Lecture 6 : The American Revolution: Causes and Consequences

1.The Beginnings: The French and Indian War

In the 18th century, Britain and France engaged in several major conflicts across Europe,
Asia, and North America. In North America, France claimed control over Canada and
Louisiana. The Seven Years’ War, known in America as the French and Indian War, began in
1756 between Britain and France. The war concluded with France ceding its claims to Canada
and all territories east of the Mississippi River to Britain. Although Britain expanded its
empire, this victory precipitated tension with its American colonies. The British government
imposed new taxes on imports such as sugar, coffee, textiles, and other goods, and mandated
that colonists house and supply British soldiers. British officials considered these measures
fair due to the financial burden of defending the colonies during the war. However, colonists
objected, fearing that British troops might be used to enforce compliance and undermine their
rights. This resistance highlighted an emerging belief in American political life: the principle
that government power should be limited (Middlekauff, The Glorious Cause, 53).

2. The Stamp Act

In 1765, the British Parliament enacted the Stamp Act, which required colonists to purchase
special tax stamps for newspapers, licenses, and legal documents. Colonists resisted, arguing
that Parliament had no authority to tax them without representation, coining the rallying cry,
"No taxation without representation." The strong opposition led the British government to
repeal the Stamp Act (Breen, The Marketplace of Revolution, 78).

3.The Boston Massacre

In 1767, Britain imposed new taxes on tea, paper, paint, and other imported goods, prompting
further colonial resistance. Riots erupted in Boston, leading to the deployment of British
soldiers. On March 5, 1770, a confrontation between Boston residents and British soldiers
escalated into violence. Soldiers fired into a crowd, killing five individuals and wounding
several others. Samuel Adams labeled the event the "Boston Massacre" to galvanize colonial
sentiment against British rule (Rosen, The Boston Massacre, 91).

4. The Boston Tea Party

In December 1773, some Massachusetts colonists, disguised as Mohawk Indians, boarded

British ships and dumped 342 chests of tea into Boston Harbor to protest the Tea Act, which
retained a tax on tea. In retaliation, Britain closed Boston Harbor to trade until the destroyed
tea was paid for and increased military presence in the area. In response, colonial leaders
convened the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia in September 1774. While professing
loyalty to King George, the Congress urged Americans to boycott British goods and mobilize
militias and weapons (Zinn, A People's History of the United States, 100).

5. Lexington and Concord

On April 18, 1775, British troops marched from Boston to seize colonial weapons and
ammunition stored in Concord. In Lexington, 70 American militiamen, known as
"Minutemen," confronted the British. A shot was fired—its origin unknown—and eight
Minutemen were killed. This skirmish marked the beginning of the American War of
Independence (Fischer, Paul Revere's Ride, 110).

6. The Second Continental Congress

The Second Continental Congress met in May 1775, establishing itself as a de facto national
government. It created an army of 17,000 men under George Washington and sought support
from European allies, particularly France. By 1776, the conflict had expanded beyond
Massachusetts, evolving into a full-scale war (Maier, American Revolutionary War, 115).

7. The Declaration of Independence

On July 2, 1776, the Continental Congress declared the colonies free and independent states.
On July 4, 1776, it issued the Declaration of Independence, authored by Thomas Jefferson.
The Declaration not only announced the colonies’ separation from Britain but also articulated
principles of natural rights and government by consent, influenced by the Enlightenment
thinker John Locke. Jefferson's document emphasized that governments exist to protect
individual rights and derive their powers from the consent of the governed (Jefferson, The
Declaration of Independence, 23).

8. The American War of Independence

Despite initial successes, American forces faced significant challenges. Washington's troops
were poorly trained and often disobedient. Internal conflicts and frequent defeats, such as the
British capture of New York City in September 1776, characterized the early war years. The
turning point came in October 1777 at Saratoga, where American forces compelled a British
surrender. This victory helped secure French support, providing crucial military and financial
aid (Ketchum, Saratoga: Turning Point of America's Revolutionary War, 140). In September
1781, a combined American and French force led by Washington cornered British General
Cornwallis at Yorktown, leading to Cornwallis's surrender on October 17, 1781. The Treaty
of Paris, signed in September 1783, officially recognized American independence (Wood, The
Radicalism of the American Revolution, 150).

9. The Constitution of the United States

Following the Treaty of Paris, the United States faced internal challenges. The Articles of
Confederation, adopted during the war, created a weak central government. Recognizing the
need for a stronger federal system, Congress convened a constitutional convention in
Philadelphia in February 1787, excluding Rhode Island. The resulting Constitution
established a federal government with shared powers between central and state authorities,
strengthening the national government while preserving state rights. This new framework was
designed to create a more unified and effective government (Rakove, Original Meanings, 65).

Works Cited

Breen, T.H. The Marketplace of Revolution. Oxford University Press, 2004.

Fischer, David Hackett. Paul Revere's Ride. Oxford University Press, 1994.

Jefferson, Thomas. The Declaration of Independence. 1776.

Ketchum, Richard M. Saratoga: Turning Point of America's Revolutionary War. Henry Holt
and Company, 1997.

Maier, Pauline. American Revolutionary War. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1973.

Middlekauff, Robert. The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763-1789. Oxford
University Press, 2005.

Rakove, Jack N. Original Meanings: Politics and Ideas in the Making of the Constitution.
Knopf, 1996.

Rosen, Robert. The Boston Massacre. Knopf, 2006.

Wood, Gordon S. The Radicalism of the American Revolution. Alfred A. Knopf, 1992.

Zinn, Howard. A People's History of the United States. HarperCollins, 1980.