INTRODUCTION

TO SEISMOLOGY
Geophysical Sciences for Seismic Risk
AA 2023/2024
Seismology is the primary tool for the study of the Earth’s interior
because little of the planet is accessible to direct observation.
The surface can be mapped and explored, and drilling has
penetrated to depths of up to 13 kilometers, though at great
expense. Information about deeper depths, down to the center of the
Earth, is obtained primarily from indirect methods.
Seismology, the most powerful such method, is used to map the
Earth’s interior and study the distribution of physical properties.
(Stein & Wysession, 2003)
 Seismology is the science of vibration

The ground is vibrating right now below our feet

 Seismology is the science of vibration

Source
This term usually means earthquake, which we also refer to as
event. In exploration seismology, the source may be explosives.
Anything that causes vibrations is a “source”
 Seismology is the science of vibration
 6
Generation of Vibration
 Seismology is the science of vibration
 Generation of Vibration
 Propagation of Vibration
 Seismology is the science of vibration
 8
Generation of Vibration
 Propagation of Vibration
 Recording Vibration
 Seismology is the science of vibration
 9
Generation of Vibration
 Propagation of Vibration
 Recording Vibration
 Simulating Vibration
 Seismology is the science of vibration
 10
Generation of Vibration
 Propagation of Vibration
 Recording Vibration
 Simulating Vibration
 Determination of the structure through which vibrations travel
What is an earthquake, where it occurs and how it originates

Earthquake is the shaking of the surface of the Earth resulting from a sudden release of
energy in the Earth’s interior. An earthquake is caused by a sudden slip on a fault, that is a
zone of fracture between two blocks of rock that move relative to each other. At the edges of
the blocks stress can be accumulated due to friction. When the stress overcomes the friction,
the energy is abruptly released as waves that travel through the Earth and cause the shaking
that we feel.
What is an earthquake, where it occurs and how it originates

Earthquake’s focus, or hypocenter represents the location within Earth where

fracturing begins. It is the point at which energy is first released.
The epicenter is the point on Earth’s surface directly above the focus.
 Seismic waves represent the
energy that travels through the
Earth and is recorded on
seismographs.
Seismic Waves

Earthquake’s focus, or hypocenter represents the location within Earth’s lithosphere

where fracturing begins. It is the point at which energy is first released.
The epicenter is the point on Earth’s surface directly above the focus.
Seismic waves are energy waves caused by the sudden breaking of rock within the Earth
or by artificial sources (explosion, etc.).
 Sources of Seismic Energy

Anything that imparts energy into/onto/within

the Earth can produce seismic waves
Wave Basic Informations
 What is a wave?
A disturbance that travels through space or time, usually by
the transfer of energy
 wavelength
crest

amplitude

trough
Important terms:
 Crest (ridge): The highest point in each wave cycle.
 Wavelength: The length of each wave cycle. The distance between one crest and the
next crest.
 Amplitude: In the diagram of a sine wave, it is the height measured from the center or
rest position.
 Trough: The lowest point in each wave cycle.
 Frequency: The number of wave cycles in a given time. It is commonly measured in
hertz (Hz) which tells how many waves occur in 1 second.
 What is a wave?
A disturbance that travels through space or time, usually by
the transfer of energy

 Many different types of waves!

smooth periodic oscillation

Amplitude alternates at a
steady frequency between fixed
min and max values, with the
same duration at min and max

It contains only odd harmonics.

The higher harmonics roll off much
faster than in a square wave

It is so named based on its

resemblance to the teeth of a plain-
toothed saw. A single sawtooth is
called a ramp waveform.
Types of Waves
 Seismic Waves energy waves caused by the sudden breaking of rock
within the Earth or by artificial sources (explosion, etc.).

 Electromagnetic Waves waves of the electromagnetic field, propagating (radiating)

through space, carrying electromagnetic radiant energy.
type of energy propagating through a medium by means of
 Acoustic Waves adiabatic compression and decompression. Their velocity
depends on the medium they're passing through.
formed as wind blows across the surface of the ocean,
 Ocean Waves creating small ripples, which eventually become waves
with increasing time and distance.
 Standing Waves waves which oscillate in time but whose peak amplitude
profile does not move in space.

The nodes on the standing wave are locations

where there is no movement.
Standing waves can be created by sending two
sine waves with the same frequency and
amplitude in opposite directions down a string.
Seismic waves are energy waves caused by the sudden breaking of rock within the
Earth or by artificial sources (explosion, etc.).
 Seismic Waves and Earth's Interior

Seismic waves are propagating vibrations that carry energy from the source
of the shaking outward in all directions.
You can picture this concept by recalling the circular waves that spread
over the surface of a pond when a stone is thrown into the water.

Obviously, an earthquake is a more complicated process than a stone

splashing into water, and the seismic waves originating during an
earthquake are more varied than those on the pond…
Seismic waves are spherical.

t0
t1

Wavefront is the set of all

points that are affected by
vibration at the same time.

The Figure shows a spherical wavefront. Wavefronts

may be surfaces of any configuration depending on
the source, the medium, and the obstructions
encountered.
Seismic waves are spherical. Wavefront is the set of all
points that are affected by
vibration at the same time.

A ray, or ray path, is a line

perpendicular to the wavefront that
originates at the hypocenter.
The ray shows the direction of wave
propagation at that portion of the
wavefront.
Huygen’s Principle

Every point on a wavefront is the source of a new wave that

travels outward in spherical shells. Each point of this wavefront
will then act as an independent source that will send waves in
all directions.
Huygen’s Principle
The theory is based on simple geometrical constructions and permits the
future position of a wavefront to be calculated if its present position is
known.

