ROBOTICS

AIT304
MODULE 2
CS_AI, AI&DS
Lekshmi R

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 MITS
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 SENSORS
• Sensors in Robotics refer to a mechanical function used to calculate the condition
and environment of a robot.

• This sensor is based on the functions of the human sensory organs.

• Robots receive a broad range of data about their surroundings, such as position, size,
orientation, velocity, distance, temperature, weight, force, etc.

• This information is what allows the robot to function efficiently while interacting
with its environment to perform complex tasks.

• Sensors are generally used for both internal feedback control and external
interaction with the outside world

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• Sensors in robots are used for interacting to the external world and internal
adjustments. 3
• The working of robot sensors derives from the principle of energy conversion, also
known as transduction.
• Different sensors are required by different robots to attain measures of control and
respond flexibly in their environment.
• Application-specific selection: performance characteristics such as physical size,
input requirements, outputs, life, cost, etc.
• The sensor characteristics may be classified as design, electrical, static, and
dynamic characteristics which are listed in their datasheets.
• The transducer converts the detected measurand into a convenient form for
subsequent use, e.g., for control or actuation.
• The transducer signal may be filtered, amplified, and suitably modified.

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 Sensor Classifications
• Sensor & transducer:
• Both a sensor and a transducer are used to sense a change within the environment they are
surrounded by or an object they are attached to.
• However, a sensor will give an output in the same format, and a transducer will convert
the measurement into another form, mostly an electrical signal.
1. External sensors: Used to interact with the environment.
Contact type and Non-Contact type
• , E.g., Vision, Force/Torque, Touch, Proximity sensors, etc.
2. Internal Sensors: Used for self-adjustment of the different joints and links of the robots for
proper functioning or, in other words, ‘it is used for closing the loop in feedback control’.

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• E.g., Position, Velocity, acceleration, etc.
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• TOUCH -A touch sensor is a type of device that captures and records physical touch or
embrace on a device and/or object. It enables a device or object to detect touch or near
proximity, typically by a human user or operator.
• FORCE -Force sensor is a type of transducer, specifically a force transducer. It converts an
input mechanical force such as load, weight, tension, compression or pressure into another
physical variable. (Eg: piezoelectric sensor)
• PROXIMITY –Proximity Sensors detect an object without touching it, and they
therefore do not cause abrasion or damage to the object. (Eg: ultra sonic sensor)
• VISION-Vision and Imaging Sensors/Detectors are electronic devices that detect the
presence of objects or colors within their fields of view and convert this information into a
visual image for display.

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 Position Sensors
• Position sensors are used to measure the displacement (both angular and linear) as
well as the movement of robots and their arms.
• Using these sensors, it is possible to find the location of the robotic arm, position of
end effector etc.
Types
1. Potentiometer
2. Encoders
3. Linear and Variable Differential transformer (LVDT)
4. Resolvers
5. Linear Magneto strictive Displacement transducer (LMDT),

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6. Hall effect sensor

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 Potentiometer
• Converts position information into a variable voltage through a resistor
• Sliding contact slides on the resistor due to change in
position,
• The proportion of the resistance before or after the
point of contact with the wiper compared to the total
resistance varies.
• 𝑅𝐿 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑅2
𝑅2 𝑅𝐿
• 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉
𝑅1 𝑅𝐿 +𝑅2 𝑅𝐿 +𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑐𝑐

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• Assume 𝑅𝐿 large

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𝑅2
• 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉
𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝑐𝑐
• Potentiometers can be wire-wound or use a conductive polymer resistor paste- a deposit of thin
film of resistive carbon particles in a polymer or ceramic and metallic mix called cemet on a
phenolic substrate
• Potentiometers are used as internal feedback sensors to report the position of joints and
links.
• Based on resistance values
• Based on the position of the wiper
• Where, θact = actual position of the wiper (in radian)
• θtotal = total possible travel for the wiper (in radian)
• Kp = Voltage constant of wiper (in volt per radian)
• It can be used alone or with other sensors like encoders.
• Example. If encoder reports current position, pot reports startup position.

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• The combination of these sensors allow minimal input requirement with
maximum accuracy
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• Potentiometers are available in both single-turn and multi-turn.
• Single turn has maximum available travel is 360 degree and for multi-turn, the wiper can move
several 360 degreeturn.
• These are generally used as internal feedback sensors to identify the position of joints and
links.
• E.g.:Find the output voltage and Voltage constant of a potentiometer.
• Given excitation voltage = 12V, available wiper travel = 320O and
• wiper position = 64O
• Ans:
• Kp = 0.0375 V/degree
• Vout = 2.4V

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 Encoders
• An encoder is a sensor that detects rotation angle, linear displacement, and speed.
• Encoders are used to measure position and velocity.
• It is used along with microcontrollers or digital ICs.
• A sensor is an element or electronic component that detects changes of nature
phenomenon.
• For example, an optical encoder detects on/off of light, and a magnetic sensor detects a
magnetic field distribution.
• A light source such as LED on one side, provides a beam of light
to the other side of the encoder disk where it is seen by a light
sensitive sensor such as phototransistor.

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• If the disks angular position is such that the light is revealed, the sensor on the opposite side
will be turned on and will have a high signal.
• If the angular position of the disk is such that the light is occluded, the sensor is off and the
output will be low (therefore a digital output).
• As the disk rotates it can continuously send signals.
• If the signals are counted the approximate total displacement of the disk can be measured at
any time.

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• A method of detecting linear displacement with a straight or translational linear encoder.

A method of converting rotational motion into linear motion, and detecting rotational
displacement with a rotary encoder.

