DELHI PUBLIC SCHOOL JAMNAGAR

Grade: XI Subject: Biology

Topic: Chapter 8 (Cell: Unit of life)

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CELL
 All organisms are composed of cells. Its structural and fundamental unit of life.
 Some are composed of a single cell and are called unicellular organisms while others, like us,
composed of many cells, are called multicellular organisms.
 Unicellular organisms are capable of (i) Independent existence and (ii) performing the
essential functions of life. First cell discovered by - Robert Hooke in Cork
 Anton Von Leeuwenhoek first saw and described a live cell
 Robert Brown later discovered the nucleus.
 The invention of the microscope and its improvement leading to the electron microscope
revealed all the structural details of the cell.

CELL THEORY
 Schleiden and Schwann together formulated the cell theory. This theory however, did not
explain as to how new cells were formed. Rudolf Virchow (1855) first explained that cell s
divided and new cells are formed from pre-existing cells (Omnis cellula-e cellula).
He modified the hypothesis of Schleiden and Schwann to give the cell theory a final
shape. Cell theory as understood today is:
(i) All living organisms are composed of cells and products of cells.
(ii) All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Cytoplasm
 Term "Cytoplasm", was given by Strasburger for the part of cell, presents between the
nucleus and cell membrane.
 Cytosol: Liquid matrix of cytoplasm except organelles
 The cytoplasm is the zone of cellular activities in both the plant and animal cells. Various
chemical reactions occur in it to keep the cell in the ‘living state’.
 Besides the nucleus, the eukaryotic cells have other membrane bound distinct structures
called organelles like the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the golgi complex, lysosomes,
mitochondria, microbodies. The prokaryotic cells lack such membrane bound organelles.
 Ribosomes are non-membrane bound organelles found in all cells both eukaryotic as well as
prokaryotic cell. Within the cell, ribosomes are found not only in the cytoplasm
but also within the two organelles –chloroplasts (in plants) and mitochondria and on rough ER.
 Animal cells contain another non-membrane bound organelle called centriole which helps in
cell division.

Size
Cell differ greatly in size, shape and activities. Mycoplasma (Smallest cells): Only 0.3mm in
length Bacteria = 3 to 5 mm, Largest isolated single cell = egg of an ostrich, Human red blood
cell» 7.0 mm in diameter Nerve cell = longest cell

Shape
The shape of the cell may vary with the function they perform .They may be disc-like, polygonal,
columnar, cuboid, thread like or even irregular.

Prokaryotic cell
 The prokaryotic cells are represented by bacteria, blue-green algae, mycoplasma or PPLO
(Pleuro Pneumonia like Organisms).
 They are generally smaller and multiply more rapidly than the eukaryotic cells.
 Mesosomes are formed by infoldings of plasma membrane. There function is cell wall
formation, helps in DNA replication, respiration & Excretion and to increase the surface
area of plasma membrane.
 Many bacteria have extra chromosomal circular DNA present in them, known as Plasmid
(To provide some unique phenotypic characters like antibiotics resistance)
 Fimbriae are bristle-like short fibers occurring on the bacterial surface. fimbriae are
responsible for the attachment of the cell to its substrate
 Pili are long hair-like tubular microfibers found on the surface of bacteria. pili are
responsible for the attachment and horizontal gene transfer during bacterial conjugation

Eukaryotic cell
 Eukaryotic cells possess an organized nucleus with a nuclear envelope.
 In addition, eukaryotic cells have a variety of complex locomotory and cytoskeletal
structures.
 Their genetic material is organised into chromosomes.
 Plant and animal cells are different as the former possess cell walls, plastids and a large
central vacuole which are absent in animal cells. On the other hand, animal cells have
centrioles which are absent in almost all higher plant cells.