Huygens’ principle can be stated:

“All points on a wavefront can be regarded as point sources for the
production of new spherical waves; the new wavefront is the tangential
surface (or envelope) of the secondary wavelets”
Let the wavefront initially occupy the
position AB and let the small circles
represent individual particles of the
material in the wavefront. The
particles are shaken by the arrival of
the wavefront and act as sources of
secondary wavelets. If the seismic
velocity of the material is V, the
distance travelled by each wavelet
after time t is Vt and it describes a
small sphere around its source particle.
The plane CD tangential to the small
wavelets would represent the new
position of the wavefront. It lies at a
perpendicular distance Vt from the
original wavefront. In their turn the
particles in the wavefront CD act as
sources for new secondary wavelets,
and the process is repeated.
 Seismic Waves
Waves that travel through the Earth and are classified in two main categories:

Body waves

Surface waves

Body waves travel or propagate through the body of Earth.

Surface waves travel along Earth's surface. Their amplitude decreases with depth into the
Earth.
An earthquake radiates P- and S-waves in all directions and the interaction of the P- and
S-waves with Earth's surface and shallow structure produces surface waves.
Seismic Waves
Waves that travel through the Earth and are classified in two main categories:
 Body Waves

Compressional or P-waves (primary)

Transverse or S-waves (secondary)

Travel through the interior of the

Earth
Seismic Waves
Waves that travel through the Earth and are classified in two main categories:
 Body Waves
P-waves (primary)
S-waves (secondary)
Travel through the interior of the
Earth

 Surface Waves

Love waves
Rayleigh waves

Travel along the surface of the Earth

Cause more damages than body waves

Body Waves: Compressional or P-Waves
P-waves are the first waves to arrive on a
complete record of ground shaking because
they travel the fastest (their name derives
from this fact - P is an abbreviation for
primary, first wave to arrive).

P-waves move the Earth back and forth in

the direction the wave is traveling. Plane P-wave

Propagation of a P-wave on a
2Dgrid
P-waves are the first waves to arrive on a complete record of ground shaking
because
32
they travel the fastest.

They typically travel at velocities between ~1 and ~14 km/sec. The slower values
correspond to P-waves traveling in water, the higher number represents the P-wave
speed near the base of Earth's mantle.

The velocity of a wave depends on the elastic properties and density of a material.
If we let K represent the bulk modulus of a material, µ the shear-modulus, and ρ
the density, then the P-wave velocity, which we represent by α, is defined by:

P-wave Velocity α=
 P-wave Velocity α=

A modulus is a measure of how easy/difficult it is to deform a material

The bulk modulus K is a measure of how a

material changes volume when pressure is
applied. In other words, it is a measure of how
resistant to compression that substance is and is a
characteristic of a material.
For example, foam rubber has a lower bulk
modulus than steel.

Shear modulus µ is defined as the ratio of shear

stress and shear strain.
P-waves are like sound waves, it's just that in seismology we are interested in
frequencies that are lower than humans' range of hearing (the speed of sound in air
is about 0.3 km/sec).
The vibration caused by P-waves is a volume change, alternating from
compression to expansion in the direction that the wave is traveling.
P-waves travel through all types of media - solid, liquid, or gas.
compression

dilatation

Direction of propagation
Body Waves: Transverse or S-Waves
S-waves travel slower than P-waves and are
also called "shear" waves because they don't
change the volume of the material through
which they propagate, they shear it.

S-waves are transverse waves because they

vibrate the ground in a direction
"transversal", or perpendicular, to the Plane S-wave
direction that the wave is traveling.

Propagation of a spherical
S-wave on a 2D grid
S-waves are slower than P-waves. Typical S-wave propagation
velocities are on the order of 1 to 8 km/sec. The lower value
corresponds to the wave speed in loose, unconsolidated sediment, the
higher value is near the base of Earth's mantle.

Unlike P-waves, S-wave velocity depends only on the shear

modulus µ and the density ρ and not on the bulk modulus K.


 

An important distinguishing characteristic of S-waves is their inability to
propagate through a fluid or a gas because fluids and gasses cannot transmit a
shear stress and S-waves are waves that shear the material.

In general, earthquakes generate larger shear waves than compressional waves

and much of the damage in the epicentral area is the result of strong shaking
caused by shear waves.

Direction of propagation
 Surface Waves
Surface waves travel along Earth's surface and their amplitude decreases
with depth into Earth.

Surface waves therefore decay more slowly with distance than do body
waves, which travel in three dimensions.

Surface waves
Love
Rayleigh
 Surface Waves: Love Waves

Direction of propagation

Love waves are transverse waves that vibrate the ground in the horizontal direction
perpendicular to the direction that the waves are traveling. They cause horizontal shifting of
the Earth during earthquakes.
Love waves are formed by the interaction of S-waves with Earth's surface and shallow
structure, and are slower than P-waves and S-waves, but faster than Rayleigh waves.
The amplitude of ground vibration caused by a Love wave decreases with depth.
 Direction of propagation

Large earthquakes may generate Love Waves that travel around the Earth several
times before dissipating.
Since these waves carry a huge amount of energy, they take a long time to dissipate
it and decay slowly.
Love Waves are the most destructive outside the epicentral area. They are what
most people feel directly during an earthquake.
 Surface Waves: Rayleigh Waves

direction of particle
movement

Direction of propagation

Rayleigh Waves are the slowest of all the seismic wave types and in some ways the most
complicated. Their typical speeds are on the order of 1 to 5 km/s.
These waves cause the surface particles to move in ellipses in planes normal to the surface
and parallel to the direction of propagation. This motion is retrograde.
Rayleigh Waves can be used to characterize the Earth’s interior and oil deposits.
Like Love Waves their amplitude decreases with depth.
48
Body Waves and Surface Waves

Surface waves travel

along Earth’s
surface.

