Module – 1 b.

Pavement unevenness: Bump Integrator- unevenness index

350cm/km – uncomfortable
Transportation Engineering
c. Light reflecting characteristics
• Transportation engineering is a branch of civil engineering
that is involved in the planning, design, operation and Traffic separators/Medians
maintenance of safe and efficient transportation systems. • • Functions: 1. To channelize flow at intersections 2. Separate
These systems include roadways, railways, waterways etc. • It the crossing and turning of traffic 3. Segregate slow traffic and
is a basic component of any area’s physical, economic and protect pedestrians • Markings • Physical Dividers • Area
social structure. • It plays a vital role in development of rural separators.
areas of the country. • They improve the employment
opportunities. Kerbs

Classification of roads • Kerbs indicates the boundary between Pavement and

shoulders or footpath. • Low or mountable kerbs • Semi
Depending on weather
Barrier • Barrier • Submerged.
All weather roads, Fair weather roads Road margins
Based on type of pavement
Shoulders, Parking lanes, Cycle tracks, Lay byes, Bus bays,
Paved roads, Unpaved roads Frontage roads, Guard rails, Embankment slopes, Drive ways,
Footpath.
Based on type of pavement surface
Sight distance- The actual distance along the road surface,
Surfaced roads, Unsurfaced roads which a driver from a specified height above the carriage way
Classification of Urban Roads has visibility of stationery or moving objects.

Arterial Roads, Sub-arterial Roads, Collector Streets, Local • Stopping or absolute minimum sight distance • Safe
Streets. overtaking or passing sight distance • Safe sight distance for
entering into uncontrolled intersections • Intermediate SD •
➢Arterial & sub arterial are street roads for through traffic on Headlight SD.
continuous route. ➢Collector streets provide access to
arterial streets. They collect traffic to and from local streets. The standards for SD should satisfy three
➢Local streets provide access to abutting property. conditions:
TYPICAL CROSS SECTION OF ROADS • Driver travelling at design speed has sufficient SD or length
of road visible to stop the vehicle in case of any obstruction. •
• Horizontal Alignment:- Straight path, horizontal deviations
Driver travelling at design speed should be able to overtake,
and curves • Vertical Alignment:- Changes in gradients,
without causing obstruction to traffic of opposite direction. •
vertical curves.
Driver entering uncontrolled intersections has sufficient
Necessity of highway alignment visibility to enable him to control his vehicle and to avoid
collision.
If not properly aligned, it would result in • Increase in
construction cost • Increase in maintenance cost • Increase in Stopping Sight Distance(SSD)
vehicle operation cost • Increase in accident rate.
• Minimum SD available on a highway at any spot should be of
Factors Controlling Highway Alignment sufficient length to stop a vehicle traveling at design speed,
safely without colliding with any other obstruction. • Non
a. Obligatory points
passing SD • SD available on a road to a driver at any instant
i. Points through which the alignment should pass. ii. Points depends on 1. Features of the road ahead 2. Height of driver’s
through which the alignment should not pass. eye above the road surface 3. Height of object above the road
surface.
Pavement surface characteristics
SSD depends on :
a. Friction: Skid resistance Factors affecting skid resistance:
Type of pavement surface, Toughness, pavement condition, 1. Total reaction time • Perception time • Brake reaction time
Speed of vehicle, Brake efficiency, Tyre pressure, Temp 2. Speed of vehicle 3. Efficiency of brakes 4. Frictional
resistance 5. Gradient.
SSD depends on: ANALYSIS OF SSD

1. Total reaction time • Perception time • Brake reaction time SSD = Lag distance + Braking distance
2. Speed of vehicle: • Higher the speed, more time will be
Braking distance
required to stop the vehicle. • As speed increases, SD
increases. 3. Efficiency of brakes • SD required will be more
when the efficiency of brakes are less. 4. Frictional resistance•
More frictional resistance, SD will be less. 5. Gradient • + ve
gradient – Less SD • - ve gradient – More SD.

Problem
In a district where the rainfall is heavy, major district road of
WBM pavement, 3.8 m

wide, and a state highway of bituminous concrete pavement,

7.0 m wide are to be

constructed, What should be the height of the crown with

respect to the edges in these

two cases ? :
Qn: Calculate SSD for speed 50kmph for a) 2 lane 2 way Road
b) 1 lane 1 way Road c) 1 lane 2 way Road

Soln: Straight line cross slope

Case i: WBM pavement

W = 3.8m

I in n = 1 in 33

y = W /2n = 3.8 /(2 x 33) = 0.058m

Case ii: Bituminous concrete pavement Qn: Calculate minimum SD required to avoid head on
collision of 2 cars approaching from opposite direction at 90
W = 7m
and 60 kmph. Given f= 0.7 and brake efficiency = 50%
I in n = 1 in 50

y = W/2n = 7/(2 x 50) = 0.078m

ANALYSIS OF SSD (On level Road)

SSD = Lag distance + Braking distance

Lag distance

• Distance travelled during reaction time.

• Lag distance = V x t in meters • V – design Speed in m/s • t –

reaction time in sec • Lag distance = 0.278V x t in meters • V –
design Speed in Kmph • t – reaction time in sec
Qn: Calculate SSD on a highway at positive and negative ➢For ascending and descending gradient, OSD required will
gradient of 2% for design speed of 80kmph. Assume other be more. ➢For ascending and descending gradient, OSD will
data as per IRC. be almost same. ➢OSD on slopes is taken as same as on level
road. ➢Overtaking time varies from 9 to 14 seconds.

Overtaking Zones

➢For safe overtaking, overtaking zones are provided at

regular intervals. ➢OSD and pavement width of these zones
should be sufficient for overtaking. ➢Sign post will be
provided before entry and before exit of overtaking zones.
➢Length of overtaking zones is 3 to 5 times of OSD.
➢Minimum overtaking zone length = 3 x OSD ➢Maximum
overtaking zone length = 5 x OSD.

Intermediate SD

➢ISD is provided where OSD cannot be provided. ➢On

curves, OSD cannot be provided and hence overtaking should
be prohibited by regulatory signs. In such cases ISD is
provided. ➢ISD = 2 x SSD.
SIGHT DISTANCE

• Stopping or absolute minimum sight distance • Safe Headlight SD

overtaking or passing sight distance • Safe sight distance for ➢It is the distance available under the illumination of
entering into uncontrolled intersections • Intermediate SD •
headlight. ➢HSD = SSD
Headlight SD.
Calculate the values of (i) HSD (ii) ISD for highway with
Overtaking Sight distance design speed 65kmph.
It is the minimum distance open to the vision of driver of fast
moving vehicle intending to overtake a slow moving vehicle
with safety against traffic from opposite direction.

Factors affecting OSD ➢ Speeds of overtaking vehicle,

overtaken vehicle and vehicle from opposite direction. ➢
Distance between overtaking and overtaken vehicle. ➢ Skill
and reaction time of vehicle. ➢ Rate of acceleration. ➢
Gradient if any.

OSD

Effect of Gradient
The speeds of overtaking and overtaken vehicles are 70kmph
and 40kmph respectively. Given a = 0.99m/s² Calculate: a)
OSD b) Minimum and maximum length of overtaking zones c)
Draw a sketch of zone

Analysis of Super Elevation

• Forces acting on vehicle while moving on a circular curve of

radius R meters, at speed V m/s are:

HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

• Due to the presence of obligatory points alignment of

highways has to be changed. • Alignment should enable safe,
consistent and smooth movement of vehicles operating at
design speed. • So sharp curves and reverse curves should be
avoided. • Improper alignment would necessitate speed
changes. • Speed changes depends on: 1. Terrain 2. Class of
road.

• Horizontal curves • Super elevation • Radius of horizontal

curve • Widening of pavement on horizontal curves-
Extrawidening • Horizontal transition curve.

SUPER ELEVATION

• In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force and to

reduce the tendency of vehicle to overturn or skid, the outer
edge of pavement is raised with respect to inner edge, thus
providing a transverse slope throughout length of curve. • This
transverse inclination given to the pavement is called Cant /
Banking / Super elevation. • Super elevation ‘e’ is expressed as
the ratio of height of outer edge with respect to horizontal
width.
 If design speed < Va , then design is adequate and provide e =
0.07.

If design speed > Va , then restrict it to allowable speed.

➢ Maximum super elevation ✓ 7% - for mixed traffic( bound

by snow plain and rolling terrain) ✓ 10% - for hill roads ( not
bound by snow) ➢Minimum super elevation ✓ Minimum
camber for the surface.

The radius of horizontal curve is 100m. Design speed is

50kmph and design coefficient of friction is 0.15. a. Calculate
super elevation required if full lateral friction is assumed to
develop. b. Calculate coefficient of friction needed if no
super elevation is provided. c. Calculate equilibrium super
elevation if pressure on inner and outer wheels should be
equal.

Design of Super elevation

Super elevation should be provided so that centrifugal force

due to 75% design speed is compensated. Lateral friction is
neglected and maximum super elevation is taken as 0.07.

Steps for super elevation design

1. Super elevation for 75% design speed is calculated by the

formula, e =(0.75V)²/ 127R = V²/ 225R

2. If calculated super elevation is less than 0.07, then ok.

3. If calculated super elevation is greater than 0.07, put e =

0.07 and calculate ‘f’ using the equation, e + f = V²/127R

If f < 0.15, then ok. Else go to step 4.

4. If f > 0.15, put e = 0.07, f = 0.15 and calculate restricted

speed Va , e + f = Va ²/ 127R

Va = root of 27.94R
Design the rate of super elevation for a horizontal highway
curve of radius 500m and speed 100kmph.

f < 0.15 Hence ok

Design speed is 80kmph. Radius is 200m. Design allowable

speed.

Calculate value of ruling minimum and absolute minimum

radius of horizontal curve of NH in plain terrain. Ruling
design speed = 100kmph Minimum design speed = 80kmph

A two lane road with design speed 80kmph has horizontal Analysis of Extrawidening
curve of radius 480m. Design super elevation. By how much
• Widening may be introduced gradually from starting of
amount the outer edge should be raised above center line, if
transition curve and is increased at uniform rate till full We is
pavement is rotated about center line. Width of pavement is
reached at the end of transition curve. Full value is continued
7.5m
through out the circular curve and decreased along transition
curve. Widening is distributed on either side of the curve. • On
horizontal curve without transition curve, two-thirds the
widening is provided at the end of the straight section and
remaining one-third widening is provided on the circular curve
portion. In such cases widening is provided on the inner side
of curve.
Calculate the extra widening required for a pavement of about centre line), Radius of horizontal curve = 220m
within 7m on a horizontal curve of radius 250m if the longest Pavement width-7.5m(including extrawidening)
wheel base of vehicle expected on the road is 7m. Design
speed is 70kmph. Compare the value obtained with IRC
recommendation.

Find the total width of a pavement on a horizontal curve for

a new national highway to be aligned along a rolling terrain
with a ruling minimum radius. Assume necessary data.

Calculate the length of transition curve and shift using the

given data, design speed-65kmph, allowable rate of
introduction of super elevation- 1 in 150 (Pavement rotated
A NH passing through rolling terrain in heavy rainfall area has available are Design speed=65kmph, Length of wheel base of
a horizontal curve of radius 500m. Design the length of largest truck =6m, pavement width = 10.5m
transition curve assuming suitable data.

While aligning a highway in a built up area, it was necessary

to provide a horizontal circular curve of radius 325m. Design
the following geometric features: i. Super elevation ii. Extra
widening of pavement iii. Length of transition curve Data
Classification of roads based on Nagpur Road Plan

National Highway: These are the main highways running

through the length and breadth of the country connecting
major ports, foreign highways, capitals of large states etc.
State Highway: These are main roads of a state connecting to
NH of adjacent state, district headquarters, main cities. In
some places SH carries more traffic than NH, but this will not
alter the designation. Both NH and SH have same design speed
and geometric design. Major District Roads: These are the
important roads within a district serving areas of production
and markets and connecting with main highway of a district.
MDR has lower design speed than NH and SH. Other District
Roads: These are roads serving rural areas of production and
providing them with outlet to market centres, taluk head
quarters, block development quarters etc. Village Roads:
These are roads connecting villages or group of villages with
each other to nearest road of higher category.

Classification of roads based on Lucknow Road Plan

Primary System

Express Highways: These are separate class of highways with

superior facility and design standards and are meant as
through routes having very heavy traffic.