Plasma Membrane
Cell membranes possess lipid, protein and carbohydrate. The ratio of protein and lipid varies
considerably in different cell types.
In human beings, the membrane of the erythrocyte has approximately 52 per cent protein and
40 per cent lipids
Average composition of cell membrane
Lipids: 40% (Phospholipid, Cholesterol, Glycolipids), Proteins: 58-59% (Arginine, Lysine rich)
Carbohydrates: 1-2%

Fluid mosaic model: By Singer & Nicolson (1972).This is latest & most widely accepted model for
the structure of plasma membrane.
 According to fluid mosaic model proteins are arranged in phospholipid layer as mosaic
pattern.
 Thus membrane is termed as "protein iceberg in a sea of phospholipid" or "Gulab Jamun
(protein) in a concentrated solution (phospholipid) of sugar".
Phospholipids:
 Phospholipid is the main component of cell membrane because it forms continuous
structural frame of cell membrane.
 The studies showed that the cell membrane is composed of lipids that are arranged in a
bilayer.
 Also, the lipids are arranged within the membrane with the polar head towards the outer
sides and the hydrophobic tails towards the inner part.
 This ensures that the nonpolar tail of saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons is
protected from the aqueous environment.
 The lipid component of the membrane mainly consists of phosphoglycerides
(phospholipids).
 Phospholipid layer provides fluidity to plasma membrane because phospholipids are rich in
unsaturated fatty acid which are liquid in nature.
 This ability to move within the membrane is measured as its, fluidity. The fluid nature of
the membrane is also important in various function like cell growth, formation of
intercellular junction, endocytosis, secretion, cell division etc.
 Cholesterol is also present in plasma membrane. Cholesterol are more rigid than
phospholipid. So it helps in stability of membrane structure. Cholesterol is absent in
membrane of prokaryote
 The Quasifluid nature of lipid enable lateral movement of protein with in the overall
bilayer.
Proteins
 Two types of protein are present in plasma membrane. (On the basis of ease of extraction)
(a) Integral / intrinsic protein: These protein are tightly binds with phospholipid. Thus,
they cannot easily removed from membrane.
 Integral proteins are of 2 types: (i) Partially buried (ii) Totally buried
 Some integral proteins which are totally buried through the complete thickness of
membrane, this type of protein are called as tunnel (channel) protein which provide a
passage for movement of water soluble material across the membrane.
(b) Peripheral / extrinsic protein: These are superficially arranged on the surface of lipid
layer and can be separated easily. These protein have enzymatic activity.
 Oligosaccharides (sugar) of the glycolipids & glycoproteins on the outer surface of plasma
membranes are involved in cell to cell recognition mechanism. Best example of cell
recognition is fertilisation, (where sperm & egg recognize to each other) and blood -
 Antigens.

TRANSPORT THROUGH PLASMA MEMBRANE

 The membrane is selectively permeable to some molecules present on either side of it.
Many molecules can move briefly across the membrane without any requirement of energy
and this is called the passive transport.
 Neutral solutes may move across the membrane by the process of simple diffusion along
the concentration gradient, i.e., from higher concentration to the lower. Water may also
move across this membrane from higher to lower concentration. Movement of water by
diffusion is called osmosis.
 As the polar molecules cannot pass through the nonpolar lipid bilayer, they require a
carrier protein of the membrane to facilitate their transport across the membrane.
 A few ions or molecules are transported across the membrane against their concentration
gradient, i.e., from lower to the higher concentration. Such a transport is an energy
dependent process, in which ATP is utilized and is called active transport, e.g., Na+/K+
Pump.

(i) Endocytosis (Bulk transport)

(a) Pinocytosis or Cell Drinking: Ingestion of liquid material by plasmalemma in the form of
vesicles or bag like structure (Pinosome) is called pinocytosis.
(b) Phagocytosis or Cell eating: Ingestion of solid complex materials by membranes in the form
of vesicles (Phagosome) is called Phagocytosis.
(ii) Exocytosis/Cell vomitting: Egestion of waste materials from cell through plasma membrane.
CELL WALL
 A non-living rigid structure called the cell wall forms an outer covering for the plasma
membrane of Bacteria, Some protistan, Fungi, Algae and Plants.
 Algal cell wall, made of cellulose, galactans, mannans and minerals like calcium carbonate.
 In other plants cell wall consists of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins and proteins.