Body waves
travel inside
Earth.
Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking of
rock within the Earth or by artificial sources (explosion, etc.).
They are the energy that travels through the Earth and is recorded on
seismographs.
Seismogram

A seismogram is the recording of the ground shaking at the specific location of an

instrument.
On a seismogram, horizontal axis corresponds to time (seconds) and vertical axis
corresponds to ground displacement (usually millimeters or microns).
When there is NO EARTHQUAKE reading, there is just a straight line except for
small wiggles caused by local disturbance or "noise" and the time markers.
 Small wiggles caused
by local disturbance
or "noise".

The difference in wave speed has strong influence on the nature of seismograms.
Thus, if we look at a seismogram, we expect to see the first wave to arrive to be a P-
wave (the fastest), then the S-wave, and finally, the Love and Rayleigh (the
slowest) waves.
http://ds.iris.edu/seismon/swaves/
 Earthquake location
To locate an earthquake it must be defined:
 the hypocenter in terms of longitude (x), latitude (y) and depth (z)
 origin time (t0), that is the instant in which the dislocation process begins
Inverse Problem = knowing effects, to determine causes

PARAMETERS DATA

Inverse Problem
 Ts
Tp S-wave
P-wave arrival time
arrival time

Data used for location:

 P-wave arrival time
 S-wave arrival time, if available
 Body Waves
Waves that travel through the Earth

Compressional
or P-waves
(primary)

Transverse
or S-waves
(secondary)
P-waves are the first waves to arrive on a complete record of ground shaking
because they travel faster.
The velocity of a wave depends on the elastic properties and density of a material.
The vibration caused by P-waves is a volume change, alternating from
compression to expansion in the direction that the wave is traveling.
P-waves travel through all types of media - solid, liquid, or gas.

compression

dilatation

Direction of propagation
S-waves travel slower than P-waves and are transverse waves because they vibrate
the ground in a direction "transversal", or perpendicular, to the direction that the
wave is traveling.
S-waves cannot propagate through a fluid or a gas because fluids and gasses
cannot transmit a shear stress.

Direction of propagation
vertical
horizontal
(N-S o E-W)
 Ts
Tp S-wave
P-wave arrival time
arrival time

Data used for location:

 P-wave arrival time
 S-wave arrival time, if available
Think of the earthquake location as the starting point for the trip and the
seismometer as the final destination.
Faster waves will travel the distance quicker and show up on the seismogram first.

A ray, or ray path, is a

line perpendicular to the
wavefront that originates
at the hypocenter.
It shows the direction of
wave propagation at that
portion of the wavefront.
 distance from earthquake to seismometer
Travel time =
seismic wave velocity

 Travel time is a relative time, it is represented by the seconds, or minutes etc.

that the wave took to complete its journey.

 The arrival time is the time when we record the arrival of a

wave. It is an absolute time, usually referenced to Universal
Coordinated Time (a 24-hour time system used in many
sciences).
ESLN 2019-02-19 04:59:36.84 (arrival time)

ESLN
Earthquake location: Geiger’s Algorithm

The Geiger method allows you to search for a point

inside the Earth that is able,
through the calculation of the propagation times of
seismic waves in the earth's crust,
to generate theoretical arrival times as close as
possible to those recorded at seismic stations.
To generate theoretical travel
times, the velocity model relative
to the study area must be know
with a high level of accuracy.
depth

depth

depth
velocity (km/sec)

Velocity
depth (km)

depth
Models
Earthquake location: Geiger’s Algorithm

Earthquake recorded at N
seismic stations

Seismic stations
 Earthquake recorded at N
seismic stations

ti = arrival time at the i-th station

Earthquake location: Geiger’s Algorithm

V1 h1
Suppose we know seismic wave
x0, velocity in the crossed rock volumes
y0, and therefore we define the velocity
V2 x0+x, z0, h2
t0
model.
y0+ y,
We consider the ideal case of 3 flat
z0+ z,
t0 +  t and parallel layers (V1,V2,V3,h1,h2)
V3

Consider a test hypocenter having

coordinates x0,y0,z0,t0

coordinates of the true hypocenter will be

x0+x, y0+  y,z0+  z, t0+  t
 Arrival time ti will be
V1 h1 ti = t0+t+Ti(x0+ x, y0+ y, z0+ z)
x0, with
y0,
V2 x0+x, z0, h2 ti seismic wave arrival time
y0+ y, t0
z0+ z, t0+ t origin time
V 3 t0 + t Ti(x0+ x, y0+ y, z0+ z) travel time, that is
time it takes for the wave to go from the true
hypocenter
(x0+ x, y0+ y,z0+ z, t0+ t) to the station
Seismic ray path
ti = t0 + t + Ti (x0+ x, y0+ y, z0+ z)

arrival t. = origin t. + travel t.

