AGR 202

INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

FOOD CONTAMINATION
Introduction

Contamination is when something becomes impure, unsafe, or harmful because it has come into
contact with something unwanted or dangerous. It usually refers to pollution or the presence of
harmful substances in things like:

• Food (e.g. bacteria or chemicals making it unsafe to eat)

• Water (e.g. industrial waste or germs)
• Air (e.g. smoke, dust, or chemicals)
• Surfaces or objects (e.g. germs on a hospital bed or kitchen counter)

The process of food contamination takes several steps to get food from the farm or fishery to the
dining table. We call these steps the food production chain. Contamination can occur at any point
along the chain during production, processing, distribution, or preparation. Production means
growing the plants, we harvest or raising the animals we use for food. Most food comes from
domesticated animals and plants, and their production occurs on farms or ranches. Some foods
are caught or harvested from the wild, such as some fish, mushrooms, and game.
Examples of Contamination in Production: If a hen‟s reproductive organs are infected, the yolk
of an egg can be contaminated in the hen before it is even laid. If the fields are sprayed with
contaminated water for irrigation, fruits and vegetables can be contaminated before harvest. Fish
in some tropical reefs may acquire a toxin from the smaller sea creatures they eat.
Processing means changing plants or animals into what we recognize and buy as food. It
involves different steps for different kinds of foods. For crop, processing can be as simple as
washing and sorting, or it can involve trimming, slicing, or shredding. Milk is usually processed
by pasteurizing it; sometimes it is made into cheese. Nuts may be roasted, chopped, or ground.
For animals, the first step of processing is slaughter. Meat and poultry may then be cut into
pieces or ground. They may also be smoked, cooked, or frozen and may be combined with other
ingredients to make a sausage.
Examples of Contamination in Processing
If contaminated water or ice is used to wash, pack, or chill fruits or vegetables, the contamination
can spread to those items. During the slaughter process, germs on an animal‟s hide that came
from the intestines can get into the final meat product. If germs contaminate surfaces used for
food processing, such as a processing line or storage bins, germs can spread to foods that touch
those surfaces.
Food distribution means getting food from the farm or processing plant to the consumer or a food
service facility like a restaurant, cafeteria, or hospital kitchen. This step might involve
transporting foods just once, such as trucking produce from a farm to the local farmers‟ market.
It might involve many stages, for instance, frozen hamburger patties might be trucked from a
meat processing plant to a large supplier, stored for a few days in the supplier‟s warehouse,
trucked again to a local distribution facility for a restaurant chain, and finally delivered to an
individual restaurant.
Examples of Contamination in Distribution
If refrigerated food is left on a loading dock for long time in warm weather, it could reach
temperatures that allow bacteria to grow. Fresh produce can be contaminated if it is loaded into a
truck that was not cleaned after transporting animals or animal products.
Food preparation means getting the food ready to eat. It may occur in the kitchen of a restaurant,
home, or institution. It may involve following a complex recipe with many ingredients, simply
heating and serving a food on a plate, or just opening a package and eating the food.
Examples of Contamination in Preparation: If a food worker stays on the job while sick and
does not wash his or her hands carefully after using the toilet, the food worker can spread germs
by touching food. If a cook uses a cutting board or knife to cut raw chicken and then uses the
same knife or cutting board without washing it to slice tomatoes for a salad, the tomatoes can be
contaminated by germs from the chicken. Contamination can occur in a refrigerator if meat
juices get on items that will be eaten raw.
Mishandling at Multiple Points
Sometimes, by the time a food causes illness, it has been mishandled in several ways along the
food production chain. Once contamination occurs, further mishandling, such as under cooking
the food or leaving it out on the counter at an unsafe temperature, can make a foodborne illness
more likely. Many germs grow quickly in food held at room temperature; a tiny number can
grow to a large number in just a few hours. Reheating or boiling food after it has been left at
room temperature for a long time does not always make it safe because some germs produce
toxins that are not destroyed by heat.
Foods can become contaminated by microorganisms (bacteria, fungi and viruses) from many
different sources during the food preparation and storage process.
Cross-contamination in food is when harmful bacteria or other microorganisms spread from one
food item to another — especially from raw food to ready-to-eat food.
This usually happens through:
• Hands – touching raw meat, then handling vegetables without washing hands
• Utensils and equipment – using the same knife or cutting board for raw chicken and then for
salad
• Surfaces – placing cooked food on a plate that held raw meat
• Drips or splashes – raw meat juices leaking onto other foods in the fridge
Cross contamination of food is a common factor in the cause of food borne illness. Preventing cross
contamination is one step
to help eliminate food borne illness. It is important to protect food from risk of contamination to
prevent food poisoning and the entry of foreign objects.