Types of cell wall on the basis of time of formation:

(a) Primary wall: Thin, elastic and Composed of cellulose, hemicellulose & pectin. Gradually
diminishes as cell matures and is Capable of growth.
(b) Secondary Wall: Rigid, thick(S1, S2, S3) Composed of cellulose, hemi–cellulose, Pectin.
Absent in meristem cells and inner side of primary wall (toward cell membrane).
(c) Tertiary wall: Present only in tracheids of Gymnosperm.
Middle lamella: Common layer between two cells and is consist of Ca & Mg pectates (Plant
cement). Amount of Ca is more.

PLASMODESMATA
 These are cytoplasmic connections between two adjacent plant cells. It help to maintain
continuity of cytoplasm. The cell wall and middle lamella may be traversed by
plasmodesmata which connect the cytoplasm of neighboring cells.

FUNCTIONS OF CELL WALL

(i) Cell wall gives shape to the cell
(ii) It protects the cell from mechanical damage and infection
(iii) it also helps in cell-to-cell interaction
(iv) it provides barrier to undesirable macromolecules.

ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
 Many of the membranous organelles are considered together as an endomembrane system
because their functions are coordinated.
 The endomembrance system include endoplasmic reticulum (ER), golgi complex, lysosomes
And vacuoles.
 The functions of the mitochondria, chloroplast and peroxisomes are not coordinated
with the above components, these are not considered as part of the endomembrane
system.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
 Network of reticulum of tiny tubular structures scattered in the cytoplasm that is called
the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
 ER divide the intracellular space into two distinct compartment i.e. Luminal (inside ER) &
extra luminal cytoplasm) compartments.
 Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (S.R.): These smooth E.R. occurs in skeletal and cardiac muscles.
S.R. Stores Ca2+ and energy rich compounds required for muscle contraction.
 Components of E.R.:
(i) Cisternae - These are long flattened and unbranched units arranged in stacks.
(ii) Vesicles - These are oval membrane bound structures.
(iii) Tubules - These are irregular, often branched tubes bounded by membrane. Tubules
may free or associated with cisternae.
 Structure of E.R. is like the golgi body but in E.R. cisternae, vesicles and tubules are
isolated in cytoplasm and these do not form complex.
 Golgi body is localised cell organelle while E.R. is widespread in cytoplasm. E.R. is often
termed as “System of Membranes”
 FUNCTIONS OF E.R.
(i) Mechanical support: Microfilaments, Microtubules and E.R. forms endoskeleton of cell.
(ii) Intracellular exchange: E.R. forms intracellular conducting system. Transport of
materials in cytoplasm from one place to another may occurs through the E.R. At some
places E.R. is also connected to Plasma membrane So E.R. can secrete the materials
outside the cell.
(iii) Rough E.R.: Provides site for the protein synthesis.
(iv) Lipid Synthesis: Lipids (cholesterol & phospholipids) synthesized by Smooth E.R.
(v) ER also helps in the synthesis of lipoproteins and glycogen.
(vi) Cellular metabolism: The membranes of reticulum provides an increased surface for
(vii) Formation of nuclear membrane: Fragmented vesicles of disintegrated nuclear
membrane and ER elements arranged around the chromosomes to form a new nuclear
membrane during cell division.

GOLGI COMPLEX
 Camillo Golgi (1898) first observed them and were later named Gogi bodies after him.
 Golgi body al so named as Dictyosome (plant golgi body)
 The cytoplasm surrounding Golgi body have fewer or no other organelles. It is called Golgi
ground substance or zone of exclusion.
 All the macromolecules which are to be sent out side the cell, move through the golgi body.
So golgi body is termed as “Director of macromolecular traffic in cell” or middle men of
cell.
STRUCTURE
Golgi complex is made up of three parts –
(i) Cisternae: These are flat disc shaped, sacs like structure.
 Many cistenae are arranged in a stack (parallel to each other).
 Diameter 0.5 mm to 1.0 mm.
 The Golgi cisternae are concentrically arranged near the nucleus.
  Convex surface of cisternae which is towards the nucleus is called cis- face or forming
face.
 Concave surface of cisternae which is towards the membrane is called Trans face or
maturing face.
 The cis and trans faces of the organelle are entirely different but inner connected.
(ii) Tubules: These are branched and irregular tube like structures associated with cisternae.
(iii) Vesicles: Transition vesicle and Mature vesicle.