 V1 h1 Assuming that the true hypocenter is in a
x0, neighborhood of the test hypocenter we can
y0,
V2 x0+Δx, z0, h2 develop in Taylor series
y0+Δy,
z0+Δz,
t0 Ti(x0+ x, y0+ y, z0+ z)
t0+Δt and stop at the first order
V3

Ti Ti Ti

t i  t 0  t  Ti  x 0 , y 0 , z 0   x  y  z
x y z
separating the known terms from the unknowns
Ti Ti Ti
t i  t 0  Ti  x 0 , y 0 , z 0   t  x  y  z
x y z
First member element, also known as residual (ri), is the difference
between observed time (ti) and calculated time (t0+ Ti(x0, y0, z0))
V1 h1 If the earthquake has been
x0, recorded at N stations there will
y0,
V2 x0+Δx, z0, h2 be N equations like
y0+Δy, t0
z0+Δz,
t0+Δt
V3

Ti Ti Ti

t i  t 0  Ti  x 0 , y 0 , z 0   t  x  y  z
x y z
It is equivalent to a system like Ax=B
with N equations and 4 unknowns (x, y, z, t)
V1 h1 The system Ax=B
x0,
with N equations and 4 unknowns
V2 x0+Δx,
y0,
h2 (x, y, z, t) can be solved by
z0,
y0+Δy, t0 applying the
z0+Δz,
t0+Δt least squares method
V3

The solutions thus obtained will allow to "adjust" the test

hypocenter obtaining a correct one. This will in turn be used as a
new test hypocenter in an iterative process that will lead to the
final solution through subsequent adjustments.
V1 h1
ti = t0 + t + Ti (x0+ x, y0+ y, z0+ z)
x0,
y0,
V2 x0+Δx, z0, h2
y0+Δy, t0 arrival t. = origin t. + travel t.
z0+Δz,
t0+Δt
V3 Taylor series develop

System Ax=B (N equations, 4 unknowns)

Iterative Least square methods

process
New test hypocenter
V1 h1
ti = t0 + t + Ti (x0+ x, y0+ y, z0+ z)
V2 h2
arrival t. = origin t. + travel t.

V3

By using the least squares method and the iterative process

described above, we find the 4 parameters (x, y, z, t) that best
describe the hypocenter (better agreement between experimental
and theoretical data)
The location of the
earthquakes that
occurred in a
specific area at a
defined time
interval allows to
build the
epicentral maps.
Non-random distribution of seismic and volcanic activity
 Hypocentral location of the Irpinia earthquakes
Date Time Latitude Longitude Depth
1980/11/23 18:34:54.85 40.8735°N 15.3387°E 6.4km

Epicentral Map
The location of the earthquakes that occurred in a specific area at a
defined time interval allows to build the epicentral maps.
1990-2012

An epicentral map immediately indicates which sectors are most

active in a certain region.
Epicentral map analyses are useful to identify epicenter alignements that
can help to locate active faults in the study area.
82
Hypocentral sections
show the distribution
of earthquakes as
function of depth
along a vertical plane
that corresponds to a
specific profile on the
Earth’s surface.
2010-2014 Pollino seismic crisis

Data from INGV Bulletin

Relocated Data
 S N Space-time evolution of
Hypocentral location hypocenter location (NS profile)
determination is also very
useful for volcanic
process studies, and in
particular for rising
magma analyses.

Piton de la Fournaise
(Réunion Island)
March 9th, 1998
Around the estimated hypocenter there are other points
able to provide theoretical arrival times very close to the
experimental ones. The set of these points defines the
uncertainty of the hypocenter.
Instrumental errors
and/or in the arrival
Network geometry
time recordings
inadequate

Factors that can

adversely affect
hypocentral location

Algorithm Errors in the velocity

approximations model setting
Some recently developed method for earthquake location:

 Non-linear location. These methods do not require partial

derivative calculation, and solve the location problem by
sampling all the space of possible solutions or part of it;
 Double-difference location. Groups of earthquakes are located
by using the differences in their arrival times at common stations.
 Cross-correlation. These methodologies allow to locate groups
of events by comparing the relative waveforms.
 Master event location. Among a set of earthquakes a well-
located event is selected, and the recording stations and phases of
this earthquake are used to locate the other ones.
Earthquake’s focus, or hypocenter represents the location within Earth where
fracturing begins. It is the point at which energy is first released.
The epicenter is the point on Earth’s surface directly above the focus.
The fault is the surface where the dislocation process occurs.
 DYNAMIC DISLOCATION
Seismic source is represented by a shear dislocation that
propagates very fast on a fault and that can be described
by the dislocation surface and by the slip in it.

Epicenter
Displacement field
on the rupture surface

Rupture
front

Hypocenter

Fault plane

How to estimate the“size” of an earthquake

 M 0  μDA
Seismic moment
scalar

μ = shear modulus
D = average dispalcement
on the fault
A = fault area

 M  DLW
The seismic moment effectively
F  the magnitude
represents F  of the
L
   
 2 seismicsource.
 L L
2 L
L
 Macroseismic Intensity is a number describing
the severity of an earthquake in terms of its effects.

Earthquakes are classified only on the base of their

effects on environment, human beings, and
anthropic structures.

Several scales exist, but one of the most commonly

used is the Modified Mercalli scale.
Intensity scales

In 1902 G. Mercalli released

its 10-degree scale.