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• 2 types
• Incremental Encoders
• An incremental encoder is a device that converts the angular motion or position of a shaft into
a digital or analog code.
• It's a type of rotary encoder that's commonly used in applications that require precise motion
control and measurement.
• The areas of opaque and transparent sections are all equal and repeating.
• Since all areas are the same size, each represents an equal angle of rotation.
• If the disk is divided into 2 portions, each portion is 180 degrees and resolution is 180 degree.
• Number of divisions increases, accuracy also increases.
• Typical incremental encoders have 512 or 1024 arcs(areas) with a resolution of 0.7 to 0.35.

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• An incremental encoder is like integrator

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• Report only changes in angular position
• Commonly used incremental encoder is a Optical encoder
• It consist of a disk marked with alternating transparent and opaque slots/strips aligned
radially.
• A Photo transmitter (LED) and photo-receiver (generally photo diode) are placed at the
opposite sides as shown below.
• As the disk rotates, the light beam passes though the stripes and falls on the receiver
alternatively, produces a train of pulse at the output of the receiver.

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• Cannot tell the actual value of the position.
• Encoder disks have two sets of channels (slots)
• To determine whether the disk is rotating clockwise or anticlockwise.
• The output signals of two sets of slots are ½ step out of phase with each other.
• The controller can compare the two signals and determine which one changes from
high to low or vice versa before the other signal.
• With this comparison it is possible to determine the direction of rotation of the
disk.
• By counting the leading and trailing edges of the output signals of the encoders on
both channels it is possible to increase resolution of the output of incremental
encoders without increasing the number of slots.

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• Absolute Encoders
• Absolute encoders are feedback devices that provide speed, position information by
outputting a digital word or bit in relation to motion.
• Unlike incremental encoders that output a continuous stream of pulses, absolute encoders
output unique words or bits for each position.
• An absolute rotary encoder determines its position using a static reference point.
• The method is slightly different depending on whether the absolute
rotary encoder is optical or magnetic, but the principle is the same either way.
• Absolute encoders work by outputting a digital word of bit as the shaft rotates.
• There are two discs, both with concentric rings with offset markers.
• One disc is fixed to the central shaft; the other moves freely.

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• As the disc turns, the markers along the track of absolute encoders change position on the
fixed disc.
• Each configuration along the disc of an absolute rotary encoder represents a unique binary
code.
• Looking at the binary code within the absolute rotary encoder determines the absolute
position of the object.
• For optical absolute encoders, the marker is an opening which lets through light.
• For magnetic absolute encoders, the markers are a magnetic sensor array that passes over a
magnet and detects the position of the magnetic poles.

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• There are multiple row of sections, each one different from others.
• The first row have one clear (ON) and one opaque section(OFF)
• Next row has 4 and next row has 8 and so on
• Each row must have its own light source and light detector assembly
• Each sensor assembler sends out one signal.
• Therefore, two rows require 2 inputs to the controller (2 bits), three rows require 3 bits…
• A encoder with 4 rows can have 2^4=16 combinations and each section covering an angle
of 22.5
• To increase resolution more divisions are required. 2^10=1024
• With 10 bit resolution, a robot with 6 joints would require 60 input lines to the controller
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zzHcsJDV3_o

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• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yOmYCh_i_JI
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• Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction(referred to as Faraday’s law) is a basic law of
electromagnetism predicting how a magnetic field will interact with an electric circuit to
produce an electromotive force (EMF). This phenomenon is known as electromagnetic
induction.
• Faraday’s law states that a current will be induced in a conductor that is exposed to a changing
magnetic field.
• Lenz’s law of electromagnetic induction states that the direction of this induced current will
be such that the magnetic field created by the induced current opposes the initial changing
magnetic field that produced it.
• Faraday’s First Law: Any change in the magnetic field of a coil of wire will cause an EMF
to be induced in the coil. This emf induced is called induced emf, and if the conductor circuit
is closed, the current will also circulate through the circuit, and this current is called induced
current.
• Faraday’s Second Law: It states that the magnitude of emf induced in the coil is equal to the
rate of change of flux that linkages with the coil. The flux linkage of the coil is the product of

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the number of turns in the coil and the flux associated with the coil. (flux is a measure of the
number of electric or magnetic field lines passing through a surface in a given amount of
time.) 24
• A current-carrying conductor kept in a magnetic field experiences force because a magnetic
field is produced by an electric current that flows through a conductor.
• Transformer, a device that transfers electric energy from one alternating-current circuit to
one or more other circuits, either increasing (stepping up) or reducing (stepping down) the
voltage.
• When an alternating current passes through the primary coil, it creates a varying magnetic
flux. As per Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, this change in magnetic flux induces
an emf (electromotive force) in the secondary coil, which is linked to the core having a
primary coil. This is mutual induction.

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 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
• The LVDT converts a position/linear displacement from a mechanical reference (zero, or null
position) into a proportional electrical signal containing phase (for direction) and amplitude
(for distance) information.
• It has three coils placed end-to-end around a tube.
• The center coil is the primary, and the two outer coils are the secondary.
• A cylindrical ferromagnetic core, attached to the
object whose position is to be
measured, slides along the axis of the tube.

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• An AC drives the primary and causes a voltage to be induced in each secondary
proportional to the length of the core linking to the secondary.
• As the core moves, the primary's linkage to the two secondary coils changes and causes
the induced voltages to change.
• The coils are connected so that the output voltage is the difference (hence "differential")
between the top secondary voltage and the bottom secondary voltage.