FUNCTIONS OF GOLGI COMPLEX

(1) Cell Secretion: Chief function of golgi body is secretion (export) of macromolecules.
 Secretion involve three step :
(i) Golgi body recieves the materials from E.R. through it's cis - face.
(ii) These materials are chemically modified by golgi body.
(iii) After chemical modifications materials are packed in vesicles.
(iv) These vesicles are pinched off from trans face of golgi body and discharged out side
the cell.
(2) Packaging of materials: to be delivered either to the intra-cellular targets or secreted
outside the cell. Materials to be packaged in the form of vesicles from the ER and fuse with the
cis face of the golgi apparatus and move towards the maturing face. This explains, why the golgi
apparatus remains in close association with the endoplasmic reticulum.
(3) Formation of Lysosome: It is collective function of golgi body and E.R.
(4) Synthesis of cell wall Material (Polysaccharide synthesis)
(5) Cell plate formation (Phragmoplast) during cell wall formation.
(6) Formation of acrosome during spermiogenesis.

LYSOSOME
 Lysosomes are spherical bag like structures, which is covered by single unit membrane.
 These are membrane bound vesicular structures formed by the process of packaging in
the golgi apparatus.
 They are rich in all types of hydrolytic enzymes (hydrolases – lipases, proteases,
carbohydrases) and optimally active at the acidic pH (pH = 5). These enzymes are capable
 of digesting carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids.
They were reported in all animal cells except of mammalian RBC
 In higher plants lysosomes are less frequent. But number of lysosomes is high in fungi.
 Lysosomes are highly polymorphic cell organelle. Because, lysosomes have different
physiological states.

TYPES OF LYSOSOMES
(i) Primary / storage granules: These lysosomes store enzyme Acid Hydrolases in the inactive
form. (Enzymes synthesized on ribosomes in cytoplasm) these are newly formed lysosome.
(ii) Digestive/ Hetero phagosomes: These lysosome formed by the fusion of primary lysosomes
and phagosomes. These are secondary Lysosomes.
(iii) Residual bodies: Lysosomes containing undigested material are called residual bodies. These
may be eliminated by exocytosis.
(iv) Autophagic / autophagosomes: Lysosomes containing cell organelles to be digested are
known as Autophagosomes.

FUNCTIONS
(I) Intracellular digestion :(i) Heterophagy: This is digestion of foreign materials received in
cell by phagocytosis and pinocytosis.
(ii) Autophagy: Digestion of old or dead cell organelles.
(II) Extracellular digestion: Lysosomes of osteoclast (bone eating cells) dissolve unwanted part
of bones.
(III) Cellular digestion (Autolysis) :– Sometimes all lysosomes of a cell burst to dissolve the cell
completely.
(so Lysosome called as suicidal bags of cell)

VACUOLES
 Membrane-bound space found in the cytoplasm.
 It contains water, sap, excretory product and other materials not useful for the cell.
 The vacuole is bound by a single membrane called tonoplast.
 In plant cells the vacuoles can occupy up to 90 per cent of the volume of the cell.
 In plants, the tonoplast facilitates the transport of a number of ions and other materials
against concentration gradients into the vacuole, hence their concentration is significantly
higher in the vacuole than in the cytoplasm.
 In Amoeba, the contractile vacuole is important for excretion.
 In many cells, as in protists, food vacuoles are formed by engulfing the food particles.

MITOCHONDRIA (Power house of cell or ATP-mill in cell)

 Mitochondria are site of aerobic respiration and ATP production.
 Number of mitochondria depends upon physiological activity of cell.
 In higher animals maximum mitochondria are found in flight muscles of birds.
 Mitochondria are differ in size and shape and can make its shape sausage or cylindrical.
 Diameter 0.2–1.0 µm (average 0.5 µm), length 1.0 – 4.1 µm.
 Cell within cell (Endo-symbionts of cell)
  Semi-autonomous cell organelle.