The Mercalli scale has been expanded to 12

degrees by the Italian physicist A. Cancani. In
1930, the German geophysicist A. H. Sieberg
increased and strongly improved the
descriptions of the effects associated to each
degree, by introducing indication on the
G. Mercalli
number of people who felt the earthquake (I-
to-V degree), and on the amount of damaged
structures (VI-to-XII degree). This scale is
known as Mercalli-Cancani-Sieberg (MCS-
1930) or Modified Mercalli Intesity scale
(MMI).
They are distinguished from seismic intensity scales that categorize the intensity or
severity of ground shaking caused by an earthquake at a given location.

Intensity is a number
describing the severity of an
earthquake in terms of its
effects on the Earth's surface
and on humans and their
structures.
Several scales exist, but one
of the most commonly used is
the Modified Mercalli scale.
MCS1930 Intensity scale
 In a pre-instrumental epoch, witnesses on the effects of historical strong
earthquakes were very precious.
On 9th and 11th January 1693 (Mw=7.4), two earthquakes occurred in Eastern
Sicily causing ca. 54000 losses.

The first strong event occurred on 9th January 1693 at ca. 09:00 p.m. GMT
(Greenwich Mean Time). It has been clearly felt in Messina and Malta (not
damages have been reported for these locations), and also sensibly up to Palermo
(north-western Sicily).
The second earthquake occurred on 11th January 1693 at 01:30 p.m. GMT, and had
very catastrophic effects. The huge amount of damages was also due to occurrence
of another strong event just two days before. The region struck by the 11th January
event was much larger that the one struck by the first one.

9th January1693 11th January1693

Isoseismal line

Set of points on the Earth's

surface where the intensity
of an earthquake reached
the same value.

These lines are closed

around the epicenter of the
earthquake and the
innermost one encloses it.
For the 1693 Sicily earthquake, isoseismal lines are not
closed because part of the area struck be the event, and
also the responsible fault, lie in the Ionian sea.
The on-line macroseismic survey «Did You Feel It?» collect the reports from
citizens that have felt an earthquake.
It is composed by a list of simple questions through which users can refer their
experience. Questions concern the effects that the earthquake produced on people and
things. The answers are used to create macroseismic intensity maps.
Reports from people who didn’t felt the earthquake are equally important.
 Date and time:
24 June 2011
00:02:46
Epicentral
Coordinates
Lat: 38° 3' 36''N
Lon: 14° 45' 18‘’E
Region: Costa
siciliana
settetrionale
Richter Magnitude :
4.1
Depth: 7.4 Km
Answers: 858
Intensity vs Magnitude

Intensity Magnitude
Expression of Expression of the
earthquake effects released energy

 Qualitative assessment of the  Quantitative measurement

type of damage caused by an of the energy released by
earthquake. an earthquake.

 It depends on distance to the  It depends on the size of

earthquake and its strength. fault that breaks.

 It is determined from evaluation  It is determined from

of damages and effects produced seismic recordings.
by the earthquake.
Earthquake Magnitude

Seismic magnitude
scales are used to
describe the overall
strength or "size" of
an earthquake.
Richter Magnitude (or Locale Magnitude ML)

The magnitude furnishes a measure of the energy released

during an earthquake in the region where it occurs.

This instrumental measure has

been created by the seismologist
Charles Richter.
In the 1930s he studied the
amplitudes of seismic waves
recorded at a set of
seismometers in California.

The aim of his study was to assigne a value at the earthquake

strenght overcoming the simple qualitative description used until
then.
 Seismic Waves
Waves that travel through the Earth and are classified in two main categories:

Body waves

Surface waves

Body waves travel or propagate through the body of Earth.

Surface waves travel along Earth's surface. Their amplitude decreases with
depth into the Earth.
Magnitudes are usually determined from measurements of an
earthquake's seismic wave as recorded on a seismogram.

Maximum
Amplitude (mm)

Duration (sec)
 wavelength
crest

amplitude

trough
Important terms:
 Crest (ridge): The highest point in each wave cycle.
 Wavelength: The length of each wave cycle. The distance between one crest and the
next crest.
 Amplitude: In the diagram of a sine wave, it is the height measured from the center or
rest position.
 Trough: The lowest point in each wave cycle.
 Frequency: The number of wave cycles in a given time. It is commonly measured in
hertz (Hz) which tells how many waves occur in 1 second.
Richter Magnitude (or ML)

Earth’s Surface

= Seismic stations
= Epicenter
D = Epicenter-station distance
 Richter used a
Wood-Anderson seismograph,
that measures the only
horizontal components of
ground displacement
(amplification=2800, proper
period 0.8 sec).

Usually, this seismometer

measures maximum amplitude
relative to S-waves.
 Earth’s Surface
The logarithm of the maximum
amplitude A recorded for the D
earthquake is estimated at a
generic station placed at a
distance D from the epicenter.

Maximum
Amplitude (mm)

Duration (sec)
S2
S1
S3

Δ(km)
 Sample of the data used
by Richter to construct
the magnitude scale for
southern California.

