Chapter 37.

Wave Optics
37.1 Young’s Double-Slit Experiment
37.2 Analysis Model: Waves in Interference
37.3 Intensity Distribution of the Double-Slit Interference Pattern
37.4 Change of Phase Due to Reflection
37.5 Interference in Thin Films
37.6 The Michelson Interferometer

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Wave Optics

Wave optics is a study concerned with phenomena that

cannot be adequately explained by geometric (ray) optics.
◼ Sometimes called physical optics

These phenomena include:

◼ Interference

◼ Diffraction

◼ Polarization

2
 Interference
In constructive interference
the amplitude of the resultant
wave is greater than that of
either individual wave.
In destructive interference the
amplitude of the resultant wave
is less than that of either
individual wave.
All interference associated
with light waves arises when
the electromagnetic fields that
constitute the individual waves
combine.
3
37.1.Young’s Double-Slit Experiment: Schematic

Thomas Young first

demonstrated interference in
light waves from two sources
in 1801.
The narrow slits S1 and S2
act as sources of waves.
The waves emerging from
the slits originate from the
same wave front and
therefore are always in phase.

4
Resulting Interference Pattern

The light from the two slits

forms a visible pattern on a
screen.
The pattern consists of a
series of bright and dark
parallel bands called fringes.
Constructive interference
occurs where a bright fringe
occurs.
Destructive interference
results in a dark fringe.

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Resulting Interference Pattern

Figure 37.2 An interference pattern involving water waves is produced

by two vibrating sources at the water’s surface
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Resulting Interference Pattern

7
 Interference Patterns

Constructive interference
occurs at point O.
The two waves travel the
same distance.
◼ Therefore, they arrive in phase

As a result, constructive
interference occurs at this point
and a bright fringe is observed.

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Interference Patterns

The lower wave has to travel

farther than the upper wave to
reach point P.
The lower wave travels one
wavelength farther.
◼ Therefore, the waves
arrive in phase
A second bright fringe occurs
at this position.

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 Interference Patterns

The upper wave travels

one-half of a wavelength
farther than the lower wave
to reach point R.
The trough of the upper
wave overlaps the crest of
the lower wave.
This is destructive
interference.
◼ A dark fringe occurs.
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Conditions for Interference

To observe interference in light waves, the

following two conditions must be met:
◼ The sources must be coherent
They must maintain a constant phase with respect to each
other.

◼ The sources should be monochromatic

Monochromatic means they have a single wavelength.

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Producing Coherent Sources

Light from a monochromatic source is used to illuminate

a barrier.
The barrier contains two small openings.
◼ The openings are usually in the shape of slits.

The light emerging from the two slits is coherent since a

single source produces the original light beam.
This is a commonly used method.

12
Diffraction

If the light traveled in a straight

line after passing through the
slits, no interference pattern
would be observed.
From Huygens’s principle we
know the waves spread out from
the slits.
This divergence of light from
its initial line of travel is called
diffraction.

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Diffraction interference patterns with phasor diagrams

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37.2. Young’s Double-Slit Experiment: Geometry

The path difference, δ,

is found from geometry.
δ = r2 – r1 = d sinθ
◼ This assumes the paths
are parallel.
◼ Not exactly true, but a
very good
approximation if L is
much greater than d

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Interference Equations
For a bright fringe produced by constructive interference,
the path difference must be either zero or some integer
multiple of the wavelength.
δ = d sin θbright = mλ
◼ m = 0, ±1, ±2, …
◼ m is called the order number
When m = 0, it is the zeroth-order maximum
When m = ±1, it is called the first-order maximum

When destructive interference occurs, a dark fringe is

observed.
This needs a path difference of an odd half wavelength.
δ = d sin θdark = (m + ½)λ
◼ m = 0, ±1, ±2, …
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 Interference Equations, cont.
The positions of the fringes can be measured vertically from
the zeroth-order maximum.
Using the large triangle in fig. 37.5,
◼ ybright = L tan qbright
◼ ydark = L tan qdark