Types of Food Contamination

Biological Contamination
Biological contamination is one of the common causes of food poisoning as well as spoilage.
Contamination of food items by other living organisms is known as biological food
contamination. During biological contamination, the harmful bacteria spread on foods that we
consume. Even a single bacterium can multiply very quickly when they find ideal growth
conditions. Not just bacteria, but also their process of multiplying can be quite harmful to
humans.
Bacteria are commonly found in the following places:
i. Dust
ii. Raw meat
iii. The air
iv. The human body
v. Pets and pests
vi. Clothes of food handler
vii. Kitchen Cloths
The best way to avoid food contamination is by washing the food items with KENT vegetable
and fruit cleaner and washes the kitchen cloths on a regular basis.
If food consumed has been contaminated by certain, harmful bacteria (pathogenic
bacteria) or their toxins, food poisoning may result. Bacteria are responsible for most food
poisoning cases. Symptoms of food poisoning may include vomiting, diarrhoea, fever and
abdominal pain. The symptoms may take some time to occur depending on the type of bacteria.
In general, the bacteria must grow in the food to produce sufficient numbers to infect the body,
multiply within the intestine and cause illness. Alternatively, toxins may be produced in the
foodstuff or within the intestine, to produce symptoms very soon after ingestion. It is important
to remember that foods contaminated with pathogenic bacteria will look, taste and smell
perfectly normal.
Control of Bacterial Contamination
i. Prevent cross-contamination: Cross-contamination occurs when bacteria are
transferred onto food either directly (when raw and cooked food comes into direct
contact, sneezing or coughing onto food) or indirectly (via a vehicle such as from
dirty utensils, pests, hands etc.)
ii. Separate raw and cooked foods: Prepared and cooked foods should be stored
separate from raw foods and unprepared vegetables to reduce the risk of cross contamination . If this
is not possible, raw food and unprepared vegetables should always be stored at the base of the
refrigerator.
iii. Keep stored foods covered.
iv. Prevent animals and insects entering the food room.
v. Keep food preparation areas and utensils clean.
vi. Wash hands frequently, particularly after using the toilet, handling raw foods,
handling refuse, blowing your nose, combing your hair and after smoking.
vii. Keep cuts, boils etc., covered with a waterproof dressing.
viii. Do not handle food if suffering from symptoms of diarrhea or vomiting and notify
your supervisor immediately.
To multiply/grow, bacteria require food, warmth, moisture and time. By removing one or more
of these criteria the growth of bacteria can be slowed or even stopped. Therefore foods should
i. be stored at safe temperatures (either cold below 8°C or hot above 63°C)
ii. be cooked thoroughly
iii. not be prepared too far in advance
iv. not be kept at room temperature for any longer than necessary
v. be heated thoroughly and stirred during heating
vi. be cooled within 1½ hours and refrigerate.
vii. Foods that are dry should be kept dry and prevented from becoming moist.
Physical Contamination
When harmful objects contaminate the food, it leads to physical contamination. At times, food
items can have both physical and biological contamination. Physical contaminants such as rats,
hair, pests, glass or metals can contaminate food and make it unhealthy. Some of the safety tips
that you can follow when handling food items to prevent food contamination are:
i. Tie your hair when handling food.
ii. Clean away cracked or broken crockery and utensils to avoid contamination
iii. Keep your fingernails short or wear clean gloves when handling food
iv. Wash fruits and vegetables with KENT Vegetable and Fruit Cleaner to remove dirt
v. Wear minimum jewelry when preparing food
Physical contamination can occur at any stage of the food chain and therefore all reasonable
precautions must be taken to prevent it.
Examples of physical contamination include:
i. Pieces of machinery which can fall into food during manufacture. Most
manufacturers protect against this type of contamination by installing metal detectors
on the production lines which reject food if anything metallic is present.
ii. Stones, pips, bones, twigs, pieces of shell.
iii. Foreign objects can enter food during handling so care must be taken to adhere to
good food handling practices (e.g. do not wear jewelry or smoke in a food room).
Chemical Contamination
Chemical contaminants are one of the serious sources of food contamination. These
contaminants can also lead to food poisoning. Pesticides present in fruits and vegetables are one
of the main sources of contamination. In addition, kitchen cleaning agents, food containers made
of non-safe plastic and pest control products also lead to food contamination. Though we make it
a point to wash fruits and vegetables thoroughly, however, plain water can‟t remove all the
contaminants. The smart kitchen appliance uses ozone disinfection technology that removes
contaminants from the surface of the fruits and vegetables to make it safe for consumption.
Chemicals, including pesticides, bleach and other cleaning materials can contaminate food if not
used carefully. For example, store cleaning fluids separate to foods to prevent tainting and
contamination if there is a spillage.
Cross-Contamination
Many of us are not aware of cross-contamination; however, this type of contamination can lead
to a number of health problems. Cross-contamination takes place when pathogens are transported
from any object that you use in the kitchen. Dirty kitchen clothes, unclean utensils, pests, raw
food storage can lead to cross-contamination. Here are some of the ways to avoid cross contamination:
Personal Hygiene: Thoroughly wash your hands and face when handling food. Coughing,
sneezing or even touching your hair can lead to cross-contamination
Utensils: Use separate utensils to prepare different types of foods. Avoid using the same
chopping board and knife for ready to eat foods
Storing of Food: Raw foods should not come in contact with ready to eat foods. Cover and store
raw foods below cooked foods to prevent cross-contamination.
Disposing Waste: Make sure you store and seal garbage correctly to prevent cross-contamination.
Clean and sanitize the waste bins to prevent infestation risk.
Cross contamination is the contamination of a food product from another source. There are three
(3) main ways cross contamination can occur: Food to food, Equipment/Utensil to food and
People to food.
Food to Food
Food can become contaminated by bacteria from other foods. This type of cross contamination
is especially dangerous if raw foods come into contact with cooked foods. Here are some
examples of food to food cross contamination: In a refrigerator, meat drippings from raw meat
stored on a top shelf might drip onto cooked vegetables placed on a lower shelf. Raw chicken
placed on a grill touching a steak that is being cooked.
People to Food
People can also be a source of cross contamination to foods. Some examples are: Handling foods
after using the toilet without properly washing your hands. Touching raw meats and then
preparing vegetables without washing hands between tasks. Using an apron to wipe your hands
between handling different foods, or wiping a counter with a towel then using the towel to dry
your hands.
Equipment to Food
Contamination can also be passed from kitchen equipment and utensils to food. This type of
contamination occurs because the equipment or utensils were not properly cleaned and sanitized
between each use. Some examples are: Using unclean equipment such as slicers, can openers and