The symbols represent observed peak ground motions for earthquakes

recorded during January of 1932 (different symbols = different
earthquakes).
The dashed lines represent the reference curves for the decrease in peak-
motion amplitude with increasing distance from the earthquake.
Richter established a reference value for earthquake magnitude by defining it as
the magnitude of an earthquake that, at a distance of 100km, makes a maximum
amplitude of 1µ recorded on a Wood-Anderson shot-period seismometer.
This has been defined as magnitude zero, making sure that most of the
earthquakes routinely recorded would have positive magnitudes.
1μ

Δ(km)

100km
The «size» of a generic earthquake can be derived from the
following relationship

𝑴 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝑨 − 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝑨𝟎 (𝜟)

M = earthquake magnitude

A = maximum amplitude produced by the earthquake at the

recording station that is at an epicentral distance Δ

A0 = maximum amplitude that, at the same distance Δ, would

produce the standard earthquake
 After the wave
amplitude
measurement, its
logarithm is
calculated and scaled
according to the
epicentral distance
(estimated from the
S-P time difference).
480km 690km

600km
 After the wave
amplitude
measurement, its
logarithm is
calculated and scaled
according to the
epicentral distance
(estimated from the
S-P time difference).
Slightly different magnitude estimates can be obtained at the different
recording stations, mainly due to the local characteristics of the
recording sites. In this framework, the magnitude assigned to the
event will be the average of the magnitude values obtained at the
various stations.

Earth’s Surface

D
 The Richter magnitude scale is a logarithmic scale.
This implies that the increase of 1 unit in magnitude corresponds to a
10 times increase of seismic wave maximum amplitude.
1μ

Δ(km)
100km
A logarithmic scale, like the Richter one, implies that, at the same
distance, a magnitude 6 earthquake has an amplitude 10 times
greater than the amplitude of a magnitude 5 event, and 100 times
greater than the one of a magnitude 4.
M 5.0
For vs
the M 4.0 Aquila
magnitude estimation it is used a logarithmic scale because of
the strong variation in seismic wave amplitude

M 5.0
M 4.0
M 5.0 vs M 3.0 Pollino

M 3.0
M 5.0
Some observations on the local magnitude ML definition

Richter, knowing that earthquake instrumental measurements were strongly

affected by the type of instrument, the type of wave, the depth of the event,
etc., imposed a rather restrictive "filter" on the use of the relationship.

 The formula validity range is 600km (epicentral distance), and this is the
reason why it is also called local magnitude. This is to ensure that the
maximum amplitude of the signal is identified in a specific wave packet.
 Only crustal earthquakes are used.
 The relationship has been defined particularly for the earthquakes that
occur in South California.
 Local magnitude is measured by using the recordings at a short-period
seismograph (Wood-Anderson).
 …also other types of magnitude are used…
To overcome the limitation on distance, other magnitude scales have been
introduced representing the energy released by earthquakes occurred at
distances greater than 600km.

Two examples of these magnitudes are:

 Body wave magnitude (mb);
 Surface wave magnitude (Ms).
 Based on the amplitude of surface Based on the amplitude of 1st
waves measured at a period near 20 arriving P-waves at periods of about
sec. It is primarily valuable for large 1sec. Reported for most M4.0-4.5 to
(>6), shallow events. 6.5 EQs that are observed
teleseismically.
 The generic formula of magnitude scales is

𝑴 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝑨/𝑻 + 𝑭 𝒉, 𝜟 + 𝑪

A = ground displacement amplitude measured on the seismogram

T = signal period
F = correction for epicentral distance (Δ) and focal depth (h)
C = regional sacle factor
For the Richter magnitude, the seismometer was always of the same
type (Wood-Anderson), so T does not change. Seismicity was
shallow (h≤15km) and all the earthquakes analyzed occurred in
California.

𝑴 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝑨/𝑻 + 𝑭 𝒉, 𝜟 + 𝑪

𝑴 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝑨 − 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝑨𝟎 (𝜟)

A = ground displacement amplitude measured on the seismogram
T = signal period
F = correction for epicentral distance (Δ) and focal depth (h)
C = regional sacle factor
 Based on the duration of shaking as
measured by the time decay of the
amplitude of the seismogram.
Sometimes the only magnitude
available for very small events; often
used when it is not possible to measure
peak amplitudes.
Duration Magnitude

How long is an earthquake?

Duration felt by human beings Seismogram duration

Recording duration DR

Few seconds for earthquakes barely felt. - >10sec for instrumental earthquakes.

Ca. 1 minute for very strong earthquakes - It can take up to an hour for very strong ones
For local scale earthquakes, e.g.
events whose recording is
saturated (see figure) and
therefore it is impossible to
calculate the amplitude,
the Md is used:

𝑴𝒅 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 ∗ 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒕 + 𝒄𝜟
«a», «b», and «c» are empyrical coefficients defined as:
a = -0.87; b = 2; c = 0.0035
Md estimation is based on seismogram duration (t), and the distance
between hypocenter and recording station (Δ).
Magnitude and Energy
The amount of energy released by an earthquake furnishes a measure of the
potential damages that can affect anthropic structures. Theoretically, its
calculation requires summing the energy flux for a wide range of
frequencies generated by an earthquake during the faulting process.