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 Interference Equations
Assumptions in a Young’s Double Slit Experiment:
◼ L >> d
◼ d >> λ
Approximation:
◼ θ is small and therefore the small angle approximation tan θ ~ sin θ
can be used
y = L tan θ ≈ L sin θ
For small angles,

mλ ( m + 1 )λ
y bright =L and y dark = L 2
d d
This result shows that ybright is linear in the order number m, so the fringes are
equally spaced for small angles 18
Quick Quiz 37.1 Which of the following causes the
fringes in a two-slit interference pattern to move
farther apart?

(a) decreasing the wavelength of the light

(b) decreasing the screen distance L
(c) decreasing the slit spacing d
(d) immersing the entire apparatus in water

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Quick Quiz 37.1 Which of the following causes the
fringes in a two-slit interference pattern to move
farther apart?

(a) decreasing the wavelength of the light

(b) decreasing the screen distance L
(c) decreasing the slit spacing d
(d) immersing the entire apparatus in water

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21
 Example 37.1. Measuring the Wavelength
of a Light Source
A viewing screen is separated from a double slit by 4.80 m.
The distance between the two slits is 0.03 mm. Monochromatic
light is directed toward the double slit and forms an
interference pattern on the screen. The first dark fringe is 4.50
cm from the center line on the screen.
A. Determine the wavelength of the light.
B. Calculate the distance between adjacent bright fringes

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Example 37.1. Measuring the Wavelength of a Light Source
A viewing screen is separated from a double slit by 4.80 m. The distance between the
two slits is 0.03 mm. Monochromatic light is directed toward the double slit and forms
an interference pattern on the screen. The first dark fringe is 4.50 cm from the center
line on the screen.
A. Determine the wavelength of the light.
L >> y → the angles for the fringes are small

B. Calculate the distance between adjacent bright fringes

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 Example 37.2 Separating Double-Slit
Fringes of Two Wavelengths
A light source emits visible light of two wavelengths:  = 430
nm and ’ = 510 nm. The source is used in a double-slit
interference experiment in which L = 1.50 m and d = 0.025
mm. Find the separation distance between the thirdorder
bright fringes for the two wavelength
What if we examine the entire interference pattern due to the two
wavelengths and look for overlapping fringes? Are there any
locations on the screen where the bright fringes from the two
wavelengths overlap exactly?

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Example 37.2 Separating Double-Slit Fringes of Two Wavelengths
A light source emits visible light of two wavelengths:  = 430 nm and ’ = 510 nm. The
source is used in a double-slit interference experiment in which L = 1.50 m and
d = 0.025 mm. Find the separation distance between the thirdorder bright fringes for
the two wavelength

What if we examine the entire interference pattern due to the two wavelengths and look for
overlapping fringes? Are there any locations on the screen where the bright fringes from the
two wavelengths overlap exactly?

25
37.3. Uses for Young’s Double-Slit Experiment

Young’s double-slit experiment provides a

method for measuring wavelength of the light.
This experiment gave the wave model of light a
great deal of credibility.
◼ It was inconceivable that particles of light could
cancel each other in a way that would explain the
dark fringes.

26
Intensity Distribution: Double-Slit Interference Pattern
The bright fringes in the interference pattern do not have
sharp edges.
◼ The equations developed give the location of only the centers of the
bright and dark fringes.
We can calculate the distribution of light intensity associated
with the double-slit interference pattern.
Assumptions:
◼ The two slits represent coherent sources of sinusoidal waves.
◼ The waves from the slits have the same angular frequency, ω.
◼ The waves have a constant phase difference, φ.
The total magnitude of the electric field at any point on the
screen is the superposition of the two waves.
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Intensity Distribution, Electric Fields

The magnitude of each wave at point P on a screen

can be found.
◼ E1 = Eo sin ωt
◼ E2 = Eo sin (ωt + )
Both waves have the same amplitude, Eo