National Highways

Secondary System

State Highways, Major District Roads

Tertiary System

Other District Roads, Village Roads

Module 5 7. AIRCRAFT STAND ○ A portion of an apron
designated as a taxiway and intended to provide access
COMPONENTS OF AN AIRPORT 1. Runway 2. to aircraft stands only
Landing area 3. Terminal area 4. Terminal Building 5.
Apron 6. Taxiway 7. Aircraft Stand 8. Hangar 9. Control 8. HANGARS ○ These are closed structure to hold
Tower 10. Parking aircraft in protective storage, it may be constructed by
wood/steel/concrete.
1. RUNWAY: ○ A runway is the area where an aircraft
lands or takes off. ○ It can be grass, or packed dirt, or a 9. CONTROL TOWERS ○ A tower at an airfield from
hard surface such as asphalt or concrete. ○ Runways which air traffic is controlled by radio and observed
have special markings on them to help a pilot in the air physically and by radar.
to tell that it is a runway (and not a road) and to help
them when they are landing or taking off. ○ Runway 10. PARKING ○ Parking is a specific area of airport at
markings are white. ○ Most runways have numbers on which vehicles park.
the end. ○ Some airports have more than one runway
Factors affecting selection of site for Airport
going in the same direction, so they add letters to the
1. Atmospheric and meteorological condition 2.
end of the number R for right, C for center, and L for
Availability of land for expansion 3. Availability of
left.
utilities 4. Development of surrounding area 5. Economy
2. LANDING AREA: ○ It is used for landing and take of construction 6. Closeness of other Airport 7. Ground
off operation of an aircraft accessibility 8. Grading, drainage and soil characteristics
9. Surrounding obstruction 10. Wind data
3. TERMINAL AREA: ○ The transmission of
passengers and goods from ground to air takes place in 1. Atmospheric and meteorological condition
the terminal area. It consist of : ● Terminal building ● ○ Presence of fog or smoke reduces the visibility ○ Poor
Apron ● Parking area ● Hangars visibility lowers the traffic capacity of an airport ○
Detailed analysis of available weather reports of all the
4. TERMINAL BUILDING (Airport Terminal) ○ potential site is essential.
These buildings are the spaces where passengers board
or alight from flights. ○ These buildings house all the 2. Availability of land for expansion ○ It will be
necessary facilities for passengers to check-in their necessary to lengthen the runways to provide additional
luggage and clear the customs. ○ The terminals can support facilities and to expand terminal facilities ○
house cafe, relaxing room to serve as waiting areas for Therefore it is necessary to acquire land in advance
passengers. ○ Ticket counters, luggage check-in or
3. Availability of utilities ○ An airport has to be
transfer, security checks and customs are the basics of
provided with utilities like water, Electric
all airport terminals. ○ Large airports can have more
power,telephone etc.
than one terminal that are connected to one another
through walkways or sky-bridges 4. Development of surrounding area ○ It is very
important because , the airport facilities ,particularly
5. APRON ○ Aircraft aprons are the areas where the
noise are often quite objectionable to the neighbours of
aircraft park. ○ Aprons are also sometimes called ramps.
the airport ○ Closeness of airport site to the residential
○ They vary in size, from areas that may hold five or ten
area, school, and hospitals should be avoided when ever
small planes, to the very large areas that the major
possible
airports have.
5. Economy of construction: ○ The estimate should
6. TAXIWAY ○ A taxiway is a path on an airport
be prepared for various site that includes land cost,
connecting runways with ramps, hangars, terminals and
clearing and grading of land, drainage, removal of
other facilities. ○ They mostly have hard surface such as
hazards, paving, lighting, construction of buildings,
asphalt or concrete, although smaller airports
access roads and automobile parking areas. ○ Select
sometimes use gravel or grass.
from one which is economical for us.
6. Closeness of other Airport : ○ Airports should be Types of Wind Rose Diagrams Type-I : Shows
located at a sufficient distance apart So that landing in Direction and Duration of wind only Type-II : Shows
one airport does not interfere with the other airport ○ Direction, Duration and Speed/intensity of wind
Minimum distance between the adjacent airport will
depends upon the volume and type of air traffic Wind Rose: Type-I Procedure to use Wind Rose
Diagram Type-I • Step-1: Draw concentric circles
7. Ground accessibility ○ Site should be selected showing wind durations • Step-2: Divide the circles into
that it is readily accessible to the users. ○ Passenger 16 segments • Step-3: Plot the wind duration along
time is more concerned rather than the actual time in respective directions and join the points • Step-4:
air travel. ○ The time required to reach an airport not Runway is oriented along the longest line in the diagram
exceeds 30 minutes. ○ It should be located adjacent to
the main highway

8. Grading, drainage and soil characteristics

○ Grading and drainage play an important role in the
construction and maintenance of airport. ○ A valley site
require less grading but possibility of flood should be
investigated ○ Permeable materials i.e. gravel, sand soils
are suitable for airport construction.
Wind Rose Type-II Procedure to use Wind Rose
9. Surrounding obstruction: ○ The airport should be Diagram Type-II • Step 1: Draw concentric circles
clear of the obstruction likely to interfere with landing showing wind speed • Step-2: Mark 16 directions, each
and take off operation of aircrafts ○ Obstruction may be with a wind coverage area of 22.5 • Step 3: Draw radial
either tree/ stepping ground/ building/ towers etc . directions to show wind coverage area. This creates
segments in which wind coverage (% time) is written •
10. Wind data: ○ Runway is oriented by wind data. ○
Step-4: Mark Calm Period • Step-5: Fill wind coverage in
Wind data i.e. direction, duration and intensity collected
designated segment for each direction from the wind
over a min 5 yrs
data • Step-6: Determination of Runway Orientation
RUNWAY ORIENTATION Runway are always •Place transparent strip/template of width equal to the
oriented in the direction of prevailing winds. The reason crosswind component (at the same scale) along a
behind this is to utilize the maximum force of the wind direction • Add the wind coverage percentages
at the time of take-off and landing of an aircraft. superimposed by the strip + Calm period. • Then place
Following points need to be considered while orienting the strip along all other directions Final Orientation ; •
the runways: • Avoiding delay in the landing, taxiing and Wind Coverage = Sum of the percentages under the strip
take-off operations. • Providing the shortest taxi for each direction + Calm Period • The direction with
distance possible from the terminal area to the ends of maximum wind coverage is the direction along which
runway. • Making provision for maximum taxiways so runway is oriented • In case wind coverage is less than
that the landing aircraft can leave the runway as quickly 95% - Another runway is constructed • For busy
as possible to the terminal area. airports, the wind coverage may be increased to 98% or
100%.
WIND ROSE DIAGRAM • It is used in working out the
orientation of runway • For the airport, the average
wind data of 5 to 10 years period are collected and
represented graphically in the form of a chart known as
wind rose. • It is a compass shaped diagram • It exhibits
wind direction, duration of wind movement at different
speed ranges • It shows wind speeds
Wind Coverage : Wind coverage of airport is the
percentage of time in a year during which the cross wind
component remains within the limit or runway system is
not restricted because of excessive cross wind. ICAO
recommends minimum wind coverage of 95%
CORRECTION FOR ELEVATION,TEMPERATURE &
Calm Period : This is the period for which the wind GRADIENT
intensity remains below 6 km/hr. It does not influence CORRECTION FOR ELEVATION ○ As elevation
the landing and take off operations because of low wind increases air density reduces → reduces the lift of the
velocity. Thus wind velocities less than 6 km/h does not Aircraft → aircraft requires greater ground speed to rise
have influence on fixing runway operations. into air ○ To achieve greater speed longer length of
runway is required. ○ ICAO( International Civil Aviation
BASIC RUNWAY LENGTH The length of runway Organization) recommends that the basic runway length
based on the following assumed conditions is known as should be increased at the rate of 7% per 300 m rise in
basic runway length. 1. Airport is situated at the sea elevation above the mean sea level.
level 2. The standard temperature of 15 degree Celsius
exists at the airport 3. The standard temperature is Correction for elevation = 7/ 100 × 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛/ 300 ×
maintained along the runway 4. Runway is levelled in 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
the longitudinal direction (ie., zero gradient) 5. No wind CORRECTION FOR TEMPERATURE ○ The standard
is blowing on the runway 6. There is no wind blowing to
temperature at the airport site can be determined by
the way of destination 7.Aircraft is loaded to its full
reducing the std. mean sea level temperature of 15 ° C
loading capacity
at the rate of 6.5 °C per 1000 m rise in elevation.
Normal Landing case The aircraft should come to a Standard temperature at airport = 15-(6.5 × elevation
stop within 60% of landing distance assuming that the of airport /1000)
pilot makes an approach at the proper speed and
crosses the threshold of the runway at a height of 15m. Correction for temperature =1/100 × Difference in
The runway of full strength is to be provided for the temperature ×Runway length
entire landing distance.
CORRECTION FOR GRADIENTS ○ As gradient
become steep, more consumption of energy happens
and longer length of runway will be required to attain
desired ground speed. ○ Runway length after being
corrected for elevation and temperature should further
being increased at the rate of 20 % for every 1 % of
Normal Take-off case The take-off distance must be effective gradient
115% of the actual distance the aircraft uses to reach a
Effective gradient =maximum difference in elevation
height of 10.5 m. It requires a clearway at the end of the
between the highest and lowest point/total length of
runway in the direction of take off. This should not be
runway
less than 150m wide. The upward slope of clearway
from the end of the runway shall not exceed 1.25%. Cg=20/100 × effective gradient/1 × basic runway length

Correction For Calculating The Length of

Runways:

Stopping in Emergency Require either clearway or a 1. Correction for elevation: International Civil
stopway, or both. (Stopway: Used for decelerating the Aviation Organization (ICAO) recommends that the basic
aircraft and bringing it to a stop during an aborted runway length should be increased at the rate of 7% per
takeoff.) 300m rise in elevation above MSL.

2. Correction for temperature: The length

corrected for elevation, shall be further increased at the
rate of 1% for each degree centigrade by which the is available for landing. Runway threshold markings
aerodromes reference temperature exceeds the come in two configurations. They either consist of eight
standard temperature at the elevation of the site. longitudinal stripes of uniform dimensions disposed
symmetrically about the runway centerline or the
Correction for gradient: FAA (Federal Aviation number of stripes is related to the runway width.
Administration) recommend that the gradient
correction shall be applied at the rate of 20% of the RUNWAY CONFIGURATIONS There are four main
length corrected for altitude & temperature for each 1% types of runway configurations: Single Intersecting
of effective runway, gradient to be determined by Parallel Open-V
dividing the maximum difference in the runway centre
line elevation by the total length of the runway Single runway Single runways consist of only one
runway that accommodates both take offs and landings.
RUNWAY MARKINGS 1. Runway center line marking The configuration is often seen in small regional airports
2. Runway edge strips 3. Runway numbering 4. Touch that do not have heavy amounts of air traffic. Single
down or loading zone 5. Threshold marking 6. Two or runways can handle up to 100 flights per hour in ideal
more parallel runways conditions, both inbound and outbound. The operating
process allows for aircraft to land and take off within a
Runway Designators The runway number is the short amount of time as aircraft in either direction do
whole number nearest one‐tenth the magnetic azimuth not have to wait for the other aircraft to clear the
of the centerline of the runway, measured clockwise airspace.
from the magnetic north. The letters, differentiate
between left (L), right (R), or center (C) parallel runways, Intersecting runway Intersecting runways consist of
as applicable: For two parallel runways “L” “R.” & For two or more runways that cross paths and share ground
three parallel runways “L” “C” “R.” Runway with one another. These runways are often used in
Centerline Marking The runway centerline identifies locations with strong winds and/or limited expansion
the center of the runway and provides alignment space. When wind speeds are not favourable for arriving
guidance during takeoff and landings. The centerline and departing aircraft, one of the intersecting runways
consists of a line of uniformly spaced stripes and gaps. will go unused. The benefit of having intersecting
runways is that one will always be available no matter
Runway Aiming Point Marking The aiming point
the wind direction and speed. In low wind conditions,
marking serves as a visual aiming point for a landing
both runways can be used but take offs and landings
aircraft. These two rectangular markings consist of a
need to be heavily monitored to avoid collisions at the
broad white stripe located on each side of the runway
intersecting points.
centerline and approximately 1,000 feet from the
landing threshold. Runway Touchdown Zone Parallel runway Parallel runways are defined as those
Markers The touchdown zone markings identify the in which more than one runway is present and situated
touchdown zone for landing operations. These markings at the same angle. The capacity of parallel runways
consist of groups of one, two, and three rectangular bars depends on the number of runways in parallel and the
symmetrically arranged in pairs about the runway spacing between them. The spacing between parallel
centerline. Runway Side Stripe Marking Runway runways is classified as close, intermediate, or far apart
side stripes delineate the edges of the runway. They in distance. Close parallel is defined as having between
provide a visual contrast between runway and the 700 and 2500 feet between runways. Due to this
abutting terrain or shoulders. Side stripes consist of proximity, close parallel runways can only be operated
continuous white stripes located on each side of the one at a time. Runways that are 2500 to 4300 feet apart
runway Runway Shoulder Markings Runway are called intermediate spaced runways. Each runway
can operate at the same time but only if one is used for
shoulder stripes may be used to supplement runway
arrivals and the other is used for departures. If there are
side stripes to identify pavement areas contiguous to
more than two runways in parallel, the runways will
the runway sides that are not intended for use by
alternate as arriving and departing runways.
aircraft. Runway Threshold Markings A threshold
marking helps identify the beginning of the runway that
Open-V runway Open-V runways are those that are
oriented in different directions that do not intersect. If
wind speeds were strong enough in one direction, the
runway unfavourable to the prevailing wind would be
inoperable. The remaining runway would act as if were
at a single runway airport. Open-V runways can further
be classified in two different ways: converging or
diverging. A converging layout is one in which
operations move towards the point at which the
runways make the V shape. Diverging runways are the
opposite as operations start at the end of the V shape
and move outwards from each other

TAXIWAY Taxiway are defined as paths on the airfield

surface for the taxing of aircraft and are intended to
provide linkage between one part of the airfield. Aircraft
movement on taxiways are essentially ground
movements and are relatively slow.

AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL Air traffic control (ATC) is a

service provided by ground based Controllers who direct
the Aircraft on the ground and through controlled Air
Space and can provide advisory Services to aircraft in
noncontrolled Air Space.

Objectives The objectives of the air traffic services

shall be to: • prevent collisions between aircraft. •
prevent collisions between aircraft on the maneuvering
area and obstructions on that area. • expedite and
maintain an orderly flow of air traffic. • provide advice
and information useful for the safe and efficient conduct
of flights. • notify appropriate organizations regarding
aircraft in need of search and rescue aid, and assist such
organizations as required