Due to instrumental limitations, historically, most energy estimates have

always relied on the empirical relationship developed by B. Gutenberg and
C. Richter:

𝐿𝑜𝑔10 𝐸 = 11,8 + 1,5 𝑀𝑠

Energy (E) is expressed in erg.

erg = Unit of measurement of work and energy in the CGS base units. It
represents the amount of work done by a force of one dyne exerted for a
distance of one centimeter. It is equal to 10−7 joules.
Computed for all M5.0 or larger earthquakes
worldwide, but generally robust for all M5.5
worldwide. Provides consistent results to
M~4.5 within a regional network of high-
quality broadband stations.
 M 0  μDA
Seismic moment
scalar

μ = shear modulus
D = average dispalcement
on the fault
A = fault area

 M  DLW
The seismic moment effectively represents
the magnitude of the seismic source.
F   
It can be shown that the strain energy

    
F isLproportional
L 
released by a dislocation L L
2 2
to the final scalar L
seismic moment.
 MW 9.5

MW 6.7 MW 7.8 MW 9.1

 Computed for all M5.0 or larger earthquakes
Based on instrumental measurement of some worldwide,
aspect of thebut
seismic wave
generally as recorded
robust on a
for all M5.5
seismogram. Where such records do not exist, magnitudes
worldwide.can be estimated
Provides fromresults
consistent reports
to of
the macroseismic events such as M~4.5
described by intensity
within scales.
a regional network of high-
quality broadband stations.
 Empirical relationship between
Magnitude and Intensity

𝑴𝒘 = 𝒂 ∗ 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃
For the shallow earthquakes occurring in the Central
Apennines, the empirical relationship is:
𝑴𝒘 = 𝟎, 𝟒𝟎 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 + 𝟏, 𝟔𝟗
Magnitude vs Intensity

Magnitude Intensity
Expression of the Expression of
released energy earthquake effects

 Quantitative measurement  Qualitative assessment of the

of the energy released by type of damage caused by an
an earthquake. earthquake.

 It depends on the size of  It depends on distance to the

fault that breaks. earthquake and its strength.

 It is determined from  It is determined from evaluation

seismic recordings. of damages and effects produced
by the earthquake.
Focal Mechanisms

Seismologists refer to the direction of slip and the

orientation of the fault on which an earthquake
occurs as the focal mechanism.

They use information from seismograms to

calculate the focal mechanism and typically display
it on maps as a "beach ball" symbol.
Elastic rebound theory

The elastic rebound

model for earthquakes
assumes that material on
the two sides of a fault
are forced to move each
other.
If the fault is locked,
features across it (a) are
slowly deformed with
time (b).
Finally, the strain
becomes so great that the
fault breaks producing an
earthquake,
offsetting the features (c).
The elastic rebound theory is an explanation for how
energy is spread during earthquakes.
 Not all faults
reach the Earth’s
surface. How the
orientation of a
fault plane and its
slip direction can
be determined if
the fault does not
reach the surface?
Earthquake location
To locate an earthquake it must be defined:
 the hypocenter in terms of longitude (x), latitude (y) and depth (z)
 origin time (t0), that is the instant in which the dislocation process begins
Dislocation Process
To describe the
dislocation process we
Earth surf. need to know
 the surface where
dislocation occurred
(fault plane)
foot-wall
 direction and sense
hanging-wall
of the relative motion
of the blocks (slip
To the upper side of the vector)
fault we have hanging-wall block.
To the lower side, the foot-wall block.
Fault trace is the intersection between
fault and Earth’s surface
 Seismic waves radiated from an earthquake relfect
fault geometry and its motion.
To describe fault geometry, it is assumed that the fault is a planar surface
across which relative motion occurred during an earthquake.
Fault goemetry is defined by three parameters:
 Strike (Φ)

 Dip (δ)
 Rake (λ)

Stein & Wysession, 2003

strike angle ϕ. Orientation of the dislocation plane with respect to the North
direction (angle between the fault trace and the North). It is measured in clockwise
direction (looking along the strike direction we must have the hanging-wall to the
right).
0 ≤ ϕ ≤ 2π

Earth’s surf.

Stein & Wysession, 2003

Dip angle δ. Inclination of the fault plane with respect to the
horizontal plane.
0≤ δ ≤ π/2

Earth’s surf.

Stein & Wysession, 2003

Rake or slip angle λ. It indicates direction and sense of the motion of the
hanging-wall with respect to the foot-wall measured on the dislocation plane
(it is taken from the horizontal plane, between the Strike direction and the
Slip vector direction)
−π ≤ λ ≤ π

sup. terr.

Stein & Wysession, 2003

 To describe the
dislocation process we
Earth surf. need to know
 the surface where
dislocation occurred
(fault plane)
foot-wall
 direction and sense
hanging-wall
of the relative motion
of the blocks (slip
Strike and dip angles describe the fault vector)
plane, rake angle the block relative motion.

Strike, dip and rake define the

focal mechanism.
Basic fault geometries
When the two sides of the fault slide horizontally by each other,
pure strike-slip motion occurs (λ=0 or λ=π)

Stein & Wysession, 2003

When the two sides of the fault slide horizontally by each other,
pure strike-slip motion occurs (λ=0 or λ=π)

When λ = 0°, the hanging-wall moves to the right,

and the motion is called left-lateral.

Similarly, for λ = 180°, right-lateral motion occurs.

To determine the strike-slip type, look across the fault

and see which way the other side moved.
The other basic fault geometries (i.e., characterized by a vertical
motion) describe dip-slip mechanisms (λ = - π/2 or λ = π/2)

Stein & Wysession, 2003

The other basic fault geometries (i.e., characterized by a vertical
motion) describe dip-slip mechanisms (λ=- π/2 o λ=π/2)

When λ = -90° (or 270°), the hanging wall slides

downward, causing normal faulting.

In the opposite case, λ = 90°, the hanging wall goes upward,

yielding reverse or thrust faulting.
Most earthquakes consist of some combinations of these motions and have
slip angles between these values. It is thus useful, when thinking about
earthquake mechanisms, to remember the three basic faulting types.

Stein & Wysession, 2003

Basic fault geometries
Rake angle (or slip angle) defines direction and sense of motion of
two blocks along the dislocation plane.
Focal sphere: ideal sphere centered in the source on
which the dislocation process takes place.