STRUCTURE
 Mitochondria is covered by double unit membrane,the outer membrane is smooth and
inner one folds into several cristae.
 Outer membrane has more phospholipids and cholesterol as compared to inner membrane.
and Inner membrane have more protein.
 The outer membrane and the inner membrane dividing its lumen distinctly into two
aqueous compartments, i.e.,the outer compartment and the inner compartment.
 The inner compartment filled with a dense homogenous substance is called the matrix.
The outer membrane forms the continuous limiting boundary of the organelle.
 Both membrane are separated by a space called peri mitochondrial (Intermembrane)
space.
 Many electron carrier cytochromes are arranged in a definite sequence in Inner
membrane of mitochondria, which forms Electron transport system (ETS).
 Inner membrane is studded with pin head particles called oxysomes or elementary
particles or F1 particles or ATP Synthase.
 Mitochondrial matrix have enzyme for Kreb's cycle. (Aerobic respiration).
 Matrix have a complete protein synthesis apparatus (Ribosome(70s), circular DNA, Few
RNA's & enzymes) so Mitochondria called As semi autonomous cell organelles.
 Mitochondrial DNA can code the synthesis of some types of proteins. Rest of the
proteins and enzymes of mitochondria are synthesized under the control of nuclear genes.

PLASTIDS
 Plastids are found in all plant cells and in euglenoides.
 Based on the presence or absence and type of pigments plastids can be classified into
chloroplasts , chromoplasts and leucoplasts
.
TYPES
(i) Chromoplasts
 In chromoplasts, fat soluble carotenoid pigments like carotene, xanthophyllas and others
are present. This gives yellow, orange or red colour to the part of the plant.
  Chromoplasts occurs mainly in pericarp and petals.
 Red colour of tomatoes is due to the red pigment "Lycopene" of chromoplasts.
 Chromoplasts occur in petals but colour in petals is mainly due to water soluble pigments
which are found in cell sap. eg. : Anthocyanin
(ii) Chloroplasts
 The chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments which are responsible for
trapping light energy essential for photosynthesis.
(iii) Leucoplasts
 The leucoplasts are the colourless plastids of varied shapes and sizes with stored
nutrients:
 Amyloplasts store carbohydrates (starch), e.g., potato; elaioplasts store oils and fats
whereas the aleuroplasts store proteins.
 Pigments are absent in Leucoplasts. Generally occurs in non green and underground plant
cells.
Note: Different types of plastids may transform from one form to another. Because genetic
meteral is similar.

Number, Shape & Size of chloroplasts

 The chloroplasts of the green plants are found in the mesophyll cells of the leaves.
 Number varies from 1 per cell of the Chlamydomonas a green alga to 20-40 per cell in the
mesophyll.
 These are lens-shaped, oval, spherical, discoid, or even ribbon shaped.
 Length and width are also variable. Length = 5-10 mm, Width = 2-4 mm

Structure of Chloroplast
 The chloroplasts Trap the light energy of sun and transform it into the chemical energy in
the form glucose.(Photosynthesis).

Components of stroma (Matrix)

(i) Thylakoids
 Flatted membranous sacs present in stroma are called thylakoids.
 Thylakoids are arranged in stacks like the piles of coins called grana.
 Each chloroplast contains about 40-60 granum.
 Stroma lamellae or Fret channel or Stroma thylakoids are flat membranous tubules
 connecting the thylakoids of the different granum.
 The membrane of the thylokoids enclose a space called lumen.
 Chlorophyll (photosynthtic pigments) are present in the thylakoids membrane.
 A photosynthesis functional unit (Located in thylakoids membrane) contains of about 250
to 400 molecules of various pigments (Chl-a, Chl-b, Carotenes, Xanthophylls etc.) is called
as Quantasome.
(ii) Enzymes
 The stroma of the chloroplast contains enzymes required for the synthesis of
carbohydrate. i.e. enzymes of Calvin cycle or Dark reaction) and protein synthesis.
(iii) DNA
 Stroma contain small double-stranded circular DNA molecules.