utensils to prepare food. Using cutting boards and the same knife when cutting different types of
foods, such as cutting raw chicken followed by salad preparation.
Storing a cooked product, such as a sauce, in an unsanitized container that was previously used
to store raw meat.
Preventing Cross Contamination
1. Wash your hands between handling different foods as well as before and after handling each
food.
2. After cutting raw meats, wash hands, cutting board, knife, and counter tops with hot, soapy
water.
3. Wash and sanitize all equipment and utensils that come in contact with food.
4. Marinate meat and poultry in a covered dish in the cooler.
5. Avoid touching your face, skin, and hair or wiping your hands on cleaning cloths.
6. Use a utensil only once to taste food that is to be sold or served.
7. Never store food or packages directly on the floor.
8. Keep wiping cloth for food contact surfaces and tabletops in sanitizer bucket when it is not
being used for wiping.
9. Cloths used for wiping up raw animal juices must be kept separate from cloths used for
other purposes.
10. Avoid bare hand contact with foods that are ready-to-eat (foods that require no further
preparation or cooking before serving; e.g. relish trays and birthday cakes.). Use utensils, deli
tissue, spatulas, tongs, single-use gloves or dispensing equipment.
11. Store food properly by separating washed or prepared foods from unwashed or raw foods.
12. Try preparing each type of food at different times and then clean and sanitize food contact
surfaces between each task.
Toxicants of Foods
A toxicant is any chemical substance that can elicit a detrimental effect in a biological
system. Food toxicant can be divided into three categories, namely endogenous, naturally occurring
and synthetic.
Endogenous toxicants- are those substances produced by tissue cells in plants and other biological
raw materials. These chemical substances often serve the purpose of protecting plant tissues from
pests, as well as from pathogenic organisms. Most endogenous toxicants are produced by plants
however; avoiding such plants may not be enough to avoid consuming the toxins. Transmission to
people can easily occur through the consumption of toxic plants by animals that are then used for
human foods. They are usually found in fruits and vegetables as well as herbs. In addition, some
foods inherently contain cyanide, a poison present in the seeds of peaches, plums, cherries, and
other fruits. Examples include flavonoids, goitrogens, coumarins, cyanogenic compounds, herbal
extracts, and mushroom toxins.
Flavonoid are present in fruits and vegetables and imparts colour and flavour to food materials.
Goitrogens are common in cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli and cauliflower and responsible
for development of goiter in humans and some farm animals.
Coumarins are found in the peels of citrus fruits like grape fruit, lemons, oranges and limes. They
have been implicated in dermatitis, an inflammatory irritation of the skin.
Cyanogenic glucosides are usually converted to hydrogen cyanide (HCN), a powerful toxicant on
consumption. All mushrooms contains at least one toxicant (hydrazine), including those grown for
food. Most of the toxicant cannot be eliminated by cooking, canning, freezing, or any means of
processing. Thus the only way to avoid the toxicants is to avoid eating the mushrooms.
Synthetic Toxicants: They are those that are synthetically produced, which found their way into
our food supply through contamination of the food processing environment. The most common
ones are pesticides which are chemicals used to prevent, control or eliminate insects and other pest.
They include insecticides, herbicides, rodenticides, fungicides, fumigants etc. These are used
especially in the farms to protect food crops against destructive insects, herbs, rodents, fungi etc.
When used in excess, there will be residual pesticides in harvested food crops which could have
toxic effect on man when consumed. For instance, Amide herbicides (Propanil) which is used
extensively to control harmful weeds in rice crops could cause liver damage, central nervous system
depression and death. A new method of pest management (Integrated Pest Management-IPM) which
is based on the minimal use of chemical pesticides to control insects was introduced in the 1980s.
IPM seeks to integrate several techniques to control insects and other pests, instead of relying solely
on chemicals. The concentration of residues that can be found in foods produced from treated crops
is being regulated (maximum residue levels-MRL) in such a manner that strict compliance is
demanded.
Naturally occurring Toxicants: They are those produced by organisms that contaminate the food
products. Microorganism such as dinoflagellates, fungi, and bacteria can produce toxicants that
upon consumption can cause diseases. Not all microorganism produce toxins, but some produce
more than one type of toxins. Some toxin-producing organisms produce toxins in the food matrix
(which can cause intoxication if consumed), while others produce toxins inside the victim
(intoxification). These toxicants differ in their stability, with some able to withstand heating
temperature used in cooking, while others are able to tolerate extremes of pH without losing
activity.
However, many of these microorganisms are noted for food spoilage and when consumed with
food, could cause very serious diseases such as typhoid, dysentery, salmonellosis, cholera and food
intoxications. The microorganisms associated with food are generally specific depending upon the
type of food and particular conditions of storage. For example moulds (Aspergillus) are commonly
associated with cereal product spoilage, Lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacillus) spoils raw milk and
yeasts (Saccharomyces) spoil fruit juice when stored under unfavourable conditions. The
undesirable changes caused by microorganisms can be divided into: those that cause food spoilage
not usually associated with human disease and those that cause food poisoning which could be food
infection, food intoxication or food intoxification.
Toxicity of Heavy Metals
The toxicity of heavy metals increases sharply in the order zinc, cadmium, mercury. The toxicity
of zinc is low. In drinking water zinc can be detected by taste only when it reaches a
concentration of 15 parts per million (ppm); water containing 40 parts per million zinc has a
definite metallic taste. Vomiting is induced when the zinc content exceeds 800 parts per million.
Cases of fatal poisoning have resulted through the ingestion of zinc chloride or sulfide, but these
are rare. Both zinc and zinc salts are well tolerated by the human skin. Excessive inhalation of
zinc compounds can cause such toxic manifestations as fever, excessive salivation, and a cough
that may cause vomiting; but the effects are not permanent.
Compared with those of zinc, the toxic hazards of cadmium are quite high. It is soluble in the
organic acids found in food and forms salts that are converted into cadmium chloride by the
gastric juices. Even small quantities can cause poisoning, with the symptoms of increased
salivation, persistent vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhea. Cadmium has its most serious
effect as a respiratory poison: a number of fatalities have resulted from breathing the fumes or
dusts that arise when cadmium is heated. Symptoms are difficult or laboured breathing, a severe
cough, and violent gastrointestinal disturbance.
Mercury and its compounds are highly toxic. They can be handled safely, but stringent
precautions must be taken to prevent absorption by inhalation, by ingestion, and through the
skin. The main result of acute poisoning is damage to kidneys.

