rain. The effects
of acid rain on plant growth are:

1. It dissolves away the waxy cuticle, thereby increasing the rate of transpiration and causing
the leaves to wilt and die. This stops or reduces the rate of photosynthesis, leading to
death of the plants.
2. It damages the root hairs, thereby reducing the rate of water and mineral uptake.
In certain European countries, entire forests were wiped out after the industrial revolution due to
increased emission of sulphur dioxide.

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ANIMAL NUTRITION
Animals carry out holozoic nutrition. This is a type of nutrition which occurs in animals in a specialized
tube called the alimentary canal or digestive system and involves five stages namely ingestion, digestion,
absorption, assimilation and egestion.

1. Ingestion is the intake of food into the mouth.

2. Digestion is the breaking down of food. There are two types of digestion, namely physical digestion and
chemical digestion.

Physical digestion is the breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller ones without the use of
enzymes. In humans, this process is carried out by teeth in the mouth. It increases the surface area of
the food for more efficient enzyme activity and makes food easy to swallow.

Chemical digestion is the breakdown of large molecules of food into smaller ones by enzymes. It makes
absorption of food more efficient

3. Absorption is the uptake of soluble food into the blood stream.

4. Assimilation is the usage and incorporation of absorbed food in living cells.
5. Egestion is the removal of undigested food from the body through the anus.

The Human Alimentary Canal

Digestion in the Mouth

(i) After ingestion, the food is chewed by the action of the teeth. Chewing also called mastication, is the
breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller ones by teeth. It increases the surface area

of the food for more efficient enzyme activity and makes food easy to swallow. During mastication,
The food is being mixed with saliva produced by salivary gland. Saliva is an alkaline liquid containing
salivary amylase and mucus.

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 Note: there are three types of salivary glands namely; parotid gland, submandibular gland and
sublingual gland. Their common function is to secrete saliva.

- Salivary amylase is an enzyme contained in the saliva which converts starch into maltose. However, only
small amounts of starch are converted to maltose in the mouth because food stays for a short time in the mouth.
Amylase does not work in the stomach because the PH there is acidic. The mucus lubricates food for easier
swallowing.

Swallowing and Peristalsis

Swallowing is the passage of food or liquids from the mouth to the stomach through the oesophagus.
During swallowing, the food bolus moves by a process known as peristalsis.
Peristalsis is the alternate contraction and relaxation of circular and longitudinal muscles in a wave-like
manner in order to move food along the alimentary canal. Peristalsis is illustrated in following diagrams:
Behind the bolus, circular muscles contract while longitudinal muscles relax. Ahead of the bolus, circular
muscles relax while longitudinal muscles contract

Digestion in the Stomach

The stomach is an elastic bag with a muscular wall and a glandular lining. The entrance of the stomach
is guarded by the cardiac sphincter. The exit is guarded by the pyloric sphincter. The following
events take place in the stomach;

Secretion of gastric juice: Gastric juice is a mixture of pepsin, rennin, hydrochloric acid and
mucus. Pepsin breaks down proteins to form peptides. Rennin coagulates milk by converting
the soluble protein caesinogen into an insoluble form called casein. This delays the passage of
milk to the duodenum giving chance for pepsin to digest milk protein. Both pepsin and rennin
are secreted in inactive forms called pepsinogen and prorennin, respectively. Hydrochloric

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 acid activates them into active enzymes and sets an acidic pH which is optimum. It also kills
some bacteria. Mucus protects the lining of the stomach against the acid and pepsin.
Churning: This is the mixing of food by rhythmic contraction of the muscles in the wall of the stomach
to form a paste called chyme.

Temporal Storage of Food:

 Liquids can stay in the stomach for up to 30 minutes;
 Carbohydrates are kept for about 1 hour;

 Proteins and lipids stay up to 2 hours.

Digestion in the Duodenum

The duodenum receives digestive juices from the liver and the pancreas. The liver secretes bile which
is temporarily stored in the gall bladder and carried to the duodenum by the bile duct. Bile contains,
bile salts (sodium taurocholate and sodium glycocholate) and bile pigments. The bile salts
emulsify fats thereby increasing the surface area for the action of lipase and the bile pigments add
colour to the faeces.

Emulsification is the breakdown of large drops of fats into small droplets. Bile pigments have no digestive
function but add colour to the faeces.

The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which contains sodium hydrogen carbonate, trypsin, lipase and
pancreatic amylase.