Operations Linked with ATC • Airport Control •

Ground Control • Local Control / Air Control • Approach
and Terminal Control
 MODULE 3 space refer to ability of eyes to judge the space depth
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING; Branch of engineering and time.
which deals with the improvement of traffic performance Hearing .Hearing is an aid to the road-user which can
of road networks and terminals Branch of engineering at times be very vital. The sound of a horn or the sound
which deals with the application of scientific principles, of the nearing vehicle itself can alert a pedestrian to
tools, techniques and findings for safe, rapid, convenient safety.
and economic movement of people a Strength: Though strength is not an important factor
Objective : to achieve efficient free and rapid flow of in general, lack of strength may make parking
traffic, with least number of traffic accidents. manoeuvres difficult, particularly for heavy vehicles.
Traffic characteristics Road user characteristics Reaction time: The time required to perceive &
Vehicular characteristics. understand the traffic situation & to take the appropriate
ROAD USER CHARACTERISTICS Human element is action is known are action time.
involved in all actions of road users either as pedestrian, Judgment power: Ability to judge the coming
cyclist, cart driver or motorist. situation depends upon experience & one’s own
Factors affecting road user characteristics: a. Physical b. judgment power. Before the actual response, it is the
Mental c. Psychological d. Environmental. right judgment to the steps to be taken to avoid the
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. mishaps.
PERMANENt. Vision Hearing Strength Judgement MENTAL FACTORS Knowledge ,skill, intelligence,
power Reaction power. experience and literacy Knowledge of vehicle
TEMPORARY . Fatigue Alcohol, drug Illness, disability characteristics, traffic behaviour, driving practice, rules of
Anger Climate, season, time. roads & psychology of road users will be quite useful for
Visual Activities of Road Users; Vision is one of the safe traffic coperations.
important factors that affects almost all aspects of
PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS.
highway design & safety. The human eye is the sensory
organ that enables one to see and evaluate the size,
Motivation: People enter the traffic stream for
shape & colour of objects & estimate distances and business, social, recreation, marketing purposes. They
speed of bodies.. may be intent on going to a regular place of employment
,to market ,to rail ,water, air or other terminals.
The various aspects of human vision which
Intelligence: The capacity of the road user to be
affects the road user are:
aware of external factors pertinent to his behaviour in
1. Visual acuity (eye sight) traffic and to adapt and adjust himself in accord with his
2. Peripheral vision : It deals with total visual field intents and motives required affair degree of
for the two eye. Angle of peripheral vision ,Horizontal intelligence.
direction = 160 °Vertical direction = 115 °. Learning: The learning process, while dependent on
3. Eye movement motivation, intelligence, and other modifying factors,
4. Colourvision. Under a good light many colours develops the skills, habits and abilities of road users to
may differentiate but as light decreases, some colours respond properly to the total environment of traffic
are less visible. Colour blindness is a condition where coperations.
one cannot distinguish between different colour. Emotion: Usually emotion strongly motivates the
5. Glare vision and Recovery: Adaptability to light road user to inefficient, random adjustment. Fear, anger,
is an important factor of vision. Eye takes more time toad worry, and other similar emotional states tend to create
a pt when we go from light to dark. Glare recovery time disorganized reaction and behaviour.
is the time required to recover from the effect of glare Individual Difference: Because of the modifying
after the light source is passed. factors of motivation, intelligence, learning and emotion
6. Perception of time and space : Perception of there is a great variation among users of the highway.
 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS. Possible capacity is the maximum number of
○ Traffic stream characteristics. ○ Facilities to the traffic vehicles that can pass a given point on a lane or roadway
○ Atmospheric conditions.○ Locality, land use & during one hour under prevailing road way and traffic
activities. conditions. The possible capacity of a road is generally
VEHICULAR CHARACTERISTICS. much lower than the basic capacity as the prevailing road
Vehicle Dimensions. Width ,height &length of way and traffic conditions are not ideal. When the
vehicle Width of the vehicle affects the width of traffic prevailing roadway and traffic conditions approach the
lanes, shoulders and parking facilities Height of the ideal conditions, the possible capacity would also
vehicle affects the clearance to be provided under approach the basic capacity. In a worst case when the
structures such as over bridges, under bridges, electric prevailing traffic condition is so bad that due to traffic
and other service lines Length of the vehicle affects the congestion, the traffic may come to a standstill, the
design of horizontal alignment, safe over taking distance, possible capacity of the road may approach zero. Thus
and parking facilities. the value of possible capacity varies from zero to basic
capacity. For the purpose of design, neither basic
Weight of Loaded Vehicle Affects the design of
capacity nor possible capacity can be used as they
pavement thickness &gradients The limiting gradients
represent two extreme cases of roadway and traffic
are governed by the weight & power of the heavy vehicle.
conditions, but practical capacity is used.
Power of Vehicle Affects the gradients Total
Practical or design capacity is the maximum
resistance to traction consisting of inertia, rolling
number of vehicle that can pass a given point on a lane
resistance, air resistance& grade resistance.
or roadway during one hour, without traffic density being
Speed of vehicle Affects; Sight distances Super so great as to cause unreasonable delay, hazard or
elevation Length of transition curve Limiting radius on restriction to freedom movement of traffic under the
horizontal curves Width of pavement Design gradient prevailing road way and traffic conditions.
Capacity of traffic lanes. Braking Characteristics Importance of capacity in highway
Depends on design & type of braking system and its
transportation studies. 1. The design of a highway
efficiency. Affects the safety of vehicle operation,
facility is possible only when capacity is related to the
stopping distance & spacing.
projected requirements of traffic. The design features
TRAFFIC CAPACITY. Traffic capacity is the ability of governed by capacity are the highway type, number of
a road way to accommodate traffic volume It is lanes, width of lanes, inter sections and weaving
expressed as the maximum number of vehicle in a lane sections.2. By comparing the present traffic volume with
or a road that can pass a given point in unit time, i.e., the capacity of existing highway networks, their
vehicles per hour per lane or roadway. adequacy or deficiency can be assessed. Transportation
Capacity and volume: Volume represents an planning studies can be benefitted by this assessment. 3.
actual rate of flow and responds to variations in traffic Improvements and changes in the geometric features,
demand Capacity indicates a capability or maximum junction features, traffic control devices and traffic
rate of flow with a certain level of service characteristics management measures can be planned effectively if
that can be carried by the roadway. capacity studies are considered.
Basic capacity is the maximum number of passenger TIME HEADWAY AND SPACE HEADWAY. The
cars that can pass a given point on a lane or roadway time interval between the passage of successive vehicles
during one hour under ideal road way and traffic moving in the same lane and measured from head to
conditions which can possibly be attained. Two roads head as they pass a point on the road is known as the
having the same physical features will have the same time headway. The distance between successive
basiccapacityirrespectiveoftrafficconditions,astheyareass vehicles moving in the same lane measured head to head
umedtobeideal. Thus basic capacity is the theoretical at any instance is the space headway or the spacing of
capacity. the vehicles in the stream.
 Determination of theoretical maximum traffic consisting of passenger cars only. It is difficult
capacity Basic capacity of a single lane : to estimate the traffic volume and capacity of roadway
facilities under mixed traffic flow, unless the different
C = 1000 𝑉 /𝑆 Where,
vehicle classes are converted to one common standard
C-capacity of a single lane in vehicle per hour V-speed in
vehicle unit. The passenger car is considered as the
kmph S - average centre to centre spacing of vehicles,
standard vehicle unit to convert the other vehicle
when the follow one behind the other as a queue or
classes and this unit is called Passenger Car Unit or
space head way in m. S = the average length of vehicle
PCU. Thus in mixed traffic flow, the traffic volume
plus the clear spacing between the and capacity are generally expressed as PCU per hour
vehiclesinthestream37. or PCU/lane/hour and the traffic density as PCU per
Space gap allowed by the driver of a followed vehicle
km length of lane. The PCU may be considered as a
depends on several factors such as: Speed of leading measure of the relative space requirement of a vehicle
and following vehicles. Type and characteristics of the class compared to that of a passenger car under a
two vehicles. Driver characteristics of the following specified set of road way, traffic and other
vehicle. Traffic volume to capacity ratio of the road conditions. If the addition of one vehicle of a
section at the instant or the level of service. Proportion particular class in the traffic stream produces the
of vehicle classes in the stream. Road geometry. same effect as that due to the addition of one
Environmental factors. The space gap allowed by the passenger car, then that vehicle class is considered
following vehicle in a traffic stream is assumed to be equivalent to the passenger car with a PCU value equal
equal to the distance travelled during the reaction time to 1. And if the addition of one vehicle per hour in a
of the driver, assuming that the braking distances of the traffic stream produces the same effect as the addition
lead and the following vehicles are approximately equal. of say, x passenger cars per hour ,then one vehicle of
𝑆𝑔 = 𝑣𝑡 = 0.278𝑉𝑡Otherwise;𝑆𝑔 = 0.278𝑉𝑡 +𝑉2 /254𝑓 that type is considered to be equivalent to x PCUs.
𝑆 = 𝑆𝑔 + 𝐿 With increase in speed of the traffic The PCU value of a vehicle class may be considered as
stream, the time headway decreases and after the ratio of the capacity of a roadway when there are
reaching a minimum value at an optimum speed, starts passenger cars only to the capacity of the same road
increasing. The maximum theoretical capacity of a way when there are vehicles of that class only.
traffic lane may therefore be obtained if the minimum LEVEL OF SERVICE. The service which a roadway
time headway Ht is known. offers to the road user can vary under different
𝐶 =3600 /𝐻𝑡 .Ht is the minimum time headway in volumes of traffic. The Highway Capacity Manual has
second. introduced the concept of Level of Service (LOS) to
PASSENGER CAR UNIT (PCU). denote the level of facility one can derive from a road
Different classes of vehicles such as cars, vans, under different operating characteristics and traffic
buses, trucks, auto rickshaw, motor cycles, pedal volumes. The level of service can be defined as a
cycles, etc. are found to use the roadway without qualitative measure describing the operational
separate lanes on most of the roads in developing conditions within a traffic stream and their perception
countries like India. The flow of traffic with by motorists or passengers.
unrestricted mixing of different vehicle classes on the The following are the factors which might be
considered in evaluating the level of service. 1. Speed
road ways forms the mixed traffic flow. The different
and travel time. 2. Traffic interruptions or restrictions,
vehicle classes have a wide range of static
with due consideration to the number of stops per km,
characteristics such as length, width, etc. and dynamic
delays involved and the speed changes necessary to
characteristics such as speed, acceleration, etc. Apart
maintain pace in the traffic stream. 3. Freedom to
from these, the driver behaviour of the different
manoeuvre to maintain the desired operating speeds.
vehicle classes also varies considerably.
4. Driving comfort and convenience reflecting the
Therefore the mixed traffic flow characteristics are roadway and traffic conditions. 5. Economy with due
very much complex when compared to homogeneous consideration to operating cost of the vehicle. It is
difficult to incorporate all these factors in identifying a LevelofserviceF– Forced flow operations at low
particular level of service in the absence of accurate speeds, where volumes are below capacity.
data The HCM(Highway Capacity Manuel), Conditions result from queues of vehicles formed from
therefore, utilises travel speed, traffic volume and a restriction downstream. The section will be serving
ratio of the service volume to capacity, depending as a storage area during parts or all of the peakhour.
upon the particular problem. The operating conditions Speeds are reduced substantially and stoppages may
for the six levels of service selected by HCM are. occur for short or long periods of time. In the extreme,
Level of Service A. both speed and volume can drop to zero.
Free flow, with low volumes and high speeds with Factors affecting Capacity and LOS.
little or no delay Traffic density is low, with speeds 1. BASE CONDITION
controlled by driver and physical roadway Base conditions assume good weather, good pavement
conditions. Little or no restriction in traffic conditions, users familiar with the facility and no
manoeuvers due to presence of other vehicles. obstruction to traffic flow. Many calculations adopt a
LevelofserviceB– set of specified standard conditions, which must be
Zone of stable flow, with operating speeds beginning adjusted to account for prevailing conditions that do
to be restricted some what by traffic conditions. not match. Such standard conditions are termed as
Drivers still have reasonable freedom to select their base conditions. Base conditions for uninterrupted-
speed and lane of operation. The lower limit(lowest flow facilities include: ○
speed, highest volume)of this level of service has been Lanewidthsof3.6m.
associated with service volumes used in the design of ○Clearanceof1.8mbetweentheedgeofthetravellanesan
rural highways. dthenearest obstructions. ○ Free-flowspeedof100
LevelofserviceC– kmph for multilane highways. ○ Only passenger cars in
Still in the zone of stable flow, but speeds and traffic the traffic stream. ○ Level terrain. ○ Non on-passing
manoeuvers are more closely controlled by higher zones on two-lane highways. ○ No restrictions to
volumes. The drivers are restricted to select their through traffic due to traffic control or turning
own speed, lane changing or overtaking manoeuvers. vehicles. ○ No curb parking on the approaches to
A relatively satisfactory operating speed is still intersection. ○ No local transit buses stopping in the
obtained with service volumes suitable for urban travel lanes. ○ No pedestrians at intersection.
design practice. 2. ROADWAYCONDITIONS.
LevelofserviceD– Roadway conditions include geometric and other
Approaches unstable flow, with tolerable operating elements, which includes: Number of lanes. The
speeds being maintained though considerably affected type of facility and its development environment.
by changes in operating conditions. Fluctuations in Lane widths. Shoulder widths and lateral clearances.
volume and temporary restrictions to flow may cause Design speed. Horizontal and vertical alignments.
substantial drops in operating speeds. Drivers have Availability of exclusive turn lanes at intersections.
little freedom to manoeuvre, comfort and convenience 3. TRAFFICCONDITIONS.
are low, but conditions can be tolerated for short Traffic conditions that influence capacities and
periods of time. service levels include vehicle type and lane or
LevelofserviceE. directional distribution.
Cannot be described by speed alone; but represents A) Vehicle type The entry of heavy vehicles that is,
operations at even lower operating speeds than in vehicles other than passenger cars into the traffic
level D with volumes at or near the capacity of the stream affects the number of vehicles that can be
highway. At capacity, speeds are typically 50 kmph served. Heavy vehicles are vehicles that have more
but not always in the neighbour hood. Flow is than four tyres touching the pavement. Trucks, buses
unstable and there may be stop pages of momentary and recreational vehicles are the three groups of
