Digital Image Processing

Week-02

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 Contents
• Image Resolution
• Relationship between pixels
• Connectivity
• Connected Component Analysis
• Image Enhancement
Spatial & Gray Level Resolution
Spatial Resolution

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Spatial Resolution

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 Intensity Level Resolution
 Intensity level resolution refers to the number of intensity levels used to represent the
image

◼ The more intensity levels used, the finer the level of detail in
an image
◼ Intensity level resolution is usually given in terms of the
number of bits used to store each intensity level

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 Intensity Level Resolution

Number of Intensity
Number of Bits Examples
Levels
1 2 0, 1
2 4 00, 01, 10, 11
4 16 0000, 0101, 1111
8 256 00110011, 01010101
16 65,536 1010101010101010

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Intensity Level Resolution

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 Intensity Level Resolution
256 grey levels (8 bits per pixel) 128 grey levels (7 bpp) 64 grey levels (6 bpp) 32 grey levels (5 bpp)

16 grey levels (4 bpp) 8 grey levels (3 bpp) 4 grey levels (2 bpp) 2 grey levels (1 bpp)
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 Resolution: How much is enough?

 How many samples and gray levels are required

for a good approximation?
◼ Quality of an image depends on number of pixels and gray-
level number
◼ The more these parameters are increased, the closer the
digitized array approximates the original image
◼ But: Storage & processing requirements increase rapidly as a
function of N, M, and k

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 Resolution: How much is enough?

 Depends on what is in the image and what you

would like to do with it

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 Relationships between pixels

 Neighbors of pixel are the pixels that are

adjacent pixels of an identified pixel

y-1 y y+1
x-1

x
x+1

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4- Neighbors of a Pixel –N4(p)

coordinates of each of y-1 y y+1

x-1
the blue pixels
What are the

x
x+1

(x-1,y), (x+1,y), (x, y-1), (x, y+1)

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 Diagonal Neighbors of a Pixel –ND(p)

y-1 y y+1
x-1

x
x+1

(x-1,y-1), (x+1,y-1), (x-1, y+1), (x+1, y+1)

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8- Neighbors of a Pixel –N8(p)

y-1 y y+1
x-1

x
x-1

N8 ( p ) = N 4 ( p )  N D ( p )
(x-1,y), (x+1,y), (x, y-1), (x, y+1)
(x-1,y-1), (x+1,y-1), (x-1, y+1), (x+1, y+1)
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Determine different regions in the
image

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 Connectivity
 Establishing boundaries of objects and components in an image
 Group the same region by assumption that the pixels being the same
color or equal intensity
 Two pixels p & q are connected if
◼ They are adjacent in some sense
◼ If their gray levels satisfy a specified criterion of
similarity

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 Connectivity
V: Set of gray levels used to define the criterion of similarity

4-connectivity

If gray level ( p, q) V , and q  N 4 ( p)

Set of gray levels V = {1}

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 Connectivity
V: Set of gray levels used to define the criterion of similarity

8-connectivity

If gray level ( p, q) V , and q  N8 ( p)

Set of gray levels V = {1}

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 Connectivity
V: Set of gray levels used to define the criterion of similarity

m-connectivity (Mixed Connectivity)

If gray level

( p, q) V , and q satisfies one of the following:

a. q  N 4 ( p ) or
b. q  N D ( p) And N 4 ( p)  N 4 (q) has no pixels
whose values are from V

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 Example: m – Connectivity

 Set of gray levels V = {1}

Note: Mixed connectivity can eliminate the multiple path connections that often
occurs in 8-connectivity

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 Paths
 Path: Let coordinates of pixel p: (x, y), and of pixel q: (s, t)

 A path from p to q is a sequence of distinct pixels with

coordinates: (x0, y0), (x1, y1), ......, (xn,yn)
where (x0, y0) = (x, y) & (xn,yn) = (s, t), and (xi,yi) is adjacent
to (xi-1,yi-1) 1≤i ≤n

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Test Yourself
 Distance Metrics

 Let pixels p, q and z have coordinates (x,y),

(s,t) and (u,v) respectively.

 D is a distance function or metric if

◼ D(p,q) ≥ 0 and
◼ D(p,q) = 0 iff p = q and
◼ D(p,q) = D(q,p) and
◼ D(p,z) ≤ D(p,q) + D(q,z)

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City block distance (D4 distance)

D4 ( p, q) = x − s + y − t

 Diamond with center at

(x,y)
 D4 = 1 are the 4 neighbors
of pixel p(x,y)

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Chessboard distance (D8 distance)

D8 ( p, q) = max( x − s , y − t )

 Square centered at p(x,y)

 D8 = 1 are the 8 neighbors
of pixel p(x,y)

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 Euclidean Distance

De ( p, q) = ( x − s)2 + ( y − t )2
q(s,t)

p(x,y)

A circle with radius r centered at (x,y)

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Distance Maps
Connected Component Analysis
 CC labeling – 4 Connectivity
 Process the image from left to
right, top to bottom:
1.) If the next pixel to process is 1
i.) If only one of its neighbors
(top or left) is 1, copy its label.

ii.) If both are 1 and have the

same label, copy it.

iii.) If they have different labels

Pass 1
− Copy the label from the left.
− Update the equivalence table.

iv.) Otherwise, assign a new label.