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• When the core is displaced toward the top, the voltage in the top secondary coil increases
and the voltage in the bottom decreases. The resulting output voltage increases from zero.
This voltage is in phase with the primary voltage.
• •When the core moves in the other direction, the output voltage also increases from zero,
but its phase is opposite to that of the primary. The phase of the output voltage determines
the direction of the displacement (up or down) and amplitude indicates the amount of
displacement.
• LVDT is used in those applications where displacement ranging from fraction of a mm to
few cm. As a primary transducer, it converts the mechanical displacement into electrical
signal.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E-kDsP0wq6w

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Resolver
• Resolvers are very similar to LVDTs in principle, but are used to measure an angular
motion.
• A resolver is also a transformer, where the primary coil is connected to the rotating
shaft and carries an alternating current.
• There are two secondary coils, placed 90°apart from each other.
• As the rotor rotates, the flux it develops rotates with it.
• When the primary coil in the rotor is parallel to either of the two secondary coils, the
voltage induced in that coil is maximum, while the other secondary coil that is
perpendicular to it does not develop any voltage.
• As the rotor rotates, eventually the voltage in the first secondary coil goes to zero,

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while the second coil develops its maximum voltage.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7PKJ52b1Qvs
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• For all other angles in between, the two secondary coils develop a voltage proportional to
the sine and cosine of the angle between the primary and the two secondary coils.
• Although the output of a resolver is analog, it is equal to the sine and cosine of the angle,
eliminating the necessity to calculate these values later.
• If the rotor is excited with a signal Vin = A.sin(ωt)
• Then, the voltage at the two-stator winding will be:
• Stator windings are 90 degree apart.

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 Hall Effect Sensor
• Type of magnetic sensor
• Magnetic sensors convert magnetic or magnetically encoded information
into electrical signals for processing by electronic circuits.
• Popular choice of sensor for the electronics designer
due to their non-contact wear free operation,
their low maintenance, robust design.
• Based on Hall effect.
• Output voltage of a current carrying conductor
changes in the presence of magnetic field.

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 1. When a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the current, the moving electric
charges (like electrons) experience a force called the Lorentz force.
2. This force pushes the charges to one side of the material.
3. The buildup of charges on one side creates a voltage difference across the material,
called the Hall voltage.
4. The Hall effect is used to measure magnetic fields, detect the presence of magnetic
materials, or determine the type of charge carriers (positive or negative) in a
material.
Note:
• Lorentz force is the force experienced by a charged particle (like an electron or proton)
when it moves through a magnetic field and/or an electric field. It’s the combination of
two forces:
1. Electric Force: Caused by an electric field acting on the charge.

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2. Magnetic Force: Caused by a magnetic field when the charge is moving.

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• If a current flows in a conductor (or semiconductor) and there is a magnetic field present
which is perpendicular to the current flow, then the combination of current and magnetic
field will generate a voltage perpendicular to both.
• This phenomenon is called the Hall Effect, was discovered by E. H. Hall in 1879. The
voltage, VH, is known as the Hall Voltage.
• VH is a function of the current density, the magnetic field, and the charge density and carrier
mobility of the conductor.
• Hall effect sensors are non-contact, which means that they do not have to come in contact
with a physical element.
• They can produce either a digital (on and off) or analog (continuous) signal depending on
their design and intended function.
• Hall effect sensors are used for
• proximity switching,
• positioning,

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• speed detection
• current sensing applications.
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• Hall Effect Sensors consist basically of a thin piece of rectangular p-type semiconductor
material such as gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium antimonide (InSb) or indium arsenide
(InAs) passing a continuous current through itself.
• When the device is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic flux lines exert a force on
the semiconductor material which deflects the charge carriers, electrons and holes, to either
side of the semiconductor slab.
• This movement of charge carriers is a result of the magnetic force they experience passing
through the semiconductor material.
• As these electrons and holes move side wards a potential difference is produced between
the two sides of the semiconductor material by the build-up of these charge carriers.
• Output is an analog signal, which has to be converted to digital signal.
•
A wheel containing two magnets passing by a Hall

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effect sensor
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wn1UCt9Z6NQ
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LMDT(Linear Magneto strictive Displacement
Transducers)
• It relies on the magnetostrictive effect, a phenomenon where a material changes its
shape or dimensions when subjected to a magnetic field.
• Waveguide: A magnetostrictive material where the signal travels.
• Position Magnet: A magnetic field source attached to the object being measured.
• Electronics Module: Generates and processes the signal.
• Pulse Generation: A pulse of current is sent through the waveguide, creating a magnetic field
around it.
• When the generated magnetic field interacts with the field from the position magnet, a wave is
induced in the waveguide.
• This strain wave propagates along the waveguide at a known speed.

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• A sensor detects the arrival time of the wave, and the displacement is calculated based on the
time difference between the generated and detected wave.
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• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R9CAmjVK3SI
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 Force and Pressure Sensors
• Strain Gauge
• Strain gauge is a sensor whose resistance varies with applied force;
• It converts force, pressure, tension, weight, etc., into a change in electrical resistance
which can then be measured.
• When external forces are applied to a stationary object, stress and strain are the result.
• Stress is defined as the object's internal resisting forces, and strain is defined as the
displacement and deformation that occur.
• The strain gauge is one of the most important tools of the electrical measurement
technique applied to the measurement of mechanical quantities.
• Strain gauge consists of a metallic foil pattern supported by a insulated backing.

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When a force is applied, the resistance of the gauge
varies proportionally.
•Generally, strain gauges are used to measure the force
at the end effector and wrists of robots.
•It can also be used to measure the load on the joints and
links.
•Strain gauges are used along with a Wheatstone bridge.
•Points A and B are at same potential (zero current flow)
under balanced state.
•When force is applied, balance in the bridge get alter.
This cause a current to flow through the Galvanometer.
•By measuring the resistance change required in R4 to
balance the bridge will help to determine the amount of
force.

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• Force Sensing Resistor(FSR)
• is a polymer thick-film device that exhibits a decreasing resistance with increase
force applied perpendicular to its surface.
• The resistance changes from about 500kohm to about 1kohm.