heavy vehicles considered. Heavy vehicles adversely
duration.
affect traffic in two ways: ○ They are larger than
passenger cars and occupy more road way space; and operations. Stop signs also affect capacity. A traffic
○ They have poor operating capabilities than signal designates times when each movement is
passenger cars, particularly with respect to permitted; however, a stop sign at a two-way stop-
acceleration, deceleration and the ability to maintain controlled intersection only designates the right-of-
speed on upgrades. The second impact is more way to the major street. Motorists traveling on the
critical. The in ability of heavy vehicles to keep pace minor street must stop and then find gaps in the major
with passenger cars in many situations creates large traffic flow to maneuver. The capacity of minor
gaps in the traffic stream, which are difficult to fill by approaches, therefore, depends on traffic conditions
passing maneuvers. The resulting inefficiencies in the on the major street Restriction of curb parking can
use of roadway space cannot be completely overcome. increase the number of lanes available on a roadway.
This effect is particularly harmful on continuous steep Turn restrictions can eliminate conflicts at
upgrades, where the difference in operating intersections, increasing capacity. Lane use controls
capabilities is more, and on two-lane highways, where can create reversible lanes. One way street routings
passing requires use of the opposing travel lane. can eliminate conflicts between left turns and
Heavy vehicles also can affect downgrade operations, opposing traffic.
particularly when down grades are steep enough to TRAFFIC STREAM CHARACTERISTICS.
require operation in a low gear. In these cases, heavy The traffic stream has some parameters on which
vehicles must operate at speeds slower than the characteristics can be predicted. The parameters
passenger cars, forming gaps in the traffic stream. can be mainly classified as: ○ Measurements of
The operational characteristics of trucks vary based quantity, which includes density and flow of traffic and
on the weight of its load and its engine performance. measurements of quality which includes speed.
The drivers, if not professionals causes a negative 1. SPEED
impact on the traffic stream. The impact of buses on Speed is considered as a quality measurement of
traffic results from the discharge and pickup of travel as the drivers and passengers will be concerned
passengers on the roadway. The performance more about the speed of the journey than the design
characteristics of buses are considered to be similar aspects of the traffic. It is defined as the rate of
to those of trucks. motion in distance per unit of time. Mathematically
B) Directional and lane distribution Directional speed or velocity 𝑣 is given by,𝑣 =𝑑 /𝑡 where, 𝑣 is
distribution has a dramatic impact on two-lane rural the speed of the vehicle in m/s, 𝑑 is distance travelled
highway operation, which achieves optimal conditions in min time𝑡seconds. Speed of different vehicles will
when the amount of traffic is about the same in each vary with respect to time and space. Several types of
direction. Capacity analysis for multilane highways speed can be defined: Spot speed, Running speed,
focuses on a single direction of flow. But each Journey speed, Time mean speed and Space
direction of the facility is usually designed to mean speed..
accommodate the peak flow rate in the peak direction. Spot Speed Instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a
Typically, morning peak traffic occurs in one direction specified location. Used to design the geometry of
and evening peak traffic occurs in the opposite road like horizontal and vertical curves, super
direction. Lane distribution also is a factor on elevation etc. Location and size of signs, design of
multilane facilities. Typically, the shoulder lane carries signals, safe speed, and speed zone determination,
less traffic than other lanes. require the spot speed data. Accident analysis, road
4. CONTROLCONDITIONS For interrupted-flow maintenance, and congestion also use spot speed data
facilities, the control of time for movement of specific as the basic input. Spot speed can be measured using
traffic flows is critical to capacity, service flow rates an enoscope, pressure contact tubes or direct timing
and level of service. The most critical type of control is procedure or radar speedometer or by time lapse
the traffic signal. The type of control in use, signal photographic methods
phasing, allocation of green time, cycle length and the Running Speed Average speed maintained over
relationship with adjacent control measures affect a particular course while the vehicle is moving and is
found by dividing the length of the course by the time eventually determine the design of a highway and the
duration the vehicle was in motion, i.e. this speed related facilities. Thus, volume is treated as the most
doesn’t consider the time during which the vehicle is important of all the parameters of traffic stream.
brought to a stop, or has to wait till it has a clear road 3. DENSITY
ahead. The running speed will always be more than Density or concentration is defined as the number of
or equal to the journey speed, as delays are not vehicles occupying a given length of highway or lane at
considered in calculating the running speed. a given instant of time and is generally expressed as
Journey Speed Effective speed of the vehicle on a vehicles per km. If the number of vehicles in one lane
journey between two points and is the distance of the road of length 𝑥at any point of time is n, and
between the two points divided by the total time taken then density k is given by, Density is the measure
for the vehicle to complete the journey including any most directly related to traffic demand. Also it
stopped time. The spot speed here may vary from measures the proximity of vehicles in the stream
zero to some maximum in excess of the running speed. which in turn affects the freedom to maneuver and
The running speed will always be more than or equal comfortable
to the journey speed, as delays are not considered in INTERSECTIONS
calculating the running speed. An intersection is defined as a road junction where
TimemeanSpeedand Spacemean Speed two or more roads join or cross, within which are
Average speed of all the vehicles passing a point on a included the roadway and roadside facilities for traffic
highway over some specified time period. It is the movements in that area. An intersection leg is that
simple average of spot speed. Space mean speed is part of any one of the roadways radiating from an
defined as the average speed of all the vehicles intersection which is outside of the area of the
occupying a given section of a highway at a given intersection proper. Traffic intersections are
instant. It is the harmonic mean of the spot speed. complex locations on any highway because vehicles
Both mean speeds will always be different from each moving in different direction want to occupy same
other except when all vehicles are traveling at the space at the same time. In addition, the pedestrians
same speed. Time mean speed is a point also seek same space for crossing. Hence
measurement while space mean speed is a measure intersections represent potentially dangerous
relating to length of highway or lane. The locations from point of view of traffic safety.
relationship between time mean speed and space TYPES OF INTERSECTIONS.
mean speed is given by:vt=vt+ 𝜎𝑠2/vs where 𝜎𝑠 is
- AT GRADE INTERSECTIONS
the standard deviation of space mean speed. From
All road intersections which meet at about the same
the equation it is clear that time mean speed will
level allowing traffic manoeuvres like merging,
always be greater than space mean speed.
diverging, crossing and weaving are called at-grade
2. FLOW
intersections. The basic requirements of inter
Flow or volume is defined as the number of vehicles
section at grade are:○ The area of conflict should be as
that pass a point on a highway or a given lane or
small as possible.○ The relative speed and particularly
direction of a highway during a specific time interval.
the angle of approach of vehicle should be small. ○
The measurement is carried out by counting the
Adequate visibility should be available for vehicles
number of vehicles, n passing a particular point in one
approaching the intersection. ○ Sudden change of path
lane in a defined period t .Then the flow q expressed in
should be avoided. ○ Geometric features like turning
vehicles/hour is given by q=n/t. Volume in general
radius and width of pavement should bead equately
is measured using different ways like manual
provided. o Proper signs should be provided on the
counting, detector/sensor counting, moving-car
road approaching inter section to warn the drivers. o
observer method, etc. Mainly the volume study
Good lighting at night is desirable. o If the number of
establishes the importance of a particular route with
pedestrians and cyclists are large, separate provision
respect to the other routes, the distribution of traffic
should be made for their safety at intersections with
on road, and the fluctuations inflow. All which
high volume of fast moving traffic At-grade
intersections may be further classified as, as per the following criteria: Urban streets - If the
1. Unchannelised Intersections estimated traffic volumes within the next 5 years are
Inunchannelisedintersections,theintersectionareaispa in excess of the capacity of the at-grade intersection.
vedandthereis Rural highways - If the ADT on the cross road within
absolutelynorestrictiontovehiclestouseanypartofinters the next 5 years exceeds5000. Grade separation is to
ectionarea. Hence the unchannelised (all-paved) be provided across existing railway lines if the product
intersections are the lowest class of intersection and of ADT(fast vehicles only)and the number of trains per
easiest in the design. But they are most complex in day exceeds 50000 within next 5 years. For new
traffic operations resulting in maximum conflict area constructions such as bye-passes grade
and more number of accidents, unless controlled by separationshouldbeprovidedwhenthisfigureisgreatert
traffic signals or police. One of the crossing vehicles han25,000.
will have to stop while the other proceeds. When no Types of grade-separated inter sections:
additional pavement width for turning movement is ○ Grade-separated intersections with out interchange
provided ,it is called Plain Intersection. But when the ○ Grade-separated intersections with interchange
pavement is widened at the intersection area, by a Interchange is a system whereby facility is provided
traffic lane or more, it is known as Flared Intersection. for movement of traffic between two or more
2.Channelised intersection roadways at different levels in the grade separated
is achieved by introducing islands into the junction. A structure without interchange is an over-
intersectional area, thus reducing the total conflict bridge or underpass or flyover, whereby the traffic at
area available in the unchannelised intersection. different levels moves separately without a provision
These islands help to channelise turning traffic, to for an inter change between Underpass- An under
control their speed and angle of approach and to pass or a tunnel is an underground passageway,
decrease the conflict area at the intersection. completely enclosed except for openings at each end.
Channelisation may be either partial or complete with A tunnel may be for foot or vehicular road traffic or for
divisional and direction al is land sand medians. rail traffic. Overpass - An overpass also known as a
Since there is a better control on the traffic entering flyover, is a bridge, road, railway or similar structure
and leaving the intersection, channelized intersections that crosses over another road or railway. A
are considered superior to the unchannelised type. pedestrian overpass allows pedestrians safe crossing
However one of the crossing vehicles will have to stop over busy roads without impacting traffic. And railway
while the other proceeds. overpasses are used to replace at-grade crossing as a
3.rotary intersection safer alternative them.
is an enlarged road intersection where all converging Grade-separated interchanges can be classified
vehicles are forced to move round a large central according to the number of legs the intersection serves
island in one direction (clock wise direction) before as: Three-leg interchange T interchange Y
they can weave out of traffic flow into their respective interchange Partial rotary interchange Four-leg
directions radiating from the central island, The interchange Diamond interchange Half clover
main objects of providing a rotary are to eliminate the leaf interchange Clover leaf interchange Rotary
necessity of stopping even for crossing streams of interchange Directional interchange
vehicles and to reduce the area of conflict. The
Multi-leg interchange Rotary Interchange.
crossing of vehicles is avoided by allowing all vehicles
to merge into the streams around the rotary and then
THREE-LEG INTERCHANGE
to diverge out to the desired radiating road. Thus the ○ If one of the intersection legs meets a highway at
crossing manoeuvre is converted into weaving approximately right angle but does not cross it, and if
manoeuvre. the junction is provided with inter changing facility
,the junction is called at T inter change. ○ If the
GRADE SEPERATED INTERSECTIONS
intersection angle is acute or obtuse, the junction is
The current Indian practice requires grade
called a Y interchange. ○ A widely used form of a T or Y
separation across streets and highways to be provided
interchange is a trumpet. ○ These designs can be area is a very complex problem. Area traffic control
adopted for junctions of major streets with system with co-ordinated signal network is to be
expressway. implemented with the help of advanced technology.
Diamond Interchange Need for co-ordinated control of signals arises on a
A popular form of interchange in urban locations main traffic route when it is desirable to reduce delays
involving a major minor crossing is a diamond and avoid main traffic from having to stop at every
interchange. It can be designed for relatively narrow junction. When a signal indicates a stop aspect at a
right-of-way of the major road. junction, a queue of vehicles is formed behind the stop
Cloverleaf Interchange line. When the signal changes to green ,the vehicles
The cloverleaf interchange is a four-leg interchange start moving in a platoon. If this platoon is made to
with a single structure and is very popular. It is used meet a green aspect at the next junction no delay is
when two high volume and high speed facilities caused to the vehicles. This principle of linking
intersect each other. Advantages: ○ Through traffic adjacent signals so as to secure maximum benefits to
on both roads is not obstructed. ○ Left-turning traffic the flow of traffic is called co-ordinated control of
as a direct path. ○ Very simple to use and does not signals.
confuse the drivers. Disadvantages: ○ Relatively Objectives of co-ordinated control of signals:
large area is needed. ○ The carriage way are a required ○ To pass the maximum amount of traffic without
is also more than a rotary interchange. ○ The U-turns enforced halts.○ To have minimum overall delay to
are long and operationally difficult. ○ Loop design traffic streams, both in the main and side roads.○ To
speeds above 50kmph are likely to increase the cost. ○ prevent the queue of vehicles at one intersection from
Right-turning traffic has to travel extra distance. ○ The extending and reaching the next intersection.
capacity of the loop is also restricted at about 800- TYPES OF CO-ORDINATED S IGNAL SYSTEM
1200 vehicles per hour. 1. SIMULTANEOUSSYSTEM
Half cloverleaf interchange Under this system, all the signals along a given street
○ When a major road crosses a minor always display the same indication to the same traffic
road(notmorethan3lanes)it is possible to provide a stream at the same time. The division of the cycle time
partial lover leaf. ○ To eliminate only the more critical is the same at all intersections. A master controller is
turning conflicts. employed to keep the series of signals in
Disadvantages: ○ It is not conductive to give
Rotary Interchange
continuous movement of all vehicles. ○ The overall
○ A rotary interchange is another form of 4-leg
speed is often reduced. ○ Because the division of the
interchange. The layout can also be used for
cycle time is the same at all the intersections, in
multi-leg interchange.
efficiency is inevitable at some intersection. Because
Advantages: ○ It occupies relatively less land area. ○
the division of the cycle time is the same at all the inter
The carriage way area is also less than many other
sections, in efficiency is inevitable at some
types. ○ U-turns are easy. ○ Suitable for most sites.
intersection. The simultaneous stoppage of a
Disadvantages: ○ The capacity is limited by the
continuous line of traffic at all intersections often
capacity of the round about itself. ○ The straight
results in difficulty for the side street vehicles in