 Sodium hydrogen carbonate neutralizes the acidic chyme and then sets an optimum alkaline pH for
the enzymes of the duodenum.

 Trypsin breaks down proteins to form peptides.

 Lipase breaks down fat molecules to fatty acid and glycerol.
 Pancreatic amylase breaks down starch to form maltose.
Digestion in the Jejunum
This secretes Intestinal Juice (succus entericus) which contains Lactase, maltase, sucrase and peptidase.

 Lactase breaks down lactose to glucose and galactose.

 Maltase breaks down maltose to glucose.
 Sucrase breaks down sucrose to glucose and fructose.
 Peptidase breaks down peptides to amino acids. Digestion is completed in the jejunum.
The ileum and Absorption
The ileum carries out absorption of digestive end products and is adapted for this function in the following
ways:

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Adaptation of the Ileum to carry-out absorption of food.
• The ileum is very long thereby providing a large surface area for absorption.
• It has a thin epithelium for more efficient diffusion of food.
• It has finger like projections called villi (singular: villus) and microvilli which further increase the
surface area for absorption.

• Each villus has a network of capillaries for absorption and transportation of monosaccharides
and amino acids

• Each villus has a lacteal which absorbs and transports fatty acids and glycerol.

Diagram of a Villus
Diagram of a

c) Assimilation of Glycerol and Fatty Acids

Glycerol and fatty acids are chemically combined to make fats which have the following uses in the body:

1. Insulation- animals have a layer of fat under their skins which prevents heat loss from the body
2. Formation of cell membrane- the cell membrane is made of lipids called phospholipids which can
be synthesized from fats and oils

3. Energy source-lipids store a lot of energy which is made available when the supply of carbohydrates
in the body is low. In fact lipids store twice as much energy as an equal amount of carbohydrates.
 Excess fats are stored in the adipose tissue under the skin and around delicate body organs
such as the brain, heart, liver, kidneys and intestine.
 The fat under the skin is responsible for insulation while the fat around delicate organs cushions
the organs against shocks.

Large Intestines
These are made of the caecum, the colon and the rectum. The caecum is the point where the ileum is
linked to the large intestines. It has a projection at the base known as the appendix, which has no known
use in the human body and is considered a vestigial organ. The colon carries out absorption of water
from the faeces while the rectum stores faeces temporarily before they are egested and continues the
absorption of water.

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Functions of the Liver
The liver is the largest internal organ in the human body and performs a wide range of functions including
the following:

• Destruction of old red blood cells resulting in formation of bile which is important in emulsification
of fats.

• Deamination of excess amino acids resulting in formation of urea.

• Detoxification of poisons and alcohol by converting them to less toxic substances
• Conversion of excess glucose to glycogen and storage of glycogen, thereby regulating the levels of
blood sugar.

• Manufacture of red blood cells in babies

• Transamination (the conversion some amino acids to others)
• Synthesis of plasma proteins such as prothrombin, fibrinogen, globulins and albumin.
• Storage of some vitamins (e.g. vitamin A) and some mineral ions (e.g. iron)
• Production of heat through a wide range of exothermic/exergonic reactions.
Common Ailments of the Liver
1. Hepatitis: Inflammation of the liver which may result from infection hepatitis viruses.

2. Hepatomegaly: Enlargement of the liver.

3. Cirrhosis: Hardening of liver tissue resulting from poisoning or excessive intake of alcohol.

Common Ailments of the Alimentary Canal

1. Diarrhoea: The passage of watery stool, resulting in dehydration and loss of mineral ions from the
body. It is caused by intake of food or drinks that are contaminated with pathogens. The pathogens
cause inflammation of the intestinal lining leading to diarrhoea.

2. Constipation: Difficult defecation due to hardness and dryness of faeces, resulting from
insufficient roughage and water in diet. It may also result from keeping the faeces in the rectum for
too long which causes the rectum to absorb too much water, making the faeces hard and dry.
3. Stomach Ulcers: An ulcer is defined as an open sore that produces toxic matter. Stomach ulcers
may result from over-production of pepsin and hydrochloric acid or when the mucus layer in the
stomach is not sufficiently thin. This causes the lining of the stomach to be destroyed by the action
of pepsin or hydrochloric acid.

4. Piles (haemorrhoids): This is a condition where the veins in the rectum become swollen and
eventually burst causing pain and blood-stained stool. It may be caused by frequent constipation.