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Intensity Distribution, Phase Relationships

The phase difference between the two waves at P

depends on their path difference.
◼ δ = r2 – r1 = d sin θ

A path difference of λ (for constructive interference)

corresponds to a phase difference of 2π rad.
A path difference of δ is the same fraction of λ as the
phase difference φ is of 2π.
This gives

→ the phase difference  depends on the angle q 29

 Intensity Distribution, Resultant Field
The magnitude of the resultant electric field comes from the
superposition principle.
◼ EP = E1+ E2 = Eo [sin ωt + sin (ωt + )]

This can also be expressed as

◼ EP has the same frequency as the light at the slits.

◼ The magnitude of the field is multiplied by the factor 2cos ( / 2).

◼ If  = 0, 2, 4, …, the magnitude of the electric field at point P is 2E0 →

corresponding to the condition for maximum constructive interference

◼ If  = , 3, 5, …, the magnitude of the electric field at point P is zero →

total destructive interference
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 Intensity Distribution, Equation
The expression for the intensity comes from the fact that the
intensity of a wave is proportional to the square of the resultant
electric field magnitude at that point.

The light intensity at point P:

The time averaged value of sin2(t + /2) over one cycle is ½

(see the next slide):

and

The intensity therefore is

 πd sin θ  2  πd 
I = Imax cos 
2
 I
 max cos  y  ( small angles )
 λ   λL 
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Figure 33.5 (a) Graph of the current in a resistor as a function of time. (b) Graph of the
current squared in a resistor as a function of time, showing that the red dashed line is
the average of I2maxsin2t. In general, the average value of sin2t or cos2t over one
cycle is 1/2.

32
 Intensity Distribution, Graph

➢ The interference pattern

consists of equally spaced
fringes of equal intensity

Figure 37.6 Light intensity versus dsin q for a double-slit interference

pattern when the screen is far from the two slits (L >> d)
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 Multiple Slits, Graph
With more than two slits, the
pattern contains primary and
secondary maxima.

For N slits, the intensity of the

primary maxima is N2 times greater
than that due to a single slit.

As the number of slits increases,

the primary maxima increase in
intensity and become narrower.

◼ The secondary maxima

decrease in intensity relative to
the primary maxima.

The number of secondary maxima

is N – 2, where N is the number of
slits.
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Quick Quiz 37.2 Using Figure 37.7 as a model, sketch the interference
pattern from six slits

Figure 37.7 Multiple-slit interference patterns. As N, the number of slits, is increased, the
primary maxima (the tallest peaks in each graph) become narrower but remain fixed in position
and the number of secondary maxima increases 35
Quick Quiz 37.2 Using Figure 37.7 as a model, sketch the interference
pattern from six slits

Figure 37.7

36
37.4. Lloyd’s Mirror

An arrangement for
producing an interference
pattern with a single light
source.
Waves reach point P either
by a direct path or by reflection.
The reflected ray can be
treated as a ray from the
source S’ behind the mirror.

37
Interference Pattern from a Lloyd’s Mirror

This arrangement can be

thought of as a double-slit source
with the distance between points
S and S’ comparable to length d.
An interference pattern is
formed.
The positions of the dark and
bright fringes are reversed
relative to the pattern of two real
sources.
This is because there is a 180°
phase change produced by the
reflection.
38
 Phase Changes Due To Reflection
An electromagnetic wave undergoes a phase change of 180°
upon reflection from a medium of higher index of refraction than
the one in which it was traveling.
◼ Analogous to a pulse on a string reflected from a rigid support

39
 Phase Changes Due To Reflection, cont.

There is no phase change

when the wave is reflected
from a boundary leading to
a medium of lower index of
refraction.
◼ Analogous to a pulse on a
string reflecting from a free
support

40
37.5. Interference in Thin Films
Interference effects are commonly observed in thin films.
◼ Examples include soap bubbles and oil on water
The various colors observed when white light is incident on
such films result from the interference of waves reflected from
the two surfaces of the film.
Facts to remember:
◼ An electromagnetic wave traveling from a medium of index of
refraction n1 toward a medium of index of refraction n2 undergoes a
180° phase change on reflection when n2 > n1.
There is no phase change in the reflected wave if n2 < n1.
◼ The wavelength of light λn in a medium with index of refraction n is
λn = λ/n where λ is the wavelength of light in vacuum.