through traffic on one road is required to weave with
turning in to or crossing the main side street. step .
turning traffic from the other road.
2.ALTERNATESYSTEM(LIMITEDPROGRESSIVESYSTEM
Directional Interchange )
An interchange which gives direct or semi-direct Under this system, consecutive signal installations
connections for the major right-turning movement is along a given road show contrary indications at the
called a directional interchange. These interchanges
same time. This permits the vehicles to travels one
are rather complex and involve complicated multi- block in half the cycle time. This system operates
level structures.
efficiency where the blocks are of equal lengths. It
CO-ORDINATED CONTROL OF SIGNALS. also brings about a certain measure of speed control
Co-ordinated signal system on a road net-work of an
since speeding drivers are stopped at each signal pedestrian crossing requirement Design as per IRC
Disadvantages: ○ The green times for both the main Guidelines Webster’s method.
and side streets have to be Design of isolated signals by Webster’s method.
substantiallyequal,resultinginefficiencyatmostoftheint In this method, the optimum signal cycle CO
ersections. ○ In situations where the block lengths are corresponding to least total delay to the vehicles at the
unequal, the system is not well suited. ○ Adjustments
intersection has been worked out. This is a rational
are difficult for changing traffic conditions.
approach. The field work consists of finding:
3. SIMPLE PROGRESSIVE SYSTEM Saturation flow S per unit time on each approach of
○ In ‘simple progressive system’ a time schedule is
the intersection. Normal flow q on each approach
made to permit, as nearly as possible ,a continuous during the design hour. The ratio y1 = q1/S1 and y2
operation of groups of vehicles along the main road at
= q2/S2 are determined on the approach
a reasonable pre-decided speed. ○ The signals roads1and2.Inthecaseofmixedtraffic,itisnecessarytoco
controlling green phases of the traffic signals along
nvertallthe normal flow and saturation flow values in
this road are scheduled to work at the predetermined
terms of suitable PCU values which should be
time schedule. ○ Though each signal unit may work as determined separately. The saturation flow is to be
fixed time signals, they have equal signal cycle length
obtained from careful field studies by noting the
and are interlinked so as to operate with the required
number of vehicles in the stream of compact flow
time off-sets. ○ The non-stop movement for a platoon
during the green phase and the corresponding time
of vehicles may thus be arranged for the desired
intervals precisely. In the absence of data, saturation
number of intersections on the selected road stretch.
flow values may be assumed as 1850, 1890, 1950,
Disadvantages:
2250, 2550 and 2990 PCU per hour for the approach
○ However on urban roads the traffic volume at each roadway widths (kerb to median or centre line) of 3.0,
intersection may vary considerably; the number of
3.5, 4.0, 4.5, 5.0 and 5.5 m. For widths above 5.5 m, the
intersecting roads may also vary at different junctions.
saturation flow may be assumed as 525PCU per hour
○ Therefore practically it may not be always possible
per metre width. The normal flow of the traffic is also
to provide equal signal cycles at all the intersections
determined on the approach roads from the field
along the selected stretch of the main road and so the studies for the design period (during the peak or off-
simple progressive system may not function
peak hours as the case maybe).
effectively. The optimum signal cycle is given by:
4. FLEXIBLE PROGRESSIVE SYSTEM Co=1.5L+5/1-Y. where L -total lost time per cycle in
○ It is possible to automatically vary the length of
seconds = 2n + R (n is the number of phase and R is
signal cycle and signal phase at each signalized all red-time) and Y=y1+y2,
intersection with the help of sensors to detect vehicle
then G1=y1/Y(Co-L),G2=Y2/y(Co-L).
arrival and connecting to a master computer.○ This is
the most efficient system of all the four types of traffic
signal system.○ This system can function satisfactorily
on selected stretches of urban roads with divided
carriage way or on roads with one-way traffic.○ This
system is an improvement over the simple progressive
system with the following provisions: It is possible
to vary the cycle time and division at each signal
depending upon traffic. It is possible to vary the
offset, thus enabling two or more completely different
plans. It is possible to introduce flashing or shut
down during off-peak hours.
SIGNAL DESIGN METHODS
Trial cycle method Approximate method based on
MODULE 4 .from sleepers, to formation and at the same time
COMPONENT PARTS OF A RAILWAY TRACK; allowing drainage of track .
1. Rails 2. Sleepers 3. Ballast 4. Formation Functions Transfers the load from the sleeper to the
1 RAILS. Unsymmetrical sections ,made up of steel subgrade and then distributes it uniformly over a larger
Laid along two parallel lines over sleepers Placed end to area of the formation Holds the sleepers in position and
end to provide a continuous and level surface for trains prevents the lateral and longitudinal movement, due to
to move. dynamic loads and vibrations of moving trains Imparts
some degree of elasticity to the track Provides easy
TYPES OF RAILS;
means of maintaining the correct levels of the two lines
DOUBLE HEADED RAILS; Three parts Upper table, web
of a track and for correcting track alignment Provides
& lower table Made by wrought iron Both upper &
good drained foundation immediately below the sleepers
lower tables were identical, introduced for doubling the
and helps to protect the top surface of the formation.
life of rails When upper table was worn out, rails can be
FORMATION Subgrade is the naturally occurring soil
reversed in the chair & thus lower table can be brought
which is prepared to receive the ballast The prepared
into use But, long contact with chairs made the surface
flat surface, which is ready to receive the ballast, along
of lower table very rough & smooth running of trains was
with sleepers and rails is called formation Supports the
then impossible. Thus these rails are now-a days
entire track system.
practically out of use.
Functions Provides a smooth and uniform bed for
BULL HEADED RAILS Consists of head, web & foot and
laying the track Bears the load transmitted to it from
are made of steel The head is larger than foot & the
the moving load through the ballast Facilitates drainage
foot is designed only to properly hold the keys with
Provides stability to the track. Can be in the shape of
which the rails are secured to chairs.
an embankment or a cutting When formation is in the
FLAT HEADED RAILS The foot is spread out to form a
shape of a raised bank constructed above the natural
base Invented by Charles Vignoles in 1836 (Vignoles rails)
ground – embankment The formation at a level below
Advantages: No chairs are required. Foot of rails is
the natural ground-cutting Prepared either by
directly spiked to the sleepers. Hence make it economical
providing additional earthwork over the existing ground
Rail is stiffer both vertically and laterally Less liable to
to make an embankment or by excavating the existing
kinks Found to be cheaper than bull headed Greater
ground surface to make a cutting Height of the
stability, longer life of rails & sleepers, reduced
formation depends upon the ground contours and the
maintenance cost, less rail failures.
gradients adopted Side slope of the embankment
GAUGE , Minimum clear distance between the inner
depends upon the shearing strength of the soil and its
faces of the two rails Narrow gauge: 0.762m,Meter
angle of repose Width of the formation depends upon
gauge: 1m , Standard gauge: 1.435m ,Broad gauge:
the number of tracks to be laid, the gauge, and such
1.676m.
other factors.
2Sleepers - Functions To hold the rails to correct gauge
To act an elastic medium in between the ballast and
CONING OF WHEELS. The flanges of wheel is never
rails to absorb To distribute load from the rails to the made flat, but they are in the shape of cone with a slope
index area of ballast underlying it or to the girders in case of 1 in 20 The coning of wheels is mainly done to
of bridges To support the rails at a proper level in maintain the vehicle in the central position with respect
straight tracks and at proper super elevation on curves to the track.
Sleepers also add to the longitudinal and lateral stability Behaviour of coned wheel
of the permanent track on the whole They also provide At level surface; Flanges of wheels have equal
means to rectify track geometry during service life. circumference Equal diameters on both rail Equal
3BALLAST Granular material usually broken stone or pressure on both rail.
brick, shingle or kankar , gravel or sand placed and On curves ; Outer rails has to cover great distance
packed below and around the sleepers to transmit load than inner rail Vehicle has tendency to move sideways
towards outer rail Circumference of flange of outer
wheel will be greater than that of inner wheel transition curve should conform with that of the circular
Helps the outer wheel to cover longer distance than curve
inner rail. FORMS OF TRANSITION CURVE .
CONING OF WHEELS – PURPOSES; It helps outer Euler’s spiral, Froud’s cubic parabola ,etc
wheels to travel longer distance than inner wheels and Froud’s cubic parabola is widely adopted in India, and
helps to negotiate curves smoothly It reduces slipping its eqn is, Y=X3/RL
and skidding of wheels It reduces wear and tear of Y = perpendicular offset of transition curve at a distance
wheel flanges and rails due to rubbing action of flanges X from commencement of the curve, X=distance of any
It gives smooth riding. point on the tangent from commencement of the curve
DISADVANTAGES OF CONING. Smooth riding is R=radius of circular curve L=total length of transition
produced by coning of wheels. But the pressure of the curve .
horizontal component near the inner edge of the rail has SHIFT In order to fit the transition curve, the main
a tendency to wear the rail quickly The horizontal circular curve is to be moved inward by a certain
component tends to turn the rail outwardly and hence distance. This distance is termed as shift . For cubic
the gauge is widened sometimes If no base plates are parabola.
provided, the sleepers under the outer edge of the rail Shift , S = 𝐿2/ 24𝑅 .
are damaged. SUPER ELEVATION • When a train moves along a
DESIGNATION OF A CURVE; A simple curve is curved track, centrifugal force is set in • The centrifugal
designated either by its degree or by its radius . The force acts horizontally at the centre of gravity of each
degree of a curve is the angle subtended at the by a vehicle • The centrifugal force has a tendency to
chord of 30m length. overthrow trains outwards; This increases weight on the
In fig, AB=30m,and∠AOB=10,thecurveisof1degree If, outer rail • Level of the outer rail is raised with reference
AB=30m,and ∠AOB=60, the curve is of 6 degree to inner rail to counter the centrifugal force • Raised
i.e, greater the degree of curvature, the sharper will it be, elevation of outer rail above inner rail at a horizontal
and smaller will be its radius. curve is termed as super elevation • Raise of outer edge
In fig, C is the center of AB, From eqn (1), for 10 curve, introduces centripetal force for counteracting the effect
𝑅 = 1718.89 𝑚 ≈1719 𝑚 So; 𝑅 = 1719/ 𝜃 of centrifugal force -enable trains to move faster on
approximately If length of chord = 20m, 𝑅 = 1146/ 𝜃 curves, and prevents derailments
𝜽 = curvature in degrees • Factors influencing super elevation:– Radius of
TRANSITION CURVES. It is introduced between a curvature– Frictional resistance between wheels and
straight and a circular curve or between two branches of rails– Body of Vehicle: The body of the vehicle is assumed
a compound curve. It creates smooth running and to be rigid in the analysis. However, in actual practice, it
imparts comfort to the passengers. It helps in attaining is provided with compressive strings in order to minimise
the desired super elevation gradually. There is a the effect of impact. Therefore, this value considerably
gradual increase in curvature of the track from zero at alters the value of super elevation– Velocity of the train
the straight end to that of the circular curve at the – Gauge of the track .
junction with the circular curve. The chances of • Cant or super elevation: Cant or super elevation is the
amount by which one rail is raised above the other rail. It
derailment are greatly decreased.
is positive when the outer rail on a curved track is raised
REQUIREMENTS OF TRANSITION CURVE It should be
above inner rail and is negative when the inner rail on a
tangential to the straight Its length should be worked
curved track is raised above the outer rail. • Equilibrium
out in such a way that full super elevation is attained at
speed: Equilibrium speed is the speed at which,
the junction between it and the circular curve The rate
centrifugal force developed during movement of the
of increase of curvature should be equal to the rate of
vehicle on a curved track is exactly balanced by the cant
increase of super elevation It should join the circular provided.
arc tangentially or in other words, the curvature of the
– Equilibrium Speed is average speed under average – To provide a uniform rate of rise or fall as far as
conditions on level tracks. possible – To reach the various stations located at
• Cant excess: Cant excess occurs when a train travels on different elevations, and – To reduce the cost of earth
a curve at a speed lower than equilibrium speed. It is the work. • Various gradients used on railway tracks can be
difference between actual cant and theoretical cant classified under the following heads:
required for. such a lower speed. 1 RULING GRADIENT. • Defined as the gradient which
• Equilibrium Super elevation/Cant: The cant/super determines the maximum load that the engine can haul
elevation is in equilibrium when the cant provided on the section • The maximum gradient allowed on the
exactly balances the centrifugal force. Equilibrium Super track section • Steep gradients necessitate more
elevation e (in metres) = GV 2/127R. powerful locomotives, smaller train loads, lower speed
CANT DEFICIENCY and costly haulage • Desirable to climb a slope at as a
• The equilibrium cant is provided on the basis of gentle rate as possible • As a rule, rising gradients must
equilibrium speed (or Average speed, or weighted be followed by falling gradients. With this, the amount of
Average speed) of different trains. • Equilibrium cant or energy which was used up in climbing, is saved in
super elevation falls short of that required for the high descending. • A train is able to climb a rising gradient
speed trains. This shortage of cant is called Cant more easily if this rising gradient follows a falling gradient
Deficiency. • Cant deficiency is the difference between as the train has an opportunity of attaining high speed
the equilibrium cant necessary for the maximum over the falling gradient before reaching the rising
permissible speed on a curve and the actual cant gradient. • In determining the ruling gradient of the
provided (on the basis of average speed of trains). This section, it will not only be the severity of the gradient
cant deficiency is limited due to two reasons :– Higher that will come into play but also the length of the
cant deficiency gives rise to higher discomfort to gradients and its position, such as other grades on the
passengers.– Higher cant deficiency means higher would track. • Normally the following gradients are adopted In
be the balanced centrifugal forces and hence extra plain terrain: 1 in 150 to 1 in 200 In hilly regions: 1 in
pressure and lateral forces on outer rails. This will 100 to 1 in 150 • Once the ruling gradient is specified for
require strong track and fastenings for stability. a section there should be no grade steeper than this
LIMITATIONS OF CANT DEFICIENCY ○ Increase in cant ruling gradient • Therefore, all the gradients provided
deficiency also increases discomfort to the passengers ○ after compensation for the curvature, should be either
As cant deficiency increases, the balanced centrifugal equal or flatter but in no case greater than the ruling
force would also increase with extra pressure and lateral gradient specified.
forces on outer rails. To withstand such forces and 2 MOMENTUM GRADIENT. • Those gradients on a
pressure, strong track and fastenings would require. section which though, more severe than the ruling
GRADIENTS gradient, do not determine the maximum load of the
• Any departure of the track from the level is known as train but on account of their favorable position on track,
grade or gradient– An up or rising gradient is one when the train before approaching them acquire sufficient
the track rises in the direction of movement– Down or momentum to negotiate them are known as momentum
falling gradient is one when the track falls in the direction gradients • For example, in valleys, a falling gradient is
of movement • Gradient is measured either – by the usually followed by a rising gradient. A train while