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• Piezoelectric Sensor
• Piezoelectric material compresses if exposed to a voltage and produces a voltage if
compressed.
• Used in devices such as phonograph to create a voltage from the variable pressure
caused by the grooves in the record.
• Similarly, a piece of piezoelectric can be used to measure pressure or forces in
robotics.
• The analog output voltage must be conditioned and amplified to use.

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Velocity Sensors
• A velocity or speed sensor measures consecutive position measurements at known
intervals and computes the time rate of change in the position values.
• All Position Sensors:
• Basically, all position sensors, when used with certain time bounds, can give
velocity, e.g., the number of pulses given by an incremental position encoder
divided by the time consumed in doing so.
• But this scheme puts some computational load on the controller which may be
busy in some other computations.

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Speed Sensor (Optical Encoder)

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Tachometers
• The word Tachogenerator comes from Greek word ‘TACHO’.
• In Greek, Tacho means speed.
• Generator means an instrument which generate power.
• Tachogenerator, is a device which is used for measuring the speed of a shaft and
converting into a voltage so that it can be measured.
• In other words, it converts angular velocity into voltage
• Converts mechanical energy to electrical energy.
• Used for measuring the angular velocity.
• It is basically a DC generator, providing an output voltage proportional to the
angular velocity of the armature.

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• Where 𝐾𝑡 : tachometer constant (V/rad/sec)and
• Ω is the angular velocity (radian/sec) 44
• Depends on the natures of the induced voltage the electrical tachometer is
categorized into two types.
• DC Tachogenerator - A DC Tachogenerator is a small DC generator, which
generate electrical voltage corresponding to the speed of rotating machine.
• AC Tachogenerator - The AC tachogenerator is a small brushless alternator with
a rotating multi-pole permanent magnet. The output voltage is again measured
by a voltmeter although the varying frequency will affect the accuracy of this
instrument.

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• DC tachometer:
• A coil is attached with the shaft and this coil can rotate in between two permanent
magnets.
• So, when tachometer is attached with rotating shaft it rotates in between magnets and
cut the magnetic field.
• Thus, according to Faraday’s law, voltage will be produced in coil
• This produced voltage is proportional to coil’s speed alternatively proportional to
shaft speed.
• Voltage generated inside is calibrated in terms of RPM
and hence tachometer shows RPM of shaft.
• In this, DC voltage is produced.

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• Working: DC tachometer works on the principle that when the closed conductor moves in the
magnetic field, EMF induces in the conductor.
• The magnitude of the induced emf depends on the flux link with the conductor and the speed of
the shaft.
• The armature of the DC generator revolves between the constant field of the permanent magnet.
The rotation induces the emf in the coil. The magnitude of the induced emf is proportional to the
shaft speed.
• The commutator converts the alternating current of the armature coil to the direct current with
the help of the brushes.
• The moving coil voltmeter measures the induced emf. The polarity of the induced voltage
determines the direction of motion of the shaft.
voltmeter

• The resistance is connected in series with the voltmeter for controlling the heavy current of the
armature.
• Emf induced in the generator

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• ∅ = 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑊𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟
• P= number of poles; N= number of revolutions per minute; z=the number of conductors in
armature windings; a= number of the parallel path in the armature windings. 47
• Advantages of the DC Tachometer.
 The polarity of the induced voltages indicates the direction of rotation of the shaft.
 The conventional DC type voltmeter is used for measuring the induced voltage.
• Disadvantages of DC Tachometer
 The commutator and brushes require the periodic maintenance.
 The output resistance of the DC tachometer is kept high as compared to the input
resistance. If the large current is induced in the armature conductor, the constant field of
the permanent magnet will be distorted.
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iaVwrhmbSQs

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• AC Tachometer
• It consists of:
• Permanent Magnet
• Coil (Stator)
• Rectifier Bridge
• Moving Coil (MC) Voltmeter

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• The AC tachometer has stationary armature and rotating magnetic field. Thus, the
commutator and brushes are absent in AC tachometer generator.
• The rotating magnetic field induces the EMF in the stationary coil of the stator. The
amplitude and frequency of the induced emf are equivalent to the speed of the shaft. Thus,
either amplitude or frequency is used for measuring the angular velocity.
• For measuring the speed of the rotor by considering the amplitude of the induced voltage.
The induced voltages are rectified and then passes to the capacitor filter for smoothening
the ripples of rectified voltages.

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Microswitches
• Common in all robotic systems
• Used in limit switches for position sensing, ensuring robots stop at designated positions.
• Employed in grippers and safety systems to prevent harm during operation.
• Used for determining contact, for sending signals based on displacements
• A microswitch, also known as a snap-action switch, is a type of electrical switch that is
activated by a very small physical force.
• These switches are characterized by their quick, precise, and reliable actuation, making them
ideal for many applications where precision and reliability are crucial.
• Basic components of a microswitch are:
• Actuator: The part that is physically pressed or triggered (e.g., a button, lever, or roller).

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• Spring-loaded mechanism: A spring that helps the switch return to its original position after
activation.
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•Contacts: The
electrical contacts
that open or close
when the actuator is
pressed.
•When a small force
is applied to the
actuator, it causes the
switch mechanism to
quickly "snap" from
one position to
another, either
opening or closing
the contacts.

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Touch and Tactile Sensor
• Touch sensors are devices that send a signal when physical contact has
been made.
• The simplest form of touch sensor is a microswitch: either turn ON or OFF
as contact is made.
• It can be set up for different sensitivities and range of motion.
• A strategically placed microswitch can send a signal to the controller if a
mobile robot reaches an obstacle during navigation.
• More sophisticated touch sensor may send additional information.
• For example, a force sensor used as a touch sensor may not only send
touch information, but also report the magnitude of the contact force.