(iv) Ribosomes
 The Ribosome of the chloroplast are smaller (70s) than the cytoplasmic ribosomes (80s)
 Chloroplasts have their own genetic system & complete protein synthesis machinery
(ds - DNA, RNA, Ribosome, Enzymes, Amino acids) but enzymes for photosynthesis are
synthesised by both genes of nucleus and chloroplast thus chloroplasts are also called as
semi autonomous organelle of the cell.

BIOGENESIS
 From Proplastid
 From binary fission of pre-existing plastids.

ORIGIN
 Endosymbiotic origin

RIBOSOMES (ENGINE OF CELL)

 Ribosomes are the granular structures first observed under the electron microscope as
dense particles by George Palade(1953).
 They are composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins and are not surrounded by any
membrane.
 Except mammalian RBC all living cells have ribosomes. (Both prokaryotes & Eukaryotes)
 Ribosomes are smallest cell organelles
 Ribosomes are also called as ‘Organelle within organelle’’ and "Protein factory of cell"

Types of Ribosomes
(1) Eukaryotic ribosomes: 80 S - Occur in cytoplasm and RER of eukaryotic cells.
(2) Prokaryotic ribosomes: 70 S
 Occur in cytoplasm and associated with plasma membrane of prokaryotic cell.
 70 S ribosome also present in mitochondria and chloroplast of eukaryotes.
Note: S=Svedberg unit or Sedimentation rate. I t indirectly is a measure of density and size.*

Structure:
 Each ribosome composed of two subunits i.e. larger and smaller subunits.
 80 S = 60 S + 40 S
70 S = 50 S + 30 S
 Magnesium ion is essential for the binding the ribosome sub units.
 Mg form ionic bond with phosphate groups of r- RNA of two subunits.
 Minimum 0.001 M Mg+2 concentration is required for structural formation of ribosomes.

Chemical Composition of Ribosomes:

1) 70 S – 60% r- RNA + 40% proteins
50 S – r-RNA 23 S, 5 S
30 S – r-RNA 16 S

2) 80 S – 40% r-RNA + 60% proteins

60 S – r-RNA 28 S, 5.8 S, 5 S
40 S – r-RNA 18 S
 At the time of protein synthesis, several 70 S ribosomes become attached to m-RNA with
the help of smaller subunits. This structure is called polyribosome or polysome
 Larger subunit (50s) contains peptidyl transferase enzyme (23S rRNA) which helps in the
formation of peptide bond during protein synthesis.

CYTOSKELETON
 An elaborate network of filamentous proteinaceous structures present in the cytoplasm is
collectively referred to as the cytoskeleton.
 The cytoskeleton in a cell are involved in many functions such as mechanical support,
motility, maintenance of the shape of the cell.
MICROTUBULES
 Microtubules are composed of protein, Tubulin.
 In plants, microtubules often found associated with cell wall.
 During cell division these microtubules form spindle fibers.

MICROFILAMENTS
 They are composed of contractile protein, Actin which concern with muscle contraction.
 Microtubules and microfilament are part of cytoskeleton-base of cell. [Size 6-7 nm]

INTERMEDIATE FILAMENT
 Intermediate filaments has size/diameter in between microfilaments and microtubules.
These fillaments form basket like structure around the nucleus. [Size 8-12 nm]