41
 Interference in Thin Films

Assume the light rays are

traveling in air nearly normal to the
two surfaces of the film.
Ray 1 undergoes a phase
change of 180° with respect to the
incident ray.
Ray 2, which is reflected from
the lower surface, undergoes no
phase change with respect to the
incident wave.

42
 Interference in Thin Films

Ray 2 also travels an additional

distance of 2t before the waves
recombine.
For constructive interference
◼ 2nt = (m + ½)λ (m = 0, 1, 2 …)
This takes into account both the
difference in optical path length for
the two rays and the 180° phase
change.

For destructive interference

◼ 2nt = mλ (m = 0, 1, 2 …)

43
Interference in Thin Films

Two factors influence interference

◼ Possible phase reversals on reflection

◼ Differences in travel distance

The conditions are valid if the medium above the top

surface is the same as the medium below the bottom
surface.
◼ If there are different media, these conditions are valid as long as
the index of refraction for both is less than n.

44
Interference in Thin Films

If the thin film is between two different media, one of

lower index than the film and one of higher index, the
conditions for constructive and destructive interference are
reversed.
With different materials on either side of the film, you
may have a situation in which there is a 180o phase change
at both surfaces or at neither surface.
◼ Be sure to check both the path length and the phase change.

45
Interference in Thin Film, Soap Bubble Example

46
 Newton’s Rings

Another method for viewing interference is to place a

plano-convex lens on top of a flat glass surface.
The air film between the glass surfaces varies in thickness
from zero at the point of contact to some thickness t.
A pattern of light and dark rings is observed.
◼ These rings are called Newton’s rings.

◼ The particle model of light could not explain the origin of the rings.

Newton’s rings can be used to test optical lenses.

47
Newton’s Rings, Set-Up and Pattern

Figure 37.11 (a) The combination of rays reflected from the flat
plate and the curved lens surface gives rise to an interference
pattern known as Newton’s rings.
(b) Photograph of Newton’s rings.
48
Problem Solving Strategy with Thin Films

Conceptualize
◼ Identify the light source.
◼ Identify the location of the observer.
Categorize
◼ Be sure the techniques for thin-film interference are appropriate.
◼ Identify the thin film causing the interference.

49
Problem Solving with Thin Films, cont.
Analyze
◼ The type of interference – constructive or destructive – that occurs is
determined by the phase relationship between the upper and lower
surfaces.
◼ Phase differences have two causes.
differences in the distances traveled
phase changes occurring on reflection
◼ Both causes must be considered when determining constructive or
destructive interference.
◼ Use the indices of refraction of the materials to determine the correct
equations.
Finalize
◼ Be sure your results make sense physically.
◼ Be sure they are of an appropriate size.
50
Example 37.3 Interference in a Soap Film

Calculate the minimum thickness of a soap-bubble film

that results in constructive interference in the reflected
light if the film is illuminated with light whose wavelength
in free space is  = 600 nm. The index of refraction of
the soap film is 1.33

What if the film is twice as thick? Does this situation produce

constructive interference.