extent of rise/fall in 100 units horizontal distance or – the coming down a falling gradient acquire sufficient
horizontal distance travelled for a rise/fall in 1 unit. An momentum. This momentum gives additional kinetic
alignment which rises 2 m in a horizontal distance of 50 energy to the moving train which would enable the train
m would be shown either as 4 in 100 1.e., 4% or 1 in 25. • to overcome a steeper rising gradient than the ruling
Gradients are provided on the tracks due to the following gradient for a certain length of the track. This rising
reasons. gradient is called momentum gradient and in such cases
a steeper grade than the ruling gradient can be adopted.
3 PUSHER OR HELPER GRADIENT. • If the ruling gradient
is so severe on a section that it needs the help of extra resistance is greater at lower speeds. On BG tracks,
engine to pull the same load than this gradient is known 0.04% per degree of the curve or 70/R, whichever is
as pusher of helper gradient. • The important effect of a minimum On MG tracks, 0.03% per degree of curve or
ruling grade is its limit on locomotive capacity. If the 52.5/R, whichever is minimum On NG tracks, 0.02% per
ruling grade is severe, it may mean that during larger degree of curve or 35/R, whichever is minimum Where, R
portion of its journey, the locomotive would have its is the radius of the curve in meters The gradient of a
unused capacity for carrying higher loads • But if the curved portion of the Section should be flatter than the
grade is concentrated in a specific section such as ruling gradient because of the extra resistance offered by
mountainous section, instead of limiting the train load, it the curve.
may be operationally easy or even be economical to run TUNNEL ENGINEERING.
the train on the basis of load that the engine can carry on Tunnel. • An underground passage for the transport of
the remaining portion of track and arrange for an passengers, goods, water, sewage, oil, gas, etc.
assisting engine (or pusher engine or a banking engine) Necessity of constructing a tunnel • A tunnel may be
for the portion where the gradient is severe -"Pusher" or required to eliminate the need for a long and circuitous
"Helper" gradients. • Pusher gradients are very route for reaching the other side of a hill • It may be
important in mountainous terrain where steeper economical to provide a tunnel instead of a cutting,
gradients are necessary to reduce the length of the track particularly in a rocky terrain • In hills with soft rocks, a
• In such cases one locomotive being incapable, extra tunnel is cheaper than a cutting • In metropolitan towns
engine or engines are provided • Before deciding the and other large cities, tunnels are constructed to
pusher gradients, the capacity of the engine and accommodate underground railway systems in order to
maximum load should be compared and Optimum provide a rapid and unobstructed means of transport • A
conditions should be attained so that no carrying tunnel constructed under a river bed may sometimes
capacity is wasted. prove to be more economical and convenient than a
GRADIENTS IN STATION YARDS. bridge • The maintenance cost of a tunnel is considerably
• The gradients at station yards have to be sufficiently lower than that of a bridge or deep cutting.
low due to the following reasons:– To prevent the SECTIONS OF TUNNEL.
movement of standing vehicles on the track due to the 1.D or Segmental Roof Section
effect of gravity combined with a strong wind and/or a • Suitable for sub-ways or navigation tunnels • Additional
gentle push– To prevent additional resistance due to Floor Space and flat floor for moving equipment
grade on the starting vehicles, which is about twice at 2.Circular Section
the start than vehicle in motion • On Indian Railways, for • To withstand heavy internal or external radial pressures
all the gauges, the maximum gradient permitted in • Best theoretical section for resisting forces • Greatest
station yards is 1 in 400 while a minimum gradient of 1 in C/s Area for least perimeter • Sewers and water carrying
1000 is recommended from drainage point of view. purposes • Not suitable for road or railways as more
GRADE COMPENSATION. • If a curve lies on a filling is required for filling the base • Difficult for
ruling gradient, the resistance due to gradient is placement of concrete lining.
increased by that due to curvature and this 3.Rectangular Section
• Suitable for hard rocks • Adopted for pedestrian traffic
further increases the resistance beyond the
• Costly & difficult to construct.
ruling gradient • In order to avoid resistances
4.Egg shaped Section
beyond the allowable limits, the gradients are • Carrying sewage (gives self cleansing velocity) •
reduced on curves and this reduction in Effective in resisting external and internal pressure.
gradients is known as grade compensation for 5.Horse –shoe Section
curves • The curve resistance is expressed as a • Semi-circular roof with arched sides and curved invert •
percentage per degree of the curve • The curve Best shape for traffic purposes • Most suitable for soft
rocks and carrying water or sewage • Most widely used Setting out of tunnel.
for highway and railway tunnels. • Making the centre line or alignment of any construction
Classification. work on ground • Setting out centre line of tunnel by 4
• Based on Alignment stages:– Setting out tunnel on ground surface– Transfer
– Off-Spur tunnels: Short length tunnels to negotiate of Centre line from surface to underground–
minor obstacles– Saddle or base tunnels: tunnels Underground setting out– Underground Leveling.
constructed in valleys along natural slope– Slope tunnels: 1 Setting out tunnel on ground surface
constructed in steep hills for economic and safe • Running an open traverse between two ends of
operation– Spiral Tunnels: constructed in narrow valleys proposed tunnel. • Modern way of providing horizontal
in form of loops in interior of mountains so as to increase control on ground surface is by running an open traverse
between 2 ends of proposed tunnel by using theodolite
length of tunnel to avoid steep slopes.
having precision of one second and laser pole unit –
• Based on purpose Theodolite: used for angular measurement in from of
– Conveyance Tunnels– Traffic Tunnels bearing – Laser pole unit: used to define thin vertical
• Based on type of material met with in construction plane up to large height. This plane is bisected by
– Tunnels in Hard Rock– Tunnels in Soft materials – theodolite for measurement of traverse lines • Lengths
Tunnels in Water Bearing Soils or underneath river bed are measured by direct method of stepping with invar or
Tunnel surveying. steel tapes.
• Type of underground surveying for the construction of 2Transfer of Centre line from surface to underground
tunnels• First a preliminary location survey is done, • Underground shafts –interval of 500 m along
followed by a very precise resurvey of the line on the transverse lines • Rectangular Horizontal frame set at
surface • The basic procedure of tunnel surveying is to proposed location along AB • On two sides of the frame,
align the centre line on the ground and transfer that into iron plates are fixed and screwed down & holes are
the tunnel • It involves levelling the surface on ground drilled along A and B at X & Y • Plumb bobs are
and inside the tunnel • Also includes geotechnical suspended to define vertical lines and shaft is excavated
investigation. • Set up theodolite at P • Measure PX, PY & XY •
Tunnel Alignment and Gradient Measure angles YPX & PYX • YXP-Weisbach Triangle• 𝑆𝑖𝑛
• A precise and detailed survey is necessary before 𝑃𝑌𝑋/ 𝑋𝑃=𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑋𝑃𝑌 /𝑋𝑌 Transfer of Centre line from
setting the alignment of a tunnel on the ground. • A surface to underground • Let Q be an imaginary point in
small error in setting the alignment would result in the YX extended• If YXQ is to become a straight line and PQ
two ends never meeting at all.• When starting work, to become perpendicular to it, triangle YPQ becomes a
both the ends of the tunnel as well as the centre line are right angled triangle • 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑌𝑋 = 𝑃𝑄 𝑌𝑃 • 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑌𝑃 𝑆𝑖𝑛
marked with precision on the ground so that the correct 𝑃𝑌𝑋 , which can be calculated • Set theodolite on P and
length of the tunnel can be determined.• An accurate take back sight on Y. Adjust line of collimation along PP’
survey is then carried out to ensure that the centre line • Turn telescope by angle PYX so that line of sight is
of the alignment and the levels are transferred properly brought to PP”. Mark PP”.• Measure PQ perpendicular to
to their underground positions.• The alignment should PP” to get C/L extended up to Q.
be straight as far as possible since normally such a route 3.Underground setting out.
would be the shortest and most economical • The • Set theodolite at Q • Take back sight on X and transit
minimum possible gradient should be provided for a the theodolite to turn line of sight by 180° • Mark 1” at
tunnel and its approaches• Proper ventilation and 10 m from Q • Change face and mark 1’ • If 1” & 1’are
adequate lighting should be provided inside the tunnel• same, YXQ1 is extended C/L of tunnel • Else midpoint of
The side drains in a tunnel should be given a minimum 1” & 1’ is the extended C/L of tunnel • Similarly after
gradient of 1 in 500 for effective drainage. In longer excavation for tunnel is made nearly for 10 m, again
tunnels, the gradient should be provided from the centre repeat the procedure for extension of line YXQ12 by
towards the ends for effective and efficient drainage. setting theodolite at 1
4.Underground Levelling ships on sea coast , in the form of creeks and basins •
• Reduced Levels of X & Y are found at GL • Plumb bobs Natural harbour is an inlet protected from storms and
are suspended through X and Y to touch marked points X waves by natural configuration of land • The size and
& Y on invert level of tunnel • Plumb bob with wire is draft of present day vessels have necessitated the work
spread on ground for comparison with steel tape ( say 8 of extension and improvement of natural harbour •
m) • From RL of X, subtract 8 m to get RL of point X on Geographical features, growth of population,
invert • Taking this level as BM, levelling is performed development of area have made the natural harbour big
underground • Levelling work is done in parts as and attractive E.g.· Bombay, Kandla.
excavation for tunnel proceeds. SEMI NATURAL HARBOIUR.
HARBOUR, DOCK. • Same as natural but harbour needs some artificial and
• Harbour is a sheltered body of water where ships, and man made construction
boats can be docked. • The term harbor is often used Eg: Vishakhapatnam.
interchangeably with port, which is a man-made facility ARTIFICIAL HARBOURS.
built for loading and unloading vessels and dropping off • Where such natural facilities are not available,
and picking up passengers. Ports usually include one or countries had to construct shelters making use of
more harbors• "A harbour can be defined as a basin or engineering skill and method is called artificial harbours •
haven or road-stead of navigable waters well protected It has no natural protection but artificial arrangement are
naturally or artificially from action of wind and waves , made to protect the harbour from storm and wind. • This
and is situated along sea-shore, river estuary , lake or area protected from the effect of waves either by
canal connected to sea". breakwaters or by dredging. • Eg: Madras harbor.
Basin 2. Classification based on utility.
• water reservoir of required area • Navigable when 2A) HARBOURS OFREFUGE
depth of water in the basin is greater than draft required – All types of naval craft ,small and big, will need refuge
for largest ship likely to visit the harbour. in an emergency and hence , such refuge harbours
Draft should provide accommodation – Modern big ships will
• Vertical linear immersion of the ship below the water require a lot of elbow room for turning purpose
surface for the ship to float in a stable condition • For Requirements: – Ready accessibility from the high seas –
safe floating, there should be a min vertical clearance Safe and convenient anchorage against the sea –
b/w bottom part of ship and sea bed. Facilities for obtaining supplies and repairs – On
CLASSIFICATION OF HARBOURS. dangerous coast lines, damaged ships under stress of
weather condition will need to quick shelter and
1.Classification depending upon the protection needed.
immediate repairs.
a)Natural Harbour or Natural Roadsteads b)Semi Natural
2B COMMERCIALHARBOURS
Harbour C)Artificial harbour or Artificial Roadsteads.
• It may be a part of bigger complex harbor or
2.Classification depending upon the utility.
Independent unit or single commodity harbor. •
a) Harbours of refuge b) Commercial harbours c) Fishery
Normally do not have any emergency demand •
harbour d) Military harbour e) Marina harbor.
Practically the size and number of ships using such
3Classification based upon the location.
harbours are known • Terminal as oil terminal , coal port.
a) Canal harbour - harbour located along canals for sea
Requirements • Spacious accommodations for
navigations b) Lake Harbour - harbour constructed along
mercantile marine. • Storage sheds for cargo. • Ample
the shore of lake c) River Harbour or Estuary Harbour-
space for transportation, loading and unloading cargo •
harbour constructed along the banks of river d) Sea or
Good and quick repair facilities • More sheltered
Ocean Harbour harbour located on the coast of sea or
conditions as loading and unloading could be done with
ocean., wave action.
advantage in calmer water.
NATURAL HARBOURS
2c) FISHERYHARBOUR
• Natural formations affording safe discharge facilities for
• Provided for fishing crafts and trawlers Requirements •
Constantly open for departure and arrival of fishing ships site should be noted.• Problem of silting or erosion of
• Loading and unloading facilities & quick dispatch coastline should be carefully studied• Natural
facilities for the perishable fish catch. • Refrigerated phenomena concerning planning of a harbour like
stores with ample storing Space for Preserving the catch. Storms, Rainfall, Range of tides, Maximum & minimum
2d) MILITARYHARBOUR temperatures, Direction& intensity of wind etc. should
• These are navel bases which mean to accommodate be studied.
the naval vessels • They serve as supply depots also PHYSICAL PLANNING.
Eg: Bombay and cochin harbor. • Physical Planning covers the collection, processing and
2e)MARINA HARBOURS use of relevant data with regard to natural conditions for
• Marina is a harbour providing facilities of fuel, food, site selection, choice of location and orientation of major
showers, telephones etc. for small boat owners having ports components such as access channels, breakwaters,
temporary or permanent berths. • Classification : • Large basin, quays and specialized berths. • The natural
marinas -have 200 or more berths. • Small marinas -have conditions in sequence are : • Climatic conditions, i.e.
less than 100 berths. • Facilities: - Resort facilties - winds, temperature, rainfall & humidity • Oceanographic
restaurants, swimming pool,motels etc - Yatch club : club conditions i.e waves, tides, currents, sediment transport
work for social activities - sport , fishing facilities - Marina and ice conditions • Topographic and hydrographic
pubs: Include bars supplying quality liquors • Marina conditions • Soil Conditions • Coastal currents and
harbors are located nearer to big cities so that they are evidences of silting, including littoral drift or coast
visited by big volume of population for recreation. erosion.
REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD HARBOUR. NATURAL PHENOMENA. The natural and
• The depth of a harbour should be sufficient for the meteorological phenomena that affect the location and
draft of every type of visiting ships.• The bottom of design of the harbour• Coastal currents and evidences of
harbor should provide secured anchorage to hold the silting, including littoral drift or coast erosion • Tides and
ships against high winds.• To prevent destructive wave tidal range • Wind, wave and their combined effect on
action break water should be provided.• The entrance of harbour structures.
a harbor should be wide enough to provide easy passage
LITTORAL DRIFT,
of ships and at the same time it should be narrow
• On exposed coasts, the shoreline undergoes gradual
enough to restrict the transmission of excessive amounts
and continual change • Such change consists of erosion
of wave energy during storm.
at certain sections, while deposition at another • The
SIZE OF A HARBOUR. process of movement & deposition occurring in the
• Size depends upon No. and size of ships likely to use proximity of foreshores are called littoral drift • Direction
the harbour at one time • Max. size of ship length: of littoral drift will be governed by the wave direction
275m to 300m, width: 30m • There should be sufficient and the quantity of material moving will depend on the
area for maneuvering them without collision • Size velocity of tidal currents • Site selection- avoid littoral