Food poisoning caused by food borne diseases can be divided into three:
(i) Food infections are caused by disease organisms which are carried to the host through
foods; they multiply in the intestinal tract, vaginal trud etc and cause diseases through infection of
their tissues. Examples of these diseases are cholera, salmonellosis, shigellosis, ameobiosis. Cholera
is caused by Vibrio comma, transmitted through drinking water and contaminated food. The
symptoms are diarrhoea, watery stools and vomiting. Salmonellosis is caused by salmonella
bacteria transmitted through foods such as meat, egg and fish. They are easily killed by normal
good cooking, and must be eaten alive in sufficient number to cause infection. Symptoms are
abdominal pain, diarrhea, frequent vomiting and occasional death may occur when untreated.
(ii) Food intoxication is caused by organisms which grow in food and produce chemical
substances in the food which is toxic. Examples are staphylococcal poisoning, Clostridium
botulinum poisoning, etc. Staphylococcal poisoning is caused by Staphylococcus aureus. Symptoms
are salivation, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and abdominal cramps. Sources of contamination are
mouth, throat, nose through coughs and sneezes. Botulism which could be very fatal is caused by
Clostridium botulinum transmitted through home canned foods which are not properly processed.
Symptoms are vomiting, constipation, difficult of eye movement, difficulty in speaking. Death
could result due to the paralysis of the muscles responsible for respiration.
(iii) Food Intoxification: Intoxification is caused by ingestion of bacteria that once inside the
small intestine, begin to produce toxin. The organism E. coli O157:H7 is a good example of this
type of pathogen, able to produce toxin after damaging the lining of the intestine. These toxins are
absorbed by the body, reaching the kidneys where they cause substantial damage to the convoluted
tubules. In addition to serotype O157:H7, other enterohemorrhagic E. coli serotypes are O145:H-,
O26:H11, O104:H21, and O111:NM.
The following steps could be taken to avoid consumption of contaminated foods:
1. Avoid overdose use of pesticides or preservatives such as sodium benzoate.
2. Samples of food crops or food product should be tested for residual.
pesticides or preservatives by appropriate agencies e.g. NAFDAC to ensure safety before they are
distributed to the market for consumers.
3. In preparation of foods, simple unit operations such as peeling/dehulling, soaking, dewatering,
boiling, roasting and drying could get rid of the natural food toxins and antinutritional constituents
to insignificant levels when properly done.
1. Properly cooked food before consumption will prevent food poisoning by microorganisms.
2. Good hygiene, good handling of food to avoid recontamination after cooking and proper storage
of food before consumption (Good manufacturing practices)