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DENTITION
Dentition refers to the types, numbers and arrangement of teeth in the mouth of an animal. On the other
hand, the term dental formula refers to the numbers and arrangement of teeth according to type on the
upper and lower jaw in one half of the mouth.
Each tooth has a part that grows above the gum called the crown. The outer part of the crown is covered
with a substance called enamel. Enamel is the hardest substance in the body of an animal. The part of
the tooth found in the gum region is called the neck while the part that grows below the gum is called
the root.

Types of Teeth
There are four types of teeth namely incisors, canines, premolars and molars.
Incisors: These are chisel-shaped teeth used for cutting and biting. Each incisor only has one root. In humans,
they are 4 in front of each jaw.

Canine: in humans. These are dagger-shaped (pointed) teeth used for tearing flesh, suffocating prey and
carrying young ones. Each canine only has one root. They are two in each jaw of a human being.
Premolars: in humans. These are broad and ridged teeth used for grinding or crushing food. Each usually
has two roots. They are 4 on each side of each jaw in humans.

Molars: These are broad and ridged teeth used for grinding or crushing food. Each molar has from two to
four roots. In humans, they are 6 at the back of each jaw, 2 of them are wisdom teeth

Note: remember that we have two jaws, so 4 incisors in each jaw means that we have a total of 8 incisors in
our mouth. We have 16 teeth in each jaw, 32 in the whole mouth

Internal structure of a Tooth

A Molar An Incisor
Functions of tooth parts:
Enamel
This is the hardest substance in the body of an animal. It’s made of Calcium and Phosphate salts and its
functions are:

• Preventing wearing away of the tooth

• Protecting the tooth from damage
• It is used as a biting and grinding surface
However the enamel can be corroded (dissolved) by acids.
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Dentine
This is a bone-like tissue below the enamel which is made of calcium and phosphate salts, collagen fibres and
cytoplasmic strands. It contains fine canals which link the pulp cavity to the enamel.

Pulp Cavity

This is a space within the dentine which is made of tooth-producing cells, nerves and blood vessels.
The nerves make the tooth sensitive to stimuli such as temperature, pH and pressure. The blood
vessels supply the tooth with food and oxygen Cement

This is a bone-like tissue with fibres that anchor the tooth to the jawbone.
Dental Formula (Plural: Dental Formulae)
The dental formula is the number and arrangement of teeth according to type on the upper and lower jaw in
one half of the mouth of an animal. Examples of dental formulae are: Human being

Note that the dental formulae only show the number of teeth present in one half of the mouth. To get the
total number of teeth, the numbers in the dental formula must be multiplied by two.

Relationship between Dentition and Type of Diet

a) Dentition in Carnivore
Carnivores are animals that feed predominantly on flesh e.g. lions. Their dentition is specialised in the
following ways:

• Canines are very long and pointed to enable them to tear flesh and suffocate their prey.
• Presence of carnassial teeth (the last upper premolar and first lower molar) which work like the blades
of a scissors to slice meat and shear flesh away from bones. b) Dentition in a Herbivore

Herbivores are animals that feed predominantly on vegetation e.g. sheep. Their dentition is specialised in the
following ways:

• Upper incisors are absent and replaced by a horny pad which works in conjunction with lower incisors
to grip vegetation and wrench it.

• There is a space between the incisors and premolars called the diastema. It is used to manipulate food
by separating the freshly eaten food from the one that is already being chewed. c) Dentition in an
Omnivore
Omnivores are animals that feed on both flesh and vegetation e.g. human beings. Their dentition is not
specialised for any kind of diet.

Tooth Decay
Also called dental decay or dental caries, this is a condition where the enamel of teeth is dissolved
(corroded) by organic acids produced by fermentation of sugars by bacteria in the mouth forming
cavities in the teeth. When cavity reaches the dentine, the tooth starts getting painful. The pain increases
further when the cavity reaches the pulp cavity. At this stage, the tooth pains each time the patient takes
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very hot or very cold foods, becomes infected and may even start having a bad smell due to
accumulation of abscess (pus). The condition may be treated by filling the tooth in with cement or
having a tooth extraction.

Prevention of Tooth Decay

• Brushing teeth with fluoride toothpaste after every meal
• Avoiding intake of sugary foods
• Regular visits to the dentist i.e. at least twice every year (once every six months)
• Taking foods that are rich in calcium, phosphorus and vitamins C and D
• Using dental floss to remove food particles from teeth
• Using teeth properly by avoiding using them for opening bottle tops and the like as this may crack the
enamel.

THE END OF TERM TWO

GRADE 10

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