CILIA AND FLAGELLA

 Cilia and flagella are hair-like outgrowths of the cell membrane.
 Cilia are small structures which work like oars, causing the movement of either the cell or
the surrounding fluid.
 Flagella are longer and responsible for cell movement. The bacteria (prokaryotic cell) also
possess flagella but these are structurally different from that of the eukaryotic flagella.
 Cilium or the flagellum are covered with plasma membrane.
 Their core is called the axoneme, possesses a number of microtubules running parallel to
the long axis.
 The axoneme usually has nine doublets of radially arranged peripheral microtubules,
and a pair of centrally located microtubules. Such an arrangement of axonemal
microtubules is referred to as the 9+2 array.(9 doublet + 2 singlet)
 Arms of A tubules consist of an enzymatic protein dynein similar to myosin of muscle cells.
Dynein have ability of hydrolysis of ATP & liberates energy for ciliary or flagellar
movement.
 The central tubules are connected by bridges and is also enclosed by a central sheath,
which is connected to one of the tubules of each peripheral doublets by radial spoke.
 There are nine radial spokes.
 The peripheral doublets are also interconnected by linkers.
 Both the cilium & flagellum emerge from centriole-like structure called the basal bodies
or blepheroplast
.
CENTROSOME & CENTRIOLES
 Centrosome is absent in higher plants.
 Centrosome containing two centrioles (diplosome) located just outside the nucleus and lie
at right angle (90°) to each other
 Each centriole is surrounded by amorphous pericentriolar materials.
 Centrioles are membraneless cylindrical structure which exhibit cart wheel structure in
transverse section.
 Centriole mainly consist of 9 evenly spaced peripheral triplet fibrils of tubulin. These
triplets are linked with the help of A-C linker.
 The central part of the centriole is proteinaceous and called the hub, which is connected
with peripheral triplets by radial spokes made of protein. (9 + 0 arrangement)
 Centrioles are self duplicating units.

Function
(i) In animal cells, centrioles play important role in cell division by arranging spindle fibres
between two poles of cell.
 The location of centrioles during cell division decides the plane of division. The plane of
division is always at right angle to the spindle.
(ii) Centrioles form the basal body of cilia or flagella.

MICRO–BODIES
These are many, membrane bound minute vesicle contain various enzyme that are present in both
plant and animal cells.
 (1) Peroxisomes:
 These are found in both plant and animal cells.
 Peroxisomes contain catalase enzyme which is concerned with peroxide (H2O2)
metabolism. Catalase degrade the H2O2 into water and oxygen.
 In plants, peroxisomes occurs in cells of green tissues and concerned with photorespiration
(glycolate pathway).
 Peroxisomes are also involved in b-oxidation of fatty acids.
(2) Glyoxysomes:
 Glyoxysomes occurs only in plants especially in fatty seeds (castor seed, ground nut seed
etc.).
 They are considered as a highly specialised peroxisomes. Glyoxylate acid cycle takes place
in glyoxysomes. This cycle convert fats into carbohydrates.

NUCLEUS
 First described by Robert Brown in 1831.
 The material of the nucleus is stained by the basic dyes (Acetocarmine) was given the
name chromatin by Flemming.
 Nucleus is double membrane bound which controls all cellular metabolism and encloses the
genetic information of cell".
 Controller or director of cell.
 Importance of nucleus in control of heredity, growth and metabolism.
 Generally eukaryotic cell contain at least one nucleus.
 Nucleus is absents in mature phloem sieve tube elements & mature RBCs of mammals.
 Dikaryotic (Paramoecium) and multikaryotic cells are also known.

STRUCTURE OF INTERPHASE NUCLEUS (when cell is not dividing.)

(i) Nuclear membrane
(ii) Nuclear matrix / Nucleoplasm
(iii) Chromatin net
(iv) Nucleolus /little nucleus/Ribosome factory