FOOD DETERIORATION

Food Deterioration: A series of continuous degradative changes occurring in a food item which may
affect the product's wholesomeness, result in a reduction of its quality, and/or alter its serviceability.
Major causes of food deterioration include:
1.Growth and activities of micro-organisms, mainly bacteria, yeasts and moulds;
2.Activities of natural food enzymes;
3.Insects, parasites and rodents;
4.Temperature, both heat and cold;
5.Moisture and dryness;
6.Air and in particular oxygen;
7.Light;
8.Time.
These causes are not isolated in nature. High temperature, moisture, and air will all affect the
multiplication and activities of bacteria, as well as the chemical and enzymatic activities of the
food. Bacteria, insects, and light can all be operating simultaneously to deteriorate food in the field
or in a warehouse.
At any one time, many forms of deterioration may be in progress, depending upon the food and
environmental conditions.
Preservation techniques are designed to counteract or slow the changes which cause deterioration
by:
*Physical Deterioration
*Chemical Degradation
*Biological Changes
Spoilage of food
Food spoilage is the process where a food product becomes unsuitable to ingest by the consumer.
The cause of such a process is due to many outside factors as a side-effect of the type of product it
is, as well as how the product is packaged and stored. Due to food spoilage, one-third of the world's
food produced for the consumption of humans is lost every year. Bacteria and various fungi are the
cause of spoilage and can create serious consequences for the consumers, but there are preventive
measures that can be taken.
Causes of food spoilage
The food and water may be infected by germs. Flies carry germs. When they sit on our food, they
pass on these germs to our food. There are various factors which are responsible for food spoilage
such as bacteria, moulds, yeasts, moisture, light, temperature and chemical reaction.
There are two types of pathogenic bacteria that target different categories of food. The first type is
called Clostridium botulinum and targets food such as meat and poultry, and Bacillus cereus, which
targets milk and cream. When stored or subjected to unruly conditions, the organisms will begin to
breed apace, releasing harmful toxins that can cause severe illness, even when cooked safely.
Fungi are caused by acidifying, fermenting, discoloring and disintegrating processes and can create
fuzz, powder and slimes of many different colors, including black, white, red, brown and green.
Signs of food spoilage may include an appearance different from the food in its fresh form, such as
a change in color, a change in texture, an unpleasant odour, or an undesirable taste. The item may
become softer than normal. If mold occurs, it is often visible externally on the item.
Preservation of food include
Salting, curing, canning, refrigeration, freezing, preservatives, irradiation, and high hydrostatic
pressure, boiling, sweetening e.t.c.
Contamination of foods from Natural sources
Food contamination refers to the presence of harmful chemicals and microorganisms in food, which
can cause consumer illness.
When food items are not handled or cooked safely, the disease-causing organisms such as bacteria,
parasites, and viruses result in food contamination. The disease-causing parasites produce toxins
that may also lead to food intoxication. In addition, the presence of pesticides, certain cleaning
compounds, contaminate the food. The common reasons for food contamination are:
*Improper storing, handling and preparing food
*Improperly cleaned or sanitized utensils
*Contamination by flies, cockroaches, insects, and pests.

COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF NIGERIA/WEST AFRICA FOOD CONTENT

INTRODUCTION
Foods commonly consumed by humans include: Cereals, and Cereal Products, Starchy roots and
tubers, Legumes (Pulses), leafy vegetables, fruits, nuts and seeds, sugars, syrups, sweets and
preserves, meat, poultry and other meat products, sea food, shell fish, eggs, and roe, milk,
cream and cheese, fats and oils, herbs and spices, non-alcoholic and non-dairy beverages,
alcoholic beverages, dietetic preparations, and others like salt, maggi cubes, iru, vinegar and
fermented condiments.
This unit will enable the student to gain an insight into quantity and quality of the food you eat.
You will be able to identify many of the major and minor chemical components in your food. It
will be possible, by the end of the unit, to determine whether your diet fulfills the natural
requirements to keep you healthy or not.