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Tactile Sensor
• A tactile sensor is a collection of touch sensors that, in addition to determining contact, can
also provide additional information about the object.
• This additional information may be about shape, size or type of material.
• A number of touch sensors may be arranged in an array or matrix form.
• In this design (above figure) an array of six touch sensors is arranged on each side of the
tactile sensor.
• Each touch sensor is made up of a plunger, an LED and light sensor.
• As the tactile sensor closes and the plunger moves in or out , it blocks the light from the LED
projecting onto the light detector.
• The output of the light sensor is proportional to the displacement of the plunger.
• As the tactile sensor comes in contact with an object depending on the shape and size of the

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object different touch sensors react differently at different order.
• This information is then used by the controller to determine the size and the shape of the
object.
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 MITS
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rj4W_S48b0U
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JuV29EQ96uQ 55
Proximity Sensors
• A proximity sensor is used to determine that an object is close to another object before
contact is made.
• Non-contact sensors can be useful in many situations, from measuring the speed of a rotor
to navigating a robot.
• Different types of proximity sensors include magnetic, eddy current, and Hall-effect,
optical, ultrasonic, inductive and capacitive.
Magnetic Proximity Sensor
• These sensors are activated when they are close to a magnet.
• They can be used for measuring rotor speeds and turning a circuit ON or OFF.
• It can also be used to count the rotations of the wheels and motors and, therefore, be used as
a position sensor.

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• Imagine a mobile robot, where the total displacement of the robot is calculated by counting
the number of times a particular wheel rotates, multiplied by the circumference of the
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wheel.
• A magnetic proximity sensor can be used to track wheel rotations by mounting a
magnet on the wheel and having the sensor stationary on the chassis.
Optical Proximity Sensor
• An optical proximity sensor consists of a light source called an emitter and a
receiver, which senses the presence or absence of the light.
• The receiver is usually a phototransistor and the emitter is LED.
• The combination of these two creates a light sensor and is used in many applications,
including optical encoders.
• It is set up such that the light emitted by the emitter is not reflected to the receiver
unless an object is within the range.
• Fig. 8.21 a schematic drawing of optical proximity sensor.
• Unless a reflective object is within the range of the switch, the light is not seen by

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the receiver, therefore there will be no signal.
• Fig. 8.22 shows another variation of an optical proximity sensor. 57
• In the simple system, can determine both proximity as well as short-range distance.
• Depending on the distance of the object from the sensor, one particular color of
light is reflected back to the sensor’s photodetector.
• By measuring the energy of the reflected light, the distance can be determined and
reported.
Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor
• In ultrasonic proximity sensors, an ultrasonic emitter emits frequent bursts of high
frequency sound waves (usually in 200KHz range)
• There are two modes of operation for ultrasonic sensors, namely opposed mode and
echo (diffused) mode).
• In opposed mode a receiver is placed in front of the emitter.

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• In echo mode the receiver is either next to or integrated into the emitter receives the
reflected sound wave.
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• If the receiver is within the range or if the sound is reflected by a surface close to the
sensor, it is sensed and a signal is produced.
• The receiver will not sense the wave and there is no signal.
• All ultrasonic sensors have a blind zone near the surface of the emitter in which the
distance and presence of an object cannot be detected.
• Ultrasonic sensors cannot be used with surfaces such as rubber and foam that do not reflect
the sound waves in echo mode.

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• Inductive Proximity Sensors
• It is used to detect metal surfaces.
• The sensor is a coil with a ferrite core, an oscillator/detector, and a solid-state switch.
• In the presence of a metal object in the close vicinity of the sensor, the amplitude of the
oscillation diminishes.
• The detector senses the change and turns the solid state switch off.
• When the part leaves the range, it turns on again.
Capacitive Proximity Sensors
• The capacitive sensor reacts to the presence of any object that has a dielectric constant of
more than 1.2
• When within range, the material capacitance raises the total capacitance of the circuit.
• This triggers an internal oscillator to turn on the output unit, which sends out an output
signal.
• As a result, the sensor can detect the presence of objects within a range.

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• Also detect nonmetal materials such as wood, liquids, and chemicals.
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• LiDAR
• is an acronym for Light Detection and Ranging.
• In LiDAR, laser light is sent from a source (transmitter) and reflected from objects in the
scene.
• The reflected light is detected by the system receiver and the time of flight (TOF) is used to
develop a distance map of the objects in the scene.
• LiDAR is an optical technology often cited as a key method for distance sensing
for autonomous vehicles.

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Vision Sensors
• Vision systems or vision sensors are classified as external non-contact types.
• They are used by robots to let them look around and find the parts,
• for example, picking and placing them at appropriate locations.
• Earlier, fixtures were used with robots for accurate positioning of the parts.
• Such fixtures are very expensive.
• A vision system can provide an alternative economic solution.
• Other tasks of vision systems used with robots include the following:
1. Inspection Checking for gross surface defects, the discovery of flaws in labeling,
verification of the presence of components in assembly, measuring for dimensional

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• accuracy, and checking the presence of holes and other features in a part.
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2. Identification: Here, the purpose is to recognize and classify an object rather than
to inspect it. Inspection implies that the part must be either accepted or rejected.
3. Visual Servoing and Navigation Control: The purpose here is to direct the actions
of the robot based on its visual inputs, for example, to control the trajectory of the
robot’s end-effector toward an object in the workspace. Industrial applications of
visual servoing are part positioning, retrieving parts moving along a conveyor, seam
tracking in continuous arc welding, etc.

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Elements in a Vision Sensor

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• In vision systems, the principal imaging component is a complete camera including a
sensing array, associated electronics, output signal format, and lens
• The task of the camera as a vision sensor is to measure the intensity of the light reflected
by an object, using a photosensitive element termed pixel (or photosite).
• A pixel is capable of transforming light energy into electric energy.
• The sensors of different types like CCD, CMOS, etc., are available depending on the
physical principle exploited to realize the energy transformation.
• Depending on the application, the camera could be RS-170/CCIR, NTSC/PAL progressive
scan, variable scan, or line scan.
• Five major system parameters that govern the choice of the camera are field of view,
resolution, working distance, depth of field, and image data acquisition rate.
• As a rule of thumb, for size measurement, the sensor should have a number of pixels at
least twice the ratio of the largest to smallest object sizes of interest.