Stein & Wysession, 2003

To estimate the focal mechanism of an earthquake we may use
 P-onset polarity
 Waveform inversion

Stein & Wysession, 2003

 station
horizontal
vertical (N-S or E-W)
Earth surface

source
   2
P-waves (primary), velocity   
Longitudinal waves (or compressional) move the particles back and
forth in the same direction as the wave is moving (i.e., a series of
dilatations and compressions).
P-waves are associated with volume variations (temporary).
 Tp The first motion can be compression (C or +),
P-wave when the ground “moves toward” the station, or
Arrival time dilatation (D or -), when the ground “moves
away” from the station.

Polarity
C/D

C D
 D
C

The basic idea is that the polarity (direction) of the first arrival (P-wave)
varies between seismic stations at different directions from an earthquake.
The first motions define 4 quadrants, 2 compressional and 2
dilatational. The division between quadrants occurs
along the fault plane and a plane perpendicular to it (auxiliar plane).
 D
C

The P-onset polarity recorded at a station depends on the location

of the station with respect to the hypocenter and to the earthquake
focal mechanism (see figure)
If we have enough polarity data we may estimate the
focal mechanism solution.
Focal sphere: ideal sphere centered in the source on
which the dislocation process takes place.

Stein & Wysession, 2003

down up
We define the focal sphere (small sphere centered in the hypocenter)
and we report station data on the sphere by following the raypath.
Polarity data on the sphere will define 4 quadrants, the two planes
separating these quadrants will be the fault and auxiliary planes.
 E

We define the focal sphere (small sphere centered in the hypocenter) and
we report station data on the sphere by following the raypath. Polarity data
on the sphere will define 4 quadrants, the two planes separating these
quadrants will be the fault and auxiliary planes.
To estimate focal mechanism solution

 Report on the focal sphere the

polarity data from stations
 Define the 2 planes separating C and
D data
Stereographic projection is used to project the
focal sphere onto an underlying plane.
 Stereographic projection is used to
project the focal sphere onto an
underlying plane.
Fault and auxiliary planes intersect the
focal sphere, and these intersections are
projected as curves separating
compressions and dilations
 Stereographic projection is used to
project the focal sphere onto an
underlying plane.
Fault and auxiliary planes intersect the
focal sphere, and these intersections are
projected as curves separating
compressions and dilations
Although the focal mechanisms FOCAL MECHANISMS FOR
look different, they reflect the same BASIC FAULTS
four-lobed P-wave radiation pattern

However, because the fault plane

and slip direction are oriented
differently relative to the earth's
surface, the projections of the
radiation pattern lobes on the lower
focal hemisphere differ.

To see this, mark the P wave

quadrants on a ball and rotate it.

Stein & Wysession, 2003

Reverse mechanism: Normal mechanism: Strike-slip mechanism:
The block that lies The block that lies above Pure horizontal relative
above the fault plane the fault plane moves motion of two blocks.
moves upward. downward.

D
D C D C D C C C
D
Number of available Quality of
P-wave arrival times recordings

Factors that can

adversely affect
focal mechansim
analyses

Epicentral Magnitude of
distances the event
The P-onset polarity recorded at a station depends on the location of the
station with respect to the hypocenter and to the earthquake focal
mechanism.
If we have enough polarity data we may estimate the focal mechanism
solution.
Number of available Quality of
P-wave arrival times recordings

Factors that can

adversely affect
focal mechansim
analyses

Epicentral Magnitude of
distances the event
Good quality of the recordings
Instrumental errors and/or picking bias
very noisy recording  inaccurate or impossible picking
Number of available Quality of
P-wave arrival times recordings

Factors that can

adversely affect
focal mechansim
analyses

Epicentral Magnitude of
distances the event
20150120
M 3.2

NOV 18km
MTTG 39km
GIB 136km
20121025
M 5.0

CUC 22km
SERS 109km
MPAZ 213km
20150120
M 3.2

NOV 18km nearest station – easy to read

MTTG 39km
GIB 136km
20150120
M 3.2

NOV 18km
MTTG 39km
GIB 136km furthest station – difficul to read
20121025
M 5.0

CUC 22km nearest station – very good recording

SERS 109km
MPAZ 213km
20121025
M 5.0

CUC 22km

SERS 109km distant station – not so bad thanks

to the magnitude of the event
MPAZ 213km
20121025
M 5.0

CUC 22km
SERS 109km
MPAZ 213km furthest station – difficult to read
To estimate the focal mechanism of an earthquake we may use
 P-onset polarity
 Waveform inversion

Stein & Wysession, 2003

 WAVEFORM INVERSION

Earth Seismometer

Seismic
source Seismogram

Synthetic seismograms are theoretical seismograms that result from

the numerical simulation of the expected soil motion to one or more
receivers. They are obtained by modeling the effects of (1) source, (2)
propagation in the medium and (3) recording instrument.
observed data
synthetics data
Focal mechanisms can be used to infer the directions of
relative motion between plates
Strike-slip
+ -
+ -

- +

- +
San Andreas Fault
 Normal

+
-
+

Section view
 Reverse

-
+
-

Section view
 Ambiguity of nodal planes
because of the symmetry of the 4-quadrant subdivision,
with only polarity data the fault plane is indistinguishable from
the auxiliary plane.
Reverse faulting on the auxiliary plane
will furnish the same focal sphere