Nutrient Composition of Some Nigerian Foods

Moisture Content
The Moisture content of Nigerian/African foods may fluctuate greatly with season, length of
storage, temperature of storage, composition of the foods, etc. In calculating energy values of
food, moisture contents must be accurately determined and subtracted from whole to estimate
total dry matter. Water in itself does not provide either nutrients or energy.
Food Energy
The energy values of the foods represent the available energy calculated by the specific factors
for protein, fat, and total carbohydrate by difference, which is obtained by subtracting the sum of
the figures for moisture, protein, fat, and ash from 100. These factors have taken into account the
losses in digestion and metabolism.
Protein
The values for protein were computed from the nitrogen content as determined by the Kjeldahl
method, multiplied by a conversion factor. From the fact that most proteins contain
approximately 16 percent nitrogen, protein contents were calculated with the factor 6.25 for the
conversion of nitrogen to protein.
Vitamins
Apart from the macro nutrients of Carbohydrate, Proteins and Fats, Foods supply micronutrients
in form of Vitamins and Minerals.
The Vitamins are divided into two major groups: (a) Fat Soluble and (b) Water Soluble. Ascorbic
acid or Vitamin C belongs to both groups.
The Fat Soluble Vitamins are Vitamin A, Vitamin D, Vitamin E and Vitamin K
The Water Soluble Vitamins are Thiamine (B1), Riboflavin (B2), Pyridoxal Phosphate (B6),
Niacin, Pantothenic Acid, Folic Acid, and Vitamin B12. Vitamin C is both water soluble and
fat soluble because it is retained in the blood plasma where its level can be estimated.
The Minerals
The micronutrients known as minerals also occur in foods in minute amounts but are very
essential for body metabolisms. They act as catalysts and coenzymes to facilitate body reactions
in intermediary metabolisms. Examples of minerals include Sodium (Na); present in abundance
in common salt (Nacl.); Potassium (K); Calcium (Ca); Iron (Fe); Phosphorus (P); Magnesium
(Mg).; Iodine (12); Zinc (Zn); Cobalt (Co); and Sulphur (S).
Changing Food Habits and Related Problems
Traditional food habits in themselves have rarely been the cause of malnutrition and nutritional
deficiency diseases. The usual cause of such problems has been a simple lack of food,
whether because of environmental conditions or of poverty. The poor in any society may be
forced to consume less food or a more limited variety of foods than they require. If the staple is
protein-low (e.g. cassava or plantain based), the poor who cannot afford legumes or animal
products to supplement the staple may suffer from kwashiorkor; if the staple is maize, pellagra
may become prevalent if other foods are not consumed along with the maize. Advances in
agricultural and food processing techniques have led to increased food supply and a nutritionally
enriched diet. Nevertheless, modernization and westernization of traditional food habits have
also had their deleterious effects. For example, the wide acceptance of refined rice (like Uncle
Bens, Arosso, Tomato etc) at the expense of locally parboiled rice (like Ofada, Abakaliki, Ekiti
etc) at the turn of the 20th century caused a scourge of beriberi (a niacin-deficiency disease) in
many developing countries, resulting in thousands of deaths. The substitution of bottle-feeding
for breast-feeding among poor families has also been implicated in a great deal of malnutrition
and diarrheal diseases in Nigeria.
Changing food habits have had harmful effects in the affluent developed nations, as well. The
proportion of energy obtained from carbohydrates has dropped significantly (often ranging from
35 to 50%), while that obtained from fats and protein – particularly animal protein is on a steady
rise. The increased intake of saturated fat and cholesterol, coupled with inadequate exercises has
been related to an increased prevalence of cardiovascular disease globally. In the developed
countries, about 40% of the calories supplied by their diets are derived from fat and about 20%
from sugar. There has also been notable increase in fat and sugar intake especially in
developing countries. However, fat and sugar crowd out other foods. In a population that is
largely sedentary, this tends to lead to obesity and deficiencies in iron, calcium, complex
carbohydrates and fibres which can in turn, cause a host of health problems.

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO TEXTURE, COLOUR, AROMA AND FLAVOUR OF