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• Camera Systems
• A camera is a complex system comprising of several devices inside it.
• Other than the photosensitive sensor, there are shutter, a lens, and analog
preprocessing electronics.
• The lens is responsible for focusing the light reflected by the object on the plane where
the photosensitive sensors lies, called the image plane.
• In order to use it to compute the position and/or orientation of an object, the
associated coordinate transformations, etc.
• This is generally carried out by a software residing inside a personal computer which
saves the images.
• There are two types of video cameras: analog and digital.
• Analog cameras are not in common anymore.

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• If it is used, a frame grabber or video capture card, usually a special analog-to-digital
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converter adopted for video signal acquisition in the form of a plug-in board which is
installed in the computer, is often required to interface the camera to a host computer.
• The frame grabber will store the image data from the camera on-board or system memory and
perform sampling and digitizing of the analog data as necessary.
• In some cases, the camera may output digital data, which is compatible with a standard
computer. So, a separate frame grabber may not be needed.
• Vision software is needed to create the program that processes the image data.
• When an image has been analyzed, the system must be able to communicate the result to
control the process or to pass information to a database.
• This requires a digital input/output interface.
• The human eye and brain can identify objects and interpret scenes under a wide variety of
conditions.
• Robot-vision systems are far less versatile. So, the creation of a successful system requires
careful consideration of all elements of the system and precise identification of the goals to
be accomplished, which should be kept as simple as possible.

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• Vidicon Camera

A vidicon camera is a type of camera tube that uses a photoconductive

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surface to convert light into electrical energy. It was a popular camera
tube for television, but was eventually replaced by the charged-coupled-
device (CCD) image sensor.
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• Vidicon cameras had bulky vacuum tube devices.
• Vidicons are also more sensitive to electromagnetic noise interference and require high
power.
• Advantages are higher resolution and better light sensitivity.
• The mosaic reacts to the varying intensity of a light by varying its resistance.
• The electron gun generates a continuous stream of electrons, called the electron beam.
• These electrons are accelerated toward the mosaic screen (phosphorescent screen) by an
electric field.
• A cathode heats up to release electrons through thermionic emission, and the beam is
focused using an anode.
• Electron beam passes through two pairs of orthogonal capacitors, which serve as deflectors.
• These deflectors control the position of the beam on the screen by using electric fields.

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• Vertical Deflection (Up/Down):The deflection depends on the charge on the plates, creating
an electric field that bends the trajectory of the electron beam.
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  Horizontal Deflection (Left/Right): electric field between the capacitor plates
controls the deflection of the beam left or right.
 Deflection is based on Coulomb’s force acting on the charged electrons: F=e⋅E
 where F is the force on the electrons, e is the electron charge, and E is the electric
field between the plates.
 The electron beam's trajectory changes depending on the magnitude and direction of the
electric field, which is controlled by the voltage applied to the capacitors.
• As the beam scans the image, at each instant, the output is proportional to the resistance of
the mosaic or the light intensity on the mosaic.
• By reading the output voltage continuously, an analog representation of the image can be
obtained.
• Analog signal of vidicon needs to be converted to digital signal using analog-to-digital
converters (ADC), in order to process the image further using a PC.

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• The ADC which actually performs the digitization of the analog signal requires mainly
three steps,
• Sampling, Quantization, and encoding.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FKJFIz
DfUNE

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• In sampling, a given analog signal is sampled periodically to obtain a series of discrete-time
analog signal.
• A specified sampling rate, the analog signal can be approximated by the sampled digital
outputs.
• While reconstructing the original signal from the sample data, one may end up with a
completely different signal.
• This loss of information is called aliasing.
• To prevent aliasing, according to the sampling theorem, the sampling rate must be at least
twice the largest frequency in the original video signal if one wishes to reconstruct that
signal exactly.
• In quantization, each sampled discrete time voltage level is assigned to a finite number of
defined amplitude levels.
• These levels correspond to the Gray scale used in the system.

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• The predefined amplitude levels are characteristics to a particular ADC and consist of a set
of discrete values of voltage levels.
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• The number of quantization levels is defined by 2^n, where n is the number of bits of the
ADC.
• For example, a 1-bit ADC will quantize only at two values, whereas with an 8-bit ADC, it is
possible to quantize at 2^8 = 256 different values.
• Finally, encoding does the job of converting the amplitude levels that are quantized into
digital codes, i.e., 0 or 1.

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• Digital Camera
• A digital camera is based on solid-state technology.
• The main part of these cameras is a solid-state silicon wafer image area that has hundreds of
thousands of extremely small photosensitive areas called photo sites printed on it.
• Each small area of the wafer is a pixel.
• As the image is projected onto the image area, at each pixel location of the wafer, a charge is
developed that is proportional to the intensity of the light at that location.
• Thus, a digital camera is also called a Charged Coupled Device (CCD) camera or Charge
Integrated Device (CID) camera.
• The collection of charges, as shown in figure, if read sequentially, would be a representation
of the image pixels.
• The output is a discrete representation of the image as a voltage sampled in time.

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• Solid state cameras are smaller, more rugged, last longer, and have less inherent image
distortion than vidicon cameras.
• Note: A pixel is a short form for picture element. It is a single point in a graphic image. 77
• Both the CCDs and CID chips use large transfer techniques to capture an image.
• In a CCD camera, light impinges on the optical equivalent of a Random Access Memory
(RAM) chip.
• The light is absorbed in a silicon substrate, with charge buildup proportional to the amount
of light reaching the array.
• Once a sufficient amount of energy has been received to provide a picture; the charges are
read out through built-in control registers.