 Re-label with the smallest of equivalent

labels Pass 2

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CC labeling – 4 Connectivity

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CC labeling – 4 Connectivity

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 CC labeling – 8 Connectivity

Same algorithm but examine also the upper diagonal neighbors of p

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 CC labeling – 8 Connectivity

Background pixel
Background pixel
Unlabeled Pixel
Unlabeled Pixel
Label 1

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CC labeling – 8 Connectivity

Background pixel Background pixel

Unlabeled Pixel Unlabeled Pixel
Label 1 Label 1
Label 2 Label 2

Label 3

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 CC labeling – 8 Connectivity

Background pixel Background pixel

Unlabeled Pixel Unlabeled Pixel

Label 1 Label 1
Label 2 Label 2
Label 3 Label 3

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 CC labeling – 8 Connectivity

Background pixel Background pixel

Unlabeled pixel Unlabeled pixel

Label 1 Label 1

Label 2 Label 2

Label 3 Label 3

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CC labeling – 8 Connectivity

Background pixel Background pixel

Unlabeled pixel Unlabeled pixel
Label 1 Label 1
Label 2 Label 2
Label 3 Label 3
Label 4 Label 4

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Image Enhancement

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Image Enhancement

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 Image Enhancement

Process an image so that the result is more suitable than the original image for a
specific application

 Image Enhancement Methods

◼ Spatial Domain: Direct manipulation of pixels in an

image
◼ Frequency Domain: Process the image by modifying the
Fourier transform of an image
This Chapter – Spatial Domain

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 Types of image enhancement
operations
 Point/Pixel operations
Output value at specific coordinates
(x,y) is dependent only on the input
value at (x,y)

 Local operations
The output value at (x,y) is dependent
on the input values in the
neighborhood of (x,y)

 Global operations
The output value at (x,y) is dependent
on all the values in the input image

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 Basic Concepts
 Most spatial domain enhancement
operations can be generalized as:
g ( x, y) = T  f ( x, y)

f (x, y) = the input image

g (x, y) = the processed/output image
T = some operator defined over some neighbourhood of (x,
y)

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 Point Processing

 In a digital image, point = pixel

 Point processing transforms a
pixel’s value as function of its
value alone;
 It does not depend on the values
of the pixel’s neighbors.
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 Point Processing
 Neighborhood of size 1x1:
 g depends only on f at (x,y)
 T: Gray-level/intensity transformation/ mapping function

s = T (r )
◼ r = gray level of f at (x,y)
◼ s = gray level of g at (x,y)

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 Point Processing using Look-up Tables
A look-up table (LUT)
implements a functional
mapping.
255

E.g.: index value

... ...
output value

101 64
102 68
127

103 69
104 70
105 70
106 71
0

0 127 255 ... ...

input value input output

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Point Processing using Look-up Tables

input output
...0 ... 0
cell index

contents
64
a pixel with ... ...32 is mapped to
this value this value
128 128
... ...
192 224
... ...
255 255

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 POINT PROCESSING

Contrast Stretching Thresholding

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 Point Processing Example:
Thresholding

1.0 r > threshold

s=
0.0 r <= threshold

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 Point Processing Example:
Thresholding
 Segmentation of an object of interest from a
background

1.0 r > threshold

s=
0.0 r <= threshold

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Point Processing Example:
Intensity Scaling

s = T (r ) = a.r

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 Point Processing Transformations
 There are many different kinds of grey level
transformations
 Three of the most
common are shown
here
◼ Linear

⚫ Negative/Identity

◼ Logarithmic

⚫ Log/Inverse log

◼ Power law

⚫ nth power/nth root

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 Point Processing Example:
Negative Images
 Reverses the gray level order
 For L gray levels, the transformation has the
form:
s = ( L − 1) − r

 Negative images are useful for enhancing white or grey detail embedded in
dark regions of an image

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Point Processing Example:
Negative Images

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 Today’s Learning Outcomes
• Image resolution is purely dependent on the
type of application and available resources
• Relationship between pixels is important
• Connected component analysis is one of the
fundamental concept in image analysis
• Basic transformations functions can be used for
image enhancement
 What's Next
• Mathematical Transformation
• Histograms
 Readings from Book (4th Edn.)
• Chapter – 2
• Chapter 3.1
 Acknowledgements
 Statistical Pattern Recognition: A Review – A.K Jain et al., PAMI (22) 2000
 Pattern Recognition and Analysis Course – A.K. Jain, MSU
Material in these slides has been taken from, the following resources

 Pattern Classification” by Duda et al., John Wiley & Sons.

 Digital Image Processing”, Rafael C. Gonzalez & Richard E. Woods, Addison-Wesley, 2018
 Machine Vision: Automated Visual Inspection and Robot Vision”, David Vernon, Prentice Hall,
1991
 www.eu.aibo.com/
 Advances in Human Computer Interaction, Shane Pinder, InTech, Austria, October 2008

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