FOOD, COST
Introduction
Foods undergo undesirable changes in the physical and chemical characteristics of food
ultimately leading to spoilage of food. In general, food spoilage is a state in which food is
deprived of its good or effective qualities. Spoilage of food refers to the undesirable alterations in
foods or the food undergoes some physiological, chemical and biological changes, which renders
it inedible or hazardous to eat. In extreme cases, the food becomes totally unpalatable and unfit
for human consumption. Hence, it is essential to process or preserve foods after it is harvested or
slaughtered to combat the problem of food spoilage.
Undesirable Changes in Food due to Spoilage
Food deterioration is manifested by the reduction in aroma, flavour, textural and nutritional
values of foods. Different types of undesirable changes which occur due to spoilage in food are
listed as follows:
i. Change in colour: The fruits like bananas and apples turn black after storing for a
long period of time and reduce the acceptability of food.
ii. Change in smell: Rancid smell of spoiled oils and fats, bitter smell of curd or sour
smell of starchy food.
iii. Change in consistency: Splitting of milk, curdling of milk, stickiness and
undesirable viscosity in spoiled cooked curries and vegetables.
iv. Change in texture: Some vegetables like potato, brinjal and carrot undergo too much
softening leading to rotting.
v. Change due to mechanical damage: Mechanical damages such as eggs with broken
shells, mechanical spoilage of fruits and vegetables during transportation also
constitute food spoilage.
Factors that affect the texture and colour of foods
Texture
Textural parameters of fruits and vegetables are perceived with the sense of touch, either when
the product is picked up by hand or placed in the mouth and chewed. In contrast to flavor
attributes, these characteristics are fairly easily measured using instrumental methods. Most plant
materials contain a significant amount of water and other liquid-soluble materials surrounded by
a semi-permeable membrane and cell wall. The texture of fruits and vegetables is derived from
their turgor pressure, and the composition of individual plant cell walls and the middle lamella
“glue” that holds individual cells together. Cell walls are composed of cellulose, hemi- cellulose,
pectic substances, proteins, and in the case of vegetables, lignin. Tomatoes are an example of a
fruit vegetable that is approximately 93–95% water and 5–7% total solids, the latter comprised of
roughly 80–90% soluble and 10–20% insoluble solids. The greatest contributor to the texture of
tomato products are the insoluble solids, which are derived from cell walls. The three dimensional
network of plant cell walls is still unresolved, but is a topic of great interest to
scientists in that to a large degree it dictates the perception of consistency, smoothness, juiciness
etc. in fruit and vegetable tissues. The textural properties of a food are the “group of physical
characteristics that arise from the structural elements of the food, sensed by the feeling of touch,
are related to the deformation, disintegration and flow of the food under a force, and are
measured objectively by functions of mass, time, and distance.”
The terms texture, rheology, consistency, and viscosity are often used interchangeably, despite
the fact that they describe properties that are somewhat different. In practice the term texture is
used primarily with reference to solid or semi-solid foods; however, most fruits and vegetables
are viscoelastic, which imply that they exhibit combined properties of ideal liquids, which
demonstrate only viscosity (flow), and ideal solids, which exhibit only elasticity (deformation).