51
Example 37.3 Interference in a Soap Film
Calculate the minimum thickness of a soap-bubble film that results in constructive
interference in the reflected light if the film is illuminated with light whose wavelength
in free space is  = 600 nm. The index of refraction of the soap film is 1.33

The minimum film thickness for constructive interference in the reflected light corresponds
to m = 0

What if the film is twice as thick? Does this situation produce constructive interference

The allowed values of m show that constructive interference occurs for odd multiples of the
thickness corresponding to m = 0, t = 113 nm. Therefore, constructive interference does not
occur for a film that is twice as thick 52
Example 37.4 Nonreflective Coatings for Solar Cells
Solar cells - devices that generate electricity when exposed to sunlight - are
often coated with a transparent, thin film of silicon monoxide (SiO, n = 1.45)
to minimize reflective losses from the surface. Suppose a silicon solar cell (n
= 3.5) is coated with a thin film of silicon monoxide for this purpose (Fig.
37.12a). Determine the minimum film thickness that produces the least
reflection at a wavelength of 550 nm, near the center of the visible spectrum

53
Example 37.4 Nonreflective Coatings for Solar Cells
Solar cells - devices that generate electricity when exposed to sunlight - are often
coated with a transparent, thin film of silicon monoxide (SiO, n = 1.45) to minimize
reflective losses from the surface. Suppose a silicon solar cell (n = 3.5) is coated with a
thin film of silicon monoxide for this purpose (Fig. 37.12a). Determine the minimum film
thickness that produces the least reflection at a wavelength of 550 nm, near the center
of the visible spectrum
➢ The reflected light is a minimum when rays 1 and 2 meet
the condition of destructive interference.
➢ Both rays undergo a 180° phase change upon reflection:
+ ray 1 from the upper SiO surface
+ ray 2 from the lower SiO surface.
➢ The net change in phase due to reflection is therefore
zero, and the condition for a reflection minimum requires
a path difference of n/2, (n is the wavelength of the light
in SiO)
➢ 2nt = /2, where l is the wavelength in air and n is the
index of refraction of SiO

➢ A typical uncoated solar cell has reflective losses as high as 30%, but a coating of SiO can reduce this
value to about 10% 54
 37.6. Michelson Interferometer

The interferometer was invented by an American

physicist, A. A. Michelson.
The interferometer splits light into two parts and then
recombines the parts to form an interference pattern.
The device can be used to measure wavelengths or
other lengths with great precision.

55
 Michelson Interferometer, Schematic
A ray of light is split into two rays
by the mirror Mo.
◼ The mirror is at 45o to the incident
beam.
The mirror is called a beam
splitter.
It transmits half the light and
reflects the rest.
The reflected ray goes toward
mirror M1.
The transmitted ray goes toward
mirror M2.
The two rays travel separate
paths L1 and L2.
After reflecting from M1 and M2,
the rays eventually recombine at Mo
and form an interference pattern.
56
 Michelson Interferometer – Operation

The interference condition for the two rays is determined

by their path length difference.
M1 is moveable.
As it moves, the fringe pattern collapses or expands,
depending on the direction M1 is moved.
The fringe pattern shifts by one-half fringe each time M1
is moved a distance λ/4.
The wavelength of the light is then measured by counting
the number of fringe shifts for a given displacement of M1.

57
Michelson Interferometer – Applications

The Michelson interferometer was used to disprove the

idea that the Earth moves through an ether.
Modern applications include:
◼ Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)

◼ Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO)

58
 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy

This is used to create a high-resolution spectrum in a

very short time interval.
The result is a complex set of data relating light intensity
as a function of mirror position.
◼ This is called an interferogram.

The interferogram can be analyzed by a computer to

provide all of the wavelength components.
◼ This process is called a Fourier transform.

59
Michelson Interferometer

60
Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory

General relativity predicts the existence of gravitational waves.

In Einstein’s theory, gravity is equivalent to a distortion of space.

◼ These distortions can then propagate through space.

The LIGO apparatus is designed to detect the distortion produced by a

disturbance that passes near the Earth.

The interferometer uses laser beams with an effective path length of

several kilometers.

At the end of an arm of the interferometer, a mirror is mounted on a

massive pendulum.

When a gravitational wave passes, the pendulum moves, and the

interference pattern due to the laser beams from the two arms changes.

61
LIGO in Richland, Washington

62