determined by •Accommodation required •Convenience drift.
For maneuvering and navigation •Adaptability to natural
SEA WATER WAVES.
features.
• The periodic rise and fall of sea water surface is termed
HARBOUR PLANNING. as sea water waves• Water exert forces directly on
• It should be carried out after collecting necessary breakwaters and exposed terminal structures, and
information of the existing features at the proposed site. determine major features of harbour layout through
Following important facts should be studied .• A indirect action by generating movements, or moored
thorough survey of the neighborhood including the ships.• A natural wave train may be described as series
foreshore & depths of water is necessary• Nature of of individual waves of different heights, wave lengths,
harbour whether sheltered or not, should be studied.• and limited crest lengths.• Waves can be characterized
The existence of sea insects & various animals residing at by recording the time history of the water surface
elevation in one point.• Sea water waves are generated will reduce handling because it will be discontinued.
by tidal force , wind force, earthquake and explosions. Factors affecting wind patterns:
Tide Generation. – Action of mass of water – Location – Rotation of Earth
• Water on surface of Earth is attracted by mass of the Types of wind water waves:
moon and the sun.• This water surface is also affected by – waves of oscillation : stationary – waves of translation:
centrifugal force generated by earth’s rotation• possess forward motion – All waves start as oscillatory
Combined effect – cause tides• Rise in water level – but due to wind- translatory • Harbour engineer’s main
Tide• Fall in water level – Ebb. concern is the translatory wave.
Lunar Tides WAVE ACTION
Classified as 1. Semi-diurnal tide – moon crosses the A sea wave when breaking against a marine structure
observer’s meridian twice in 24 hours and hence two give rise to various forces and the more important are: i.
tides in a day 2. Diurnal tide – only a single tide occurs in A direct horizontal force causing compression ii. A
24 hours 3. Mixed tide: first tide is well observed and 2nd deflected vertical force tending to shear away any
is not distinct projections on the face of the wall iii. A downward
Solar Tide vertical force due to the collapse of the wave, which
• Sun also produces tide similar to lunar tide • Tidal force tends to disturb the mound construction of the
due to moon is greater than tidal force due to sun • Fs = foundation and sea bed iv. A suction due to the return of
0.458 Fm. the water after striking, which tends to disturb mounds
SPRING TIDE. in foundation • Theoretical evaluation of these forces or
• On New Moon day and Full Moon day, solar and lunar determination for designing sea walls or breakwater is
tidal forces act in same direction • The troughs and crests practically impossible. But to guide the engineer, a few
of lunar and solar tide completely coincide • Resulting factors like i. Dynamic value of wave action ii. Air
tide = summation of two tides = spring tide • Tidal force compression iii. Water hammer effect, could be studied
= 0.458 Fm + Fm = 1.458 Fm Temperature, Rainfall and Humidity
EFFECT OF TIDES • Adversely affect port operations and may be major
• Tide raises the water level hence, raises the point of reasons for low-cargo handling rates and interruptions of
action of static water pressure • Develops tidal range cargo handling.
(variation of MSLdue to tide is called tidal range) • Breakwaters
Develops tidal prism (amount of water that changes in a • The protective barrier constructed to enclose harbours
harbour basin with a single tide) • Tidal variation and to keep the harbour waters undisturbed by the
produces difficulties in stable floating of vessels effect of heavy and strong seas are called breakwaters.
Wind & Waves. Alignment: • A good alignment for a breakwater is to
• Sea wave- most powerful force- joint action of wind have straight converging arms so that the angle of
and water • The wind climate in terms of speed and intersection does not exceed 60 degrees.• It is desirable
direction patterns varies tremendously from region to to avoid straight parallel or diverging arms running out to
region. • Beaufort scale – scale of wind force • Windrose sea..
diagram - Wind velocity and direction in the form of Function and Necessity of Breakwaters
figure • Directions are strongly predominant, and in such • Built to provide shelter from waves to manipulate the
cases these directions will ,to a large extent, determined littoral/sand transport conditions and thereby to trap
ship manoeuvres at berthing and parting. • Where some sand entrance inside the anchorage area
possible, berths should be oriented parallel to the • Constructed to provide calm waters for harbours and
predominant wind direction. • Winds forces are artificial marinas• Designed to block the wave and tide
relatively, more important for loaded ships • Operation effects• Submerged breakwaters are built to reduce
of the certain cargo-handling installations such as beach erosion.
container crane is sensitive to high wind speeds, which Classification of breakwaters
1. Heap or mound breakwater 1.c)Rubble Mound Breakwater Supplemented By
a) Rubble mound breakwater b) Concrete blocks mound Concrete Blocks.
breakwater c) Rubble mound breakwater supplemented • Blocks of concrete can be moulded to any shape and to
by concrete blocks d) Rubble mound breakwater any strength as can be designed to take more force than
supplemented by patented stones natural rubble stones, by adding reinforcements •
2. Mound with superstructure Concrete blocks are laid towards seaside of mound to act
3. Upright wall breakwater as extra armour blocks over the usual armour blocks of
4. Special breakwater rubble stones which are heavy & irregular in shape. •
The choice of material will depend upon the conditions Remaining construction is similar to rubble mound
of the site, i.e. depth of water foundation conditions breakwater.
range of tides availability of materials weather during 1.C)rubble Mound Breakwater Supplemented By
construction. Concrete Blocks i. Pell-mell fashion ii. Well compacted
1. Mound breakwater fashion.
•Heterogeneous assemblage of natural rubble, stone 1.d) Rubble mound breakwater supplemented by
blocks or artificial blocks etc of huge bulk and weight, the patented stones
whole being deposited without any regard to bond or Concrete blocks having rectangular section with sharp
binding material •Constructed by tipping or dumping of edges are not rough enough and their faces of adjacent
rubble stones into the sea till the heap or mound blocks are likely to coincide So energy of wave water
emerges out of the water, the mound being consolidated cannot be dissipated Also amount of concrete required
and its side slopes regulated by the action of the waves in casting such blocks will be huge Different shapes:
•The quantity of rubble depends upon the depth, rise of hydraulically rough as well as stable in any position and
tides and waves and exposure. do provide permeable construction.
1. a) Rubble mound breakwater 2)Mound with superstructure or composite breakwater
• Rubble mounds are frequently used structures. • • Mound construction with top part made solid • Such
Crown wall is constructed on top of mound to prevent or construction is adopted to get advantage of mound at
to reduce wave action • A breakwater constructed by a bottom as well as construction at top. Mound with
heterogeneous assemblage of natural rubble or superstructure are classified into two:
undressed stone. • When water depths are large RBW i. Mound with superstructure founded at low water level.
may be uneconomical in view of huge volume of rocks • A solid superstructure consisting of quay protected by a
required. • Built upto water depth of 50m. parapet on the sea face , is constructed on the top of the
Advantages. rubble mound.
• Use of natural material • Reduces material cost • Use ii. Mound with superstructure founded below low water
of small construction equipment • Less environmental level. • Founding the superstructure below the level of
impact • Easy to construct • Failure is mainly due to poor disturbance. •In deep water , this type is very economical
interlocking capacity between individual blocks. 3)VERTICAL BREAKWATER
Disadvantages. • A breakwater formed by the construction in a regular
• Needs a considerable amount of construction and systematic manner of a vertical wall of masonry
materials. • Continuous maintenance is required. • concrete blocks or mass concrete, with vertical and
Sometimes there are difficulties in erection, as the seaward face • Reflect the incident waves without
rock weight increases with the increase of wave heights. dissipating much wave energy • Normally it is
• Can’t be used for ship berthing constructed in locations where the depth of the sea is
1.b) Concrete block mound breakwater. • Casting of greater than twice the design wave height.
concrete blocks of odd shapes and sizes and weights with 4) SPECIAL BREAKWATERS
required irregularity is rather difficult and costly. • • These breakwaters having construction resisting wave
Transportation from factory to the site of breakwater will forces in first 5m to 10m depth & no construction below
be costly. • Hence Concrete block breakwater is rare. 10m. • Types of special breakwater i. Floating type
breakwater ii. Hydraulic breakwater iii. Pneumatic Costly arrangements like lock gate for the closing of the
breakwater. entrances are not required
Floating type breakwater Disadvantages:
• It consists of well-connected floating bulk heads nearly – If the range of tide is more, loading and unloading are
5m to 10m deep & properly anchored so that below 10m seriously affected– Fluctuations of water level will cause
depth there is no construction • Cannot be too strong. the rubbing of sides of ships
Hydraulic breakwater 2. Wet docks in enclosed or impounded basins. – Docks
• By supplying water through pipes & nozzles with are formed by enclosures – Used where tidal ranges are
required head nullify or compensate the force of waves. large – It is shut off at entrances by lock – Maintain
Pneumatic breakwater uniform level of water by providing lock and gates
• By supplying compressed air at required head nullify Advantages:
the force of waves • This arrangement is in experimental • Uniform level of water is maintained • Prevents the
stage. rubbing of the sides of ships against quay wall • Effect of
DOCKS storms in the outer sea and harbour do not obstruct the
• Docks are enclosed areas for berthing the ships to keep dock enclosure Disadvantages:
them afloat at a uniform level to facilitate loading and • Costly arrangements like lock gate for the closing of the
unloading cargo and passengers • Necessary for entrances are required • More time will be required for
discharging of the cargo • As ships require a number of entry and exit for ships.
days for discharging cargo, during which period they DRY DOCK
need a uniform water level. • If ship is subjected to a • The ships floating on waterways are to be kept in tip
vertical movement by the tides, great inconvenience will top condition (cleaning, painting and repairing) for
be felt in lifting the cargo from the ship and special efficient operation • Repairing dock in general must
arrangement will be needed for lifting the cargo • Docks expose each and every part of ship (which remains
can be classified into following two categories: Wet usually below water) in broad day light atmosphere, with
docks Dry docks good ventilation for quick drying of colors applied to
Wet docks different parts of ship • Repairing facility can be in fixed
• Docks required for berthing of ships or vessels to form or movable form
facilitate the loading and unloading of passengers and •CLASSIFICATION
cargo are called wet docks. • These are also known as 1. Repairing facilities in fixed form – Graving dry dock –
harbour docks. Marine railway dry dock or slipway – Lift dock
Dry docks 2. Repairing facilities in movable form •Floating dock
• The docks used for repairs of ships are known as dry •Depositing dock.
docks. • It is long excavated chamber, having side walls, a 1. Dry or graving dock
semi circular end wall and a floor. • The open end of the • A dry dock is also known as graving dock. (stands still
chamber is provided with a gate and acts as the entrance like a grave of dead body) • It is long excavated chamber,
having side walls, a semi circular end wall and a floor.
to the dock.
The open end of the chamber is provided with a gate
Classification of wet dock and acts as the entrance to the dock. • Side walls are two
1. Wet docks in tidal basin • In low tide areas • In ports in numbers constructed in form of 2m steps of concrete
on the open sea coast protected by an outlying or masonry covered with granite stones on exposed
breakwater, basins are formed within its shelter • Pier surface.
walls are projected right angles to the shore • Vessels 2. Floating dry dock
can lie and discharge cargo • It may be defined as a floating vessel, which can lift
Advantages: ship out of water and retain it above water by means of
– Vessels can come in and leave at all times. Thus there is its own buoyancy. It is a hollow structure made of steel
speedy and unrestricted arrival and departure of ships– or R.C.C consisting of two walls and a floor with the ends
open.• To receive a vessel or ship for repair, the
structure or floating dock is sunk to the required depth
by filling water known as ballasting in its interior
chambers and the vessel is then floated into position and
berthed. • The dock is raised bodily with the berthed
vessel by un ballasting the chambers by pumping out the
water. The earliest floating dry docks resembled the
shape of ships.
3. Marine railway dock.
• The marine railway or slip dock or slip way is an
inclined railway extending from the shore into the water.
This railway track is used to draw out a ship needing
repair out of the water.
4. Lift dry dock. • This is a constructed platform capable
of being lowered into and raised from water. Lowering
and raising is achieved by means of hydraulic power
applied through cylinders supporting the ends of cross
girders carrying the platform.• Ship lifts: As the name
suggests, in the ship lift, the ships are lifted bodily out of
water. The ship lifts may be either electric, hydraulic or
pneumatic. These lifts are used for launching as well as
for dry docking the ships. Their main advantage is the
ease in adaptability to transfer system enabling multiple
garaging of ships.
 Wellgraded - Good interlock - Low permeability •
MODULE II Gapgraded - Only limited sizes - Good interlock - Low
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT • Pavement with low flexural permeability
strength • Pavement is flexible • Example: Bituminous Aggregates: Desirable properties
road • Flexible pavement consists of 4 components – Soil Strength of Aggregate • The aggregates used in top
subgrade, sub –base, base and surface layer • Load layers are subjected to (i) Stress action due to traffic
transfer is from grain to grain in flexible pavement • Top wheel load (ii) Wear and tear (iii) Crushing
layer is the strongest so as to resist high pressure, wear Hardness of Aggregate • The aggregates used in the
and tear surface course are subjected to constant rubbingor
RIGID PAVEMENT • High flexural rigidity • Example: abrasion due to moving traffic. • The aggregates should
Concrete road • Load transfer is by slab action • Consist be hard enough to resist the abrasive action caused by
of Soil subgrade, base and surface layer • Design of rigid the movements of traffic.
pavement is based on elastic theory Toughness • Resistance of the aggregates to impact is
FUNCTIONS OF PAVEMENT COMPONENT termed as toughness.
❖Soil subgrade- • Lowest layer • Consist of properly Shape of aggregates • Particular shape range may have
prepared, well compacted soil rounded, cubical, angular, flaky or elongated particles. •
❖Sub-base and base course- • Improve load supporting Flaky and elongated particles will have less strength and
capacity by distributing loads • It consist of broken durability
stones Adhesion with Bitumen • The aggregatesshould have
❖Wearing course or surface course- • Give smooth least effect of waterabsorption. • If there is affinity
bywater, bituminous coatingwill strip off from the
riding surface • Resist pressure exerted by tyre and resist
aggregatein presenceof water.
wear and tear
Durability • The property of aggregatesto withstand
HIGHWAY MATERIALS
adverseaction of weatheriscalled soundness. •
• Aggregate • Bituminous Material (Bitumen and Tar) •
Theaggregates are subjected to the physical and
Sub-grade Soil
chemical action of rain and bottom water, impurities
Pavement Materials:Aggregates
there-in and that of atmosphere
Sources of Aggregates • Igneousrock • Metamorphic
rock • Sedimentaryrock
Procedure: CrushingTest
• Dry aggregate passing 12.5 mm and retained on 10 mm
Types of Aggregates • Fine Aggregate• CoarseAggregate
sieve is filled in the cylindrical measure in three equal
Types of Aggregates
layers each having 25 tamping • Test sample is weighed