Colour
Colour is derived from the natural pigments in fruits and vegetables, many of which change as
the plant proceeds through maturation and ripening. The primary pigments imparting colour
quality are the fat soluble chlorophylls (green) and carotenoids (yellow, orange, and red) and the
water soluble anthocyanins (red, blue), flavonoids (yellow), and betalains (red). In addition,
enzymatic and non-enzymatic browning reactions may result in the formation of water soluble
brown, gray, and black colored pigments. The enzymes involved in browning reactions include
polyphenol oxidase, which catalyzes the oxidation of polyphenolic compounds, and
phenylalanine ammonia lyase, which catalyzes the synthesis of precursors to phenolic substrates.
The chlorophylls are sensitive to heat and acid, but stable to alkali whereas their counterpart
carotenoids are sensitive to light and oxidation but relatively stable to heat. Carotenoids may be
bleached by an enzyme called lipoxygenase, which catalyzes the oxidation of lipid compounds.
Anthocyanins are sensitive to both pH and heat, while the flavonoids are sensitive to oxidation
but relatively stable to heat. Betalains are heat sensitive as well. The appearance of food is
determined by physical factors including the size, the shape, the wholeness, the presence of
defects (blemishes, bruises, spots, etc.), finish or gloss, and consistency. Size and shape may be
influenced by cultivar, maturity, production inputs, and the growing environment. It is important
for fruits and vegetables to be of uniform size and characteristic shape. Some consumers
associate larger size with higher quality. The wholeness and absence of defects will be affected
by exposure to disease and insects during the growing period and the harvest and postharvest
handling operations. Mechanical harvesting, for example, may incur more bruises and cracks in
fruits and vegetables than hand harvesting. Fruit and vegetable gloss are related to the ability of a
surface to reflect light and freshly harvested products are often more glossy. Gloss is affected by
moisture content, wax deposition on the surface, and handling practices postharvest. Consistency
or smoothness may be used as an appearance term, but is typically applied to semi-solid
products, where it indicates the product thickness.
Five functions that should be considered in understanding human reactions to color in foods are
listed below:
• Perception. Food selection or judgment of food quality would be extremely difficult if colour
discrimination were removed, even though size, texture, shape, and other cues were left intact.
• Motivation. Food colour and the colour of the environment in which the food is seen can
significantly increase or decrease our desire or appetite for it.
• Emotion. Liking or disliking a food is conditioned by its colour; attractive foods are sought out
as pleasure-giving, while unattractive foods are avoided.
• Learning. By the process of experience, we learn what colour to expect and consider “natural,”
and we predict rather precisely what properties a food or beverage will have from our memory of
similar materials.
• Thinking. Our reaction to unusual properties or to new foods can be changed if they are
explained to us.
Obviously, far too little is known about the significance of colour perception in food acceptance.
Observers do associate certain colours with acceptance, indifference, or rejection. Coloured
lights are used to mask colour differences and reduce some influence of colour on sensory
evaluation, but the psychological effect of coloured lights has not been adequately measured.
These effects may be direct, on the appeal of the food as a whole, or indirect, in influencing odor,
taste, or texture thresholds.
Factors that affect the aroma and flavour of foods
Flavour, Aroma and Taste: Flavor has been defined as: A mingled but unitary experience
which includes sensations of taste, smell, and pressure, and often cutaneous sensations such as
warmth, colour, or mild pain. Flavour is typically described by aroma (odour) and taste. Aroma
compounds are volatile - they are perceived primarily with the nose, while taste receptors exist in
the mouth (Tongue) and are impacted when the food is chewed. While colour and appearance
may be the initial quality attributes that attract us to a fruit or vegetable product, the flavour may
have the largest impact on acceptability and desire to consume it again. Taste has been divided
into five primary tastes - sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami. Umami can be described as a taste
associated with salts of amino acids and nucleotides. Odours are much more diverse and difficult
to classify, but an attempt includes the following - spicy, flowery, fruity, resinous or balsamic,
burnt, and foul. It is possible to classify vegetables into two major groups, depending on their
flavour characteristics. The first group of fruits and vegetables has a strong flavour that can be
attributed to a single compound or group of related compounds. Bananas with isoamylacetate,
onions with characteristic sulfide compounds, and celery, with distinctive phthalides are
examples of this group. The second group of fruits and vegetables includes those whose flavour
is determined by a number of volatiles, none of which conveys the specific characteristic aroma.
Examples in this group include snap beans, muskmelons, and tomatoes. In the evaluation of fruit
and vegetable flavour, it is important to consider “off-flavours” as well as desirable ones. These
off-flavours may be produced through the action of enzymes such as lipoxygenase or peroxidase,
which form reactive free radicals and hydroperoxides that may catalyze the oxidation of lipid
compounds. When these reactions occur, the result may be the development of undesirable
flavours described as rancid, cardboard, oxidized, or wet dog. However, there are instances of
enzyme-catalyzed reactions that result in desirable flavours. For example, hydroperoxide lyase
catalyzes the production of a typical tomato flavours.
Factors that affect the cost of foods
i. Cost of Production: Cost of production is the main component of price as no company
or producer can sell its products or services at less than the cost of production. It is
necessary to compile data relating to the cost of production and keep that in mind.
ii. Demand for product: intensive study of demand for product and services in the
market be undertaken before price fixation. If the demand is relatively more than
supply, higher price can be fixed.
iii. Government regulation: if the price of the commodity and services is to be fixed as
per the regulation of the government, it should also be borne in mind.
iv. Marketing Method Used: Costs of foods are influenced by the method used by the
producer for the sale of the goods. If customers are to be provided with “after sale
serice” facility, then the expenses are added to the price.
v. Nature of the food

]TRADITIONAL AND ETHNIC INFLUENCES OF FOOD PREPARATION AND

CONSUMPTION PATTERN.
Tradition, Cultural beliefs and ethnicity influence the consumption and the preparation of certain
foods especially in special times in different cultures. Religion and traditions in different cultures
lead to restrictions of some food from the diet. Culture and religion influence food consumption
patterns.
Although food consumption is mainly considered as an intake of nourishment in order to survive,
it is also accepted as collecting information about the backgrounds, history and culture of
different countries and developing social practices in which people relating other people in
social, cultural and political terms. All human beings eat to survive but they also eat and share
food to express gratitude and thankfulness, for a sense of belonging, as part of family and
cultural traditions, and for self-realization. The meal times and components of a meal vary across
cultures. Culture, religion and traditional knowledge affect food, food consumption, food
preparation, and food preferences.
Food, being one of the components of culture, food cultures or foodways reveals how a certain
group of people express, create, maintain, and reinforce their cultural, ethnic, and individual
identities through symbolic expressions. Food culture tells important historical events, legends,
folklore and traditions. Consuming traditional foods symbolically connects and maintains an
ethnic identity. As communities shape cultural identity, cultural identity also shapes food culture
foodways. Consequently, it can be said that the demand for certain foods and the meaning
attached to specific foods, the styles of preparation and serving, and eating practices are shaped
by food culture.
Environmental, social, economic, and individual factors influence food consumption pattern.
Ecological factors include seasonal variations, land-use diversity, climate, and the environment;
social factors include those related to an aging population, urbanization, cultural diversity, and
festivals. The economic factors include income, development, urban–rural economic differences,
price, and markets. The national income level, personal social status, affordability, health
concepts, purchase preference, perceived value, and genetic characteristics could influence
dietary structures