(i) Nuclear membrane

 Nuclear envelope consists of two parallel membranes with a space between (10 to 50 nm)
called the perinuclear space.
 These membrane forms a barrier between the materials present inside the nucleus and
that of the cytoplasm.
 The outer membrane usually remains continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum and also
bears ribosomes on it.
 At a number of places the nuclear envelope is interrupted by minute pores, which are
formed by the fusion of its two membranes.
 These nuclear pores are the passages through which movement of RNA and protein
molecules takes place in both directions between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
(ii) Nucleoplasm or Karyolymph
 Nucleoplasm or Nuclear sap is a ground substance of nucleus, which is a complex colloidal
formed of a number of chemicals like nucleotides, nucleosides, ATPs, proteins & enzymes.
 Chromatin net and nucleolus are components of nucleoplasm.
(A) Chromatin net
 Network of nucleoprotein fibers called chromatin, which embeded in nucleoplasm.
 Chromatin fibres contain genetic information and condensed to form chromosomes
 Chemically chromatin consists of DNA, RNA, Histone protein (basic proteins, rich in
arginine and lysine) and non histone proteins.
 Chromatin net has two type of chromatins:
(a) Euchromatin: This is lightly stained and is transcriptionally or genetically more
active.
(b) Heterochromatin:- This is dark stained, thick and condensed part of chromatin
and is genetically less active or inactive chromatin.
(B) Nucleolus
 The nucleoli are spherical and membrane less structure so that the content of nucleous
is continous with the rest of the nucleoplasm.
 It is a site for active ribosomal RNA (r-RNA) synthesis.
 Nucleolus usually attached to chromatin (or chromosomes) at specific site called
Nucleolarorganizer region/NOR.
 Nucleolus is called Ribosome factory of cell.
 Larger and more numerous nucleoli are present in cells actively carrying out protein
synthesis.

CHROMOSOME
 Chromosome is highly condensed form of the chromatin.
 Chromosomes are not visible during interphase stage but during different stages of cell
division, cells show structured chromosomes in place of the nucleus.
 Chromosomes can be best studied at metaphase stage because size of chromosomes is the
shortest during metaphase (Shape of chromosome is studied at Anaphase stage)
 The number of chromosomes in a gamete is called "Genome" or ‘‘A complete haploid set (n) of
chromosomes inherited as a unit from one parent is known as genome.
 A single human cell has approximately two metre long thread of DNA distributed among its
46 (23 pairs) chromosomes.

TYPES OF CHROMOSOMES ON THE BASIS OF POSITION OF CENTROMERE

(i) Telocentric: When centromere is terminal or located at the tip of chromosome.
(ii) Acrocentric: When the centromere is sub-terminal or located near the tip.
(iii) Metacentric: When the centromere is located at mid of the chromosome.
(iv) Sub metacentric: When the centromere located near centre or midpoint of chromosome.
Arm Ratio: The ratio of length of the long arm to the short arm of a chromosome is called arm
ratio. Arm ratio is maximum in acrocentric chromosome.

Karyotype: is external morphology of all Chromosomes of a cell

 Specific for each species of living organisms.
 Karyotype can be studied in metaphase of mitosis.
 Karyotype includes the number of chromosomes, relative size, position of centromere,
length of the arms, secondary constrictions and banding patterns.

Idiogram:
 Diagrammatic representation of Karyotype.
 In idiogram chromosomes are arranged in decreasing order of size.
 Sex chromosomes are placed in last.
 Idiogram is specific for every species.

STRUCTURE OF CHROMOSOME
1. Chromatid
 At metaphase stage, each chromosome is consist of two cylindrical structures - called
chromatids.
 Both sister chromatids are joined together by a common centromere.
 Each chromatid is consist of a single long thread of DNA associated with histone proteins
 Non histone proteins and RNA are also present.
2. Centromere
 The chromatids of a chromosome are joined or connected by a structure called
Centromere.
 At centromere two protein discs are present which is called Kinetochore.
 Kinetochores constitute the actual site of attachement of spindles to chromosomes
during cell division.
 At the region of centromere, the chromosome is comparatively narrower than remaining
part of chromosome thus it is termed as Primary constriction.
3. Secondary constriction
 These constriction are non staining and found at a constant location.
 Secondary constriction is also known as NOR (Nucleolar organizer region).Seen on 5
 chromosomes.(13,14,15,21,22 chromosomes in human)
4. Satellite
 Part of chromosome remains after the NOR is known as chromosomes satellite.
5. Telomere
 Chromosomes have polarity and polar ends of chromosomes are known as Telomeres.
 Telomere prevents fusion of one chromosomes to other chromosome.
 Telomere rich in Guanine base.
 Telomeres of chromosomes becomes shorter during ageing process.

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