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• Some CCD chips use an interline charge-transfer technique.
• Others use the frame-transfer approach, which is more flexible for varying the integration
period. 78
• CMOS CAMERA
• A CMOS sensor or complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor sensor is one kind of
electronic chip, used to change the photons into electrons for digital processing.
• These sensors are mainly used for creating images within digital cameras, digital CCTV
cameras & digital video cameras.
• These electronic chips can also be found in scanners, barcode readers & astronomical
telescopes.
• The Low-cost manufacturing of CMOS makes it achievable to generate low-cost consumer
devices.
• CMOS Sensor Design
• In a CMOS image sensor, the charge from the photosensitive pixel at the pixel location can
be changed to a voltage & the signal is multiplexed through row and column and is received
by digital to analog converter chip.

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• CMOS sensor is a digital device where every site includes a photodiode& three transistors to
perform different tasks like activating & resetting the pixel, amplification & charge
conversion, and multiplexing or selection. 80
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• The CMOS sensor’s multiplexing configuration is frequently connected with an electronic rolling
shutter; even though with extra transistors at the pixel location, a global shutter will be achieved where
all pixels are uncovered at the same time and then read out serially.
• How does the CMOS Sensor Work?
• The image sensor within a camera system receives incident light that is focused through a lens. Based
on the type of image sensors like CMOS or CCD, the camera system will transmit data to the next
phase like either a digital signal or a voltage.
• CMOS sensors convert photons into electrons to a voltage & after that into a digital value through an
on-chip ADC.
• There are two types of CMOS sensors
• Active Pixel Sensor
• Active Pixel Sensor is a type of image sensor that is designed with a collection of pixel sensors. In
this type of sensor, every pixel sensor includes an amplifier and a photodetector.
• Passive Pixel Sensor

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• In these sensors, every passive pixel includes an access transistor and a photodiode. The pixels in
this sensor are arranged in a two-dimensional structure through access enable wire shared through
pixels within a similar row & output wire is shared through the column. 82
• https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=kM5R8tB5wqQ

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Compare CMOS and CCD
• •CCD sensors create high-quality, low-noise images. CMOS sensors are usually more susceptible to noise.
• •Because each photositeon a CMOS sensor has several transistors located next to it, the light sensitivity of a
CMOS chip tends to be lower, as many of the photons hit the transistors instead of the photosite.
• •CCD sensors consume as much as 100 times more power than an equivalent CMOS sensor.
• •CMOS sensors can be manufactured on most standard silicon production lines, so are inexpensive to produce
compared to CCD sensors.
• Overall, CMOS sensors are much less expensive to manufacture than CCD sensors and are rapidly improving in
performance, but CCD sensors may still be required for some demanding applications.
• A CMOS sensor is a digital device. CMOS stands for ‘complementary metal-oxide semiconductor.’ A CMOS
sensor converts the charge from a photosensitive pixel to a voltage at the pixel site. The signal is then multiplexed
by row and column to multiple on-chip, digital-to-analog converters. CMOS sensors have high speed, low
sensitivity, and high, fixed-pattern noise.
• A CCD sensor is a “charged coupled device.” Just like a CMOS sensor, it converts light into electrons. Unlike a
CMOS sensor, it is an analog device. It is a silicon chip that contains an array of photosensitive sites. Being an

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analog device, output is immediately converted to a digital signal by an analog-to-digital converter. The voltage is
read from each site to reconstruct an image.

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• Omnidirectional Camera
• An omnidirectional camera (from omni, meaning all) is a camera with a 360-degree
field of view in the horizontal plane, or with a visual field that covers a hemisphere or
(approximately) the entire sphere.
• Most commercial cameras can be described as pinhole cameras, which are modeled
by a perspective projection. However, there are projection systems whose geometry
cannot be described using the conventional pinhole model because of the very high
distortion introduced by the imaging device. Some of these systems are omnidirectional
cameras
• Omnidirectional camera with two mirrors.
• 1. Camera
• 2. Lower mirror
• 3. Aperture
• 4. Glass housing

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• 5. Cover and upper mirror (hidden)
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• Various techniques can be used to generate 360-degree images.
• Cameras with one lens
• These models are used with a fisheye lens.
• The lens bends the angle of the shot to take a larger radius of the selected subject.
• It is not possible to take a complete 360-degree picture with this technique because
there is always a dead angle directly behind the lens.
• Cameras with two lenses (Dual Fisheye)
• 360-degree cameras with two lenses are probably the most common type
• It can accommodate a full 360-degree angle with two lenses facing each other.
• A camera takes pictures and videos with an angle of just over 180 degrees, e.g. 220
degrees.

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• These are then converted into a 360-degree object using software.
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• Cameras with more than two lenses
• Depending on the application, manufacturers use more than two camera lenses to
produce the images.
• One of the first cameras was Sony' Fourth view multi head camera and the throwing
camera.
• It has 36 cameras, which are triggered at the same time at the highest point, if the
camera was thrown into the air.
• The more lenses are installed in the camera, the more difficult it becomes for the
software to combine the individual images,

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Acceleration Sensor
• An acceleration sensor, also known as an accelerometer, is a device that measures
acceleration, which is the rate of change of velocity.
• Acceleration sensors are widely used in various applications, including consumer
electronics, automotive systems, and industrial automation.
• However, in general accelerometers are not used with industrial robots.
• Recently acceleration measurements have been used for high precision control for
linear actuators and for joint feedback control of robots.