• CrushedGravel • Pit gravel (or sand) that has been put
as W1 • Test sample is placed in the steel cylinder in 3
through a crusher either to break the rounded gravel
layers having 25 tamping for each layer • Plunger is
particles into smaller sizes or toproduce rougher surfaces
placed on the top of specimen • Compressive load is
• CrushedRock • Aggregate from the crushing of
applied at the rate of 4 tonnes per minute by the
bedrock. All particles are angular and not rounded like
compression machine • Crushed aggregate is removed
grave
and sieved through 2.36 mm sieve • The aggregate
l • Screenings • Chips, dust, powder that are produced
passing 2.36 mm sieve is weighed as W2 • Aggregate
from crushing
crushing value = • For base course, crushing value should
• ConcreteSand • Sand that hasbeenwashedto remove
be less than 45% • For Surface course, crushing value
dustand fines
should be less than 30%
• Fines • Silt, clay,or dust particles smallerthan75um
usually the undesirable impurities in aggregates
Los Angeles Abrasion Test Apparatus
Los Angeles Machine, Abrasive charges (steel ball), IS
Types of Gradations
sieves
• Uniformlygraded - Few points of contact - Poor
interlock (shape dependent) - Highpermeability •
Procedure: •Specified weight of aggregate (W1) is placed the region the bituminous mix should not become too
in the Los Angeles Machine along with abrasive charges soft or unstable. During cold weather the mix should not
(steel balls)•The machine is rotated at a speed of 30 – 33 become too hard and brittle, causing cracks of surface.
rpm (rotation per min.) for a specified number of Tests on Bitumen
revolution•The abraded aggregate is sieved through 1.7 • Penetration test • Ductility test • Softening point test •
mm sieve•The aggregate passing 1.7 mm is weighed as Specific gravity test • Viscosity test • Flash and fire test •
W2•Abrasion Value =W2/W1x100•Abrasion Value for Float test • Water content test • Loss on heating test
high quality pavement should be less than 30% Penetration Test
ImpactTest Procedure 1. Soften the bitumen and pour into the
Procedure: • Aggregate passing 12.5 mm and retained penetration cup 2. Clean the penetration needle and
on 10 mm is filled in the cylindrical measure in 3 layers by make contact with the bitumen surface 3. Release the
25 tamping on each layer. • The specimen is weighed as needle for exactly 5 second 4. Measure the penetration
W1 and transferred to the testing cup and having 25 distance from the dial • Penetration value of bitumen
tamping • Hammer of weight 13.5-14.0 kg is raised to 38 used in pavement varies from 20 to 225 • 30/40 and
cm height and allowed to fall freely on to the specimen • 80/100 grade are more commonly used
After 15 hammer blow, the aggregate is passed through Ductility test
2.36 mm sieve • The aggregate passing 2.36 mm sieve is Procedure 1. Melt the bitumen and pour into the
weighed as W2 • Impact Value = 𝑊2 𝑊1 × 100 • briquette mould 2. Keep the briquette mould with
Aggregate for high quality pavement should be less than bitumen in the water bath maintained at 27 deg. Cel. 3.
30% Hook the briquette mould with bitumen to the ductility
SoundnessTest test apparatus 4. Start the machine and pull the bitumen
• Test Procedure • Clean the dry aggregate specimen of horizontally 5. Note the distance in centimetre at which
specified size range is weighted and counted. • It is the bitumen thread of specimen breaks and record it as
immersed in the saturated solution of sodium sulphate ductility value • Ductility value of bitumen vary from 5 to
or magnesium sulphate for 16 to 18 hours. • Then the over 100
specimen is dried in an oven at 105-110ºc., the loss in Viscosity test
weight is determined by sieving • Thus making one cycle Procedure: 1. The bitumen specimen is heated over
of immersion and drying. • After completing the final specified temperature 2. Pour the heated bitumen into
cycle, the loss in weight of aggregates is determined by the viscometer cup 3. Open the orifice of the viscometer
sieving to allow bitumen to flow 4. Start the stopwatch and
Pavement materials – Bituminous material record the time to flow 50 ml of bitumen from the
• Bituminous materials used in highway construction are viscometer 5. Report the viscosity as the time taken in
divided into: i. Tar ii. Bitumen seconds for 50 ml of bitumen to flow
• Comparison a) Both tar and bitumen are black / brown Specific gravity test
in colour. b) Chemical constituents are different. Tar is Procedure: 1. Clean the specific gravity bottle and take
obtained by destructive distillation of coal whereas the weight (W1) 2. Fill the specific gravity bottle with
bitumen is obtained as a byproduct of petroleum. c) water and take the weight (W2) 3. Pour the heated
Bitumen is soluble in CCl₄ and CS₂ whereas tar is soluble bitumen into the specific gravity bottle and take the
in toluene. weight (W3) 4. The remaining space of bottle is filled
Bitumen– Desirable properties with water and again take the weight (W4) Specific
The viscosity of the bitumen at the time of mixing and gravity = (𝑊3−𝑊1) 𝑊2−𝑊1 −(𝑊4−𝑊3) • Generally the
compaction should be adequate. This is achieved by specific gravity of pure bitumen is in the range of 0.97 to
heating the bitumen and aggregates prior to mixing. ii. 1.02
The bituminous materials should not be highly Softening point test
temperature susceptible. During the hottest weather of
Procedure: 1. Heat the bitumen material until it is Tests on Soil
completely fluid 2. Assemble the apparatus with ring and • Shear tests • Bearing tests • Penetration test
ball and pour water into the apparatus 3. Pour the Factors affecting design of flexible pavements
bitumen into the ring and allow to set and place the two Design life:- Design life or performance period refers to
balls on the bitumen 4. Apply heat to the apparatus and the period of time for which the initially designed
stir the liquid for uniform heating 5. As the temperature pavement structure will last before any rehabilitation is
increases, the bitumen softens and the ball sinks through needed.
the ring 6. Note down the temperature when any one of Reliability Reliability stands for the probability that any
the ball touches the bottom 7. Record the temperature particular distress will remain below or within the
when the second ball touches the bottom. The average permissible level during the design life.
of the two temperature is recorded as the softening Traffic factors: i. Wheel loads: Pavement wheel load
point • The softening point of various bitumen used for causes stresses and strains in pavement layers and
pavement varies between 35o to 70 o subgrade.
Flash and fire point test Climatic factors: i. Rainfall: Rainfall affects pavement
Procedure: 1. The bitumen material is filled in the cup of drainage and can thus be a significant factor ii. Frost:
pensky Martens apparatus 2. Bitumen sample is then Frost heave can disrupt pavement structure
heated at a rate of 5oC to 6oC per minute 3. The first test Road geometry: i. Horizontal curves: Pavements on
flame is applied at least 17oC below the actual flash horizontal curves are subjected to extra stresses. ii.
point and then at every 1oC to 3oC 4. The flash point is Vertical profile: Pavements on grades are subjected to
taken as the temperature at which a bright flash is extra forces due to acceleration, deceleration and
produced while applying flame. 5. The heating is braking
continued until the material get ignited and continue to Subgrade strength and drainage: i. Subgrade strength:
burn for 5 Seconds. This temperature is recorded as fire Subgrade soil type and compacted density significantly
point affect pavement design ii. Drainage: Surface and
FLOAT TEST subsurface drainage of pavement
Normally the consistency of bituminous material can be Material properties for structural design
measured either by penetration test or viscosity test. CBR(California Bearing Ratio) METHOD
But for certain range of consistencies, these tests are not • Empirical method • California division of state
applicable and Float test is used. The apparatus consists highways developed this method in 1928. • O.J.Porter
of an aluminium float and a brass collar filled with developed charts corelating traffic and thickness and this
bitumen to be tested. The specimen in the mould is was used by California division. • When subgrade CBR
cooled to a temperature of 5oC and screwed in to float. less than 12%. • They evolved curves for CBR, thickness,
The total test assembly is floated in the water bath at wheel load. • Traffic considered as commercial vehicles
50oC and the time required for water to pass its way per day
through the specimen CBR METHOD – Design Basis
Pavement materials – Subgrade Soil • A material with given CBR requires a certain thickness
• Soil is an accumulation or deposit of earth material, of pavement layer as cover. • Recommendations of IRC
derived naturally from the disintegration of rocks. • The for conducting CBR method: i. CBR test should be
supporting soil beneath pavement and its under courses conducted on soils in the labs. In-situ tests are not
is called subgrade soil. recommended. ii. Specimen should be prepared by static
Subgrade soil– Desirable properties i. Stability ii. compaction as far as possible otherwise by dynamic
Incompressibility iii. Permanency of strength iv. compaction. iii. For the design of new roads subgrade
Minimum changes in volume and stability under adverse samples should be compacted at OMC to proctor density,
conditions of weather and ground water. whenever suitable compaction equipment is available,
otherwise may be compacted to the dry density
expected to be achieved in the field iv. For the existing Rapid Curing (RC) • Bitumen cutback with neptha or
roads, sample should be compacted to field density of gasoline. • Neptha and gasoline has low boiling point
subgrade soil. v. In new construction, CBR sample may be Medium Curing (MC) • Bitumen cutback with
soaked in water for 4 days prior to testing. This can be Kerosene or light diesel • Kerosene or light diesel has
avoided in arid climates or when annual rainfall is less intermediate boiling point
than 50cm, or when water table is too deep to affect the Slow Curing (SC) • Bitumen cutback with Gas oil • Gas oil
subgrade adversely and when a thick and impermeable has high boiling point • It evaporate very slowly
surfacing is provided. vi. Atleast 3 samples should be Various tests carried out on Cut back Bitumen are: 1.
tested at same density and moisture content and if Viscosity test 2. Penetration test 3. Flash point test
variation of CBR values exceeds the specified limits, the
Bitumen Emulsion • It is a liquid product in which
design CBR should be average of 6 samples.
bitumen is suspended in finely divided condition in an
CBR METHOD – Recommended by California aqueous medium stabilized by emulsifiers • Emulsifier
State of Highways Data Required: • CBR value of act as a protective coating around the bitumen • Usually
soil subgrade • CBR value of sub base course • CBR value soap or colloidal powder is used as emulsifier
of base course • Wheel load in kg or kN Wheel load is Bituminous primers In bituminous primer the
classified into three groups based on traffic conditions. i. distillate is absorbed by the road surface on which it is
Light traffic(3175 kg) ii. Medium traffic(4082 kg) iii. Heavy spread. The absorption therefore depends on the
traffic (5443 kg) porosity of the surface. Bitumen primers are useful on
CBR METHOD – Recommended by IRC the stabilised surfaces and water bound macadam base
Data Required: • CBR value of soil subgrade • CBR value courses.
of sub base course • CBR value of base course • Traffic Plate bearing test
intensity(A to G) • Using CBR value of soil subgrade and Procedure 1. Steel Plate is placed on the soil where
traffic intensity, find the total thickness of pavement, T • strength is to be determined 2. Apply load by using
Using the CBR value of sub-base course, find the hydraulic jack 3. Deformation corresponding to each load
thickness from top of pavement to sub-base course. tsb= is measured using dial gauges 4. Pressure - deformation
T - x • Using the CBR value of base course, find the curve is plotted and modulus of subgrade reaction is
thickness from top of pavement to base course. tb= x - y determined
• Thickness of surface course can be calculated by, ts= T-
Modulus of subgrade reaction (k) •It is defined as
(tb+ tsb)
the pressure for unit deformation of subgrade •Unit –
CBR METHOD – Recommended by Empirical kg/cm3
formulas K=p/₰(row)
Thickness of pavement, T= P 1.75 CBR − 1 pπ Τ 1 2 T = Construction procedure 1. Preparation of existing
1.75P CBR − A π Τ 1 2 Where, p– tyre pressure in kg/cm² surface – Clean and level existing layer and prime coat
P – wheel load in kg A – area of contact in cm² CBR – bitumen is applied 2. Application of binder – Bitumen
California bearing ratio in % Design traffic is estimated by binder is applied using mechanical sprayer or by manual
the equation, A = P{1 + r} n+10 Where, A – design traffic pouring 3. Application of premix – stone chipping is
P- number of vehicles per day at least count r- Annual premixed with bitumen as hot mix and placed over the
rate of growth of heavy vehicles n- construction period in surface using mechanical paver. Care should be taken to
years maintain proper camber 4. Rolling – Surface is rolled with
Cut back Bitumen • It is the bitumen in which the tandem roller from edge to center with overlapping 5.
viscosity is reduced by a volatile diluent • It is mainly Finishing and opening to traffic – Surface is checked for
used for surface dressing Cut Back bitumen is available in cross profile and opened to traffic after 24 hour
three types based on rate of curing after application • Construction of bituminous pavements
Rapid Curing (RC) • Medium Curing (MC) • Slow Curing •Bituminous material is used in base and surface course
(SC)
layer. The procedure for bituminous construction is as based on their CBR value • Pavement showing thickness
follows ▪ Surface is constructed as surface dressing or as of each layer is drawn
bituminous concrete ▪ Base layer is constructed as 2: Subgrade CBR for a particular site is 2%. The
penetration macadam or as bituminous macadam following materials are available for
Interface treatment • Thin bituminous binder construction. Soil – sand mix with a CBR of 15%,
sprayed on the surface before the construction of any
GSB mix with CBR 25%, WMM 99%. Provide at
bituminous layer over this surface • Provide necessary
bond between the old and new layers
least 5 cm thick bituminous concrete as surface
Prime coat • 1 st application of low viscosity course. Design the flexible pavement for 400
bituminous material over an existing porous pavement commercial vehicles per day with a growth rate
for plugging the capillary voids of porous surface of 6.5%. Solution: 𝐴 = 𝑃 1 + 𝑟 𝑛+10 P = 400, r = 6.5
Tack coat • Application of higher viscosity bituminous Assume n =3 𝐴 = 400 × 1 + 6.5 100 3+10 = 906.99 • Curve
material over an impervious bituminous surface/cement E is chosen since the value of ‘A’ lies between 450-1500.
concrete/pervious surface which has already been • Total depth of construction corresponding to 2% CBR
treated by a prime coat and ‘E’ curve is 680 mm. 74 • Similarly from the design
Vehicle damage factor (VDF) ▪ Section 4.4 of IRC:37- curve, determine the thickness of pavement above each
2018 ▪ Vehicle Damage Factor (VDF) is a multiplier to layer based on their CBR value • Pavement showing
convert the given number of commercial vehicles having thickness of each layer is drawn
different axle configurations and different axle weights
into an equivalent number of standard axle load (80 kN Example 1: Design the flexible pavement for
single axle with dual wheels) repetitions. the construction of new state highway with the
Lateral distribution factor ▪ Section 4.5 of IRC:37- following data. Follow guidelines as per IRC
2018 ▪ Distribution of commercial traffic in each direction 37:2018. Category of road – Four lane dual
and in each line is required for determining the total
carriageway Number of commercial vehicles in
equivalent standard axle load applications to be
considered in design
the year of completion of construction – 1800
CVPD per direction Design CBR value of
problem subgrade soil – 5% Solution: A = 1800 r = 0.05 F=5
(from Table 4.2) D= 0.45 (section 4.5) n = 20 (section 4.3)
1 Design a flexible pavement for the following 90 1. 𝑁 = 365 × ((1 + 𝑟) 𝑛 − 1) 𝑟 × 𝐴 × 𝐷 × 𝐹 𝑁 = 365 × ((1
data :- Subgrade CBR = 5 %. The material + 0.05) 20 − 1) 0.05 × 1800 × 0.45 × 5 = 48.87X106 = 49
available nearing construction site are as msa
follows: Gravely soil with CBR = 15 % Soil kankar
mix with CBR = 30 %,WBM with CBR = 98 % .
Provide at least 50 mm thick BC as surface
course Present traffic is 300 commercial
vehicles per day and growth rate of traffic = 6.5
%. Solution: 𝐴 = 𝑃 1 + 𝑟 𝑛+10 P = 300, r = 6.5 Assume n
=3 𝐴 = 300 × 1 + 6.5 100 3+10 = 680.24 72 • Curve E is
chosen since the value of ‘A’ lies between 450-1500. •
Total depth of construction corresponding to 5% CBR and
‘E’ curve is 430 mm. • Similarly from the design curve,
determine the thickness of pavement above each layer