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• Time rate of change of velocity is acceleration
• Consistent with Newton's second law of motion (F = ma), as an acceleration is
applied to the device, a force develops which displaces the mass.
• Acceleration creates a force that is captured by the force-detection mechanism of the
accelerometer.
• So, the accelerometer really measures force, not acceleration; it basically measures
acceleration indirectly through a force applied to one of the accelerometer’s axes.
• Why measure acceleration?
• Acceleration is a physical characteristic of a system.
• The measurement of acceleration is used as an input into some types of control
systems.
• The control systems use the measured acceleration to correct for changing dynamic

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conditions
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• Accelerometers are mainly used for two specific types of acceleration measurement
• Impact(shock): it is effectively large acceleration over a short interval of time.
• Vibration: small repeatable acceleration.
• Accelerometers are normally mechanically bound to the system whose acceleration is
to be measured.
• They detect acceleration along one axis and are insensitive in orthogonal directions.
• Common Types of Accelerometers
• Mechanical accelerometer
• Spring mass damper type
• Capacitive-metal beam or micro-machined feature produces capacitance; change in
capacitance related to acceleration

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• Piezoelectric- Piezoelectric crystal mounted to mass–voltage output converted to
acceleration. 90
• Piezo resistive -Beam or micro-machined feature whose resistance changes with acceleration
• Hall Effect -Motion converted to an electrical signal by sensing of changing magnetic fields
• Magneto resistive
• Applications of Accelerometer sensor are as follows:
→ For inertial navigation systems, highly sensitive accelerometers are used.
→To detect and monitor vibrations in rotating machinery.
→To display images in an upright position on screens of digital cameras.
→ For flight stabilization in drones.
→ Accelerometers are used to sense orientation, coordinate acceleration, vibration,
shock.
→ Used to detect the position of the device in laptops and mobiles.

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→Machinery health monitoring.
→To detect faults in rotator machines.
→These are also used for building and structural monitoring to measure the motion
and vibration of the structure when exposed to dynamic loads.
→To measure the depth of CPR chest compressions.
→Navigation systems make use of accelerometer sensors for knowing the direction.
Working principle of Mechanical accelerometer
• Operation principle of an accelerometer is based on the inertial effect associated
with a mass connected to a moving object through a spring and a damper.
• When the moving object accelerate there is a relative displacement between object
and the mass.
• The relative displacement is either measured directly through a position sensor such

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as a linear potentiometer (seismic accelerometer) or indirectly sensed by output
voltage of a piezoelectric crystal (piezoelectric accelerometer).
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Seismic Accelerometer
• The main parts of a seismic accelerometer are as follows:
→A seismic mass is suspended from the housing of the accelerometer through a spring.
→A damper is connected between the seismic mass and the housing of the
accelerometer.
→The seismic mass is connected to an electric displacement

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Working
• When a spring mass damper system is subjected to acceleration, the mass is
displaced, and this displacement of the mass is proportional to the acceleration.
• Hence a measure of displacement of the mass becomes a measure of
acceleration (rate of change of velocity).
• As the mass is connected to an electric displacement transducer, the output of
the transducer depends on the extent to which the mass is displaced.
• Hence the output of the transducer is calibrated to give a direct indication of the
acceleration characteristics of the structure.
• Seismic accelerometers are mainly used to measure low-frequency vibrations
since piezoelectric accelerometers do not give output for constant or slow
varying acceleration.

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• They are excellent for dynamic measurements such as high-frequency vibrations
and impacts. 95
• Piezoelectric Accelerometer

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• Heading sensors can be proprioceptive (gyroscope, inclinometer) or exteroceptive
(compass).
• They are used to determine the orientation and inclination of the robot.
• They allow us, together with appropriate velocity information, to integrate the
movement to a position estimate.
Compass
• Compass sensor is a device whose function is to give the right directions with respect to
the North and South magnetic poles of the earth.
• The needle present on a compass always points toward the geometric North of Earth.
• This device makes use of principles of magnetism for operation.
• But this magnetic force of the earth is so weak that people previously used to design
compass by suspending a thin magnetic strip.

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• In the Compass present in smartphones magnet is not used as a component because it
causes interference in communication 98
• Essentially a compass is a light weight magnet, generally, a magnetized needle, on
a free rotating pivot.
• This allows the needle to better react to nearby magnetic fields. Since opposites
attract the southern pole of the needle is attracted to the Earth’s natural magnetic
north pole.
• This is how navigators are able to discern north.
• The Earliest compasses were water compasses invented by the Chinese during the
Song dynasty. These were a magnetized piece of metal floating in a bowl of water

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• Digital Compass Sensor
• Digital Compass Sensor is actually a magnetometer that can measure the Earth’s magnetic
field.
• With the use of ‘Hall Effect’ and by calculating the ultralow frequency signals coming from
the North or South direction, this sensor can calculate the orientation and direction.
• Passing a current through a conductor and measuring changes in voltage caused by the
Earth’s magnetic field.
• Hall Effect digital compasses are popular in mobile robotics, and contain two such
semiconductors at right angles, providing two axes of magnetic field (thresholded)
direction, thereby yielding one of 8 possible compass directions.
• The instruments are inexpensive but also suffer from a range of disadvantages.
• Resolution of a digital hall effect compass is poor.

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• Internal sources of error include the nonlinearity of the basic sensor and systematic bias
errors at the semiconductor level.
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Flux Gate compass
• It operates on a different principle.
• A typical fluxgate compass has three small coils of wires, each wound around a core of highly
permeable magnetic material.
• Two small coils are wound on ferrite cores and are fixed perpendicular to one-another.
• The fluxgate compass consists of a coil wound around a permeable core
which again, is surrounded by a second coil.
• This core is magnetically saturated by an alternating (sine- or square)
cycle in opposing directions called excitation.
• This will result into a plus and minus saturation of the core.
• When no external magnetic field present, the flux in one half cancels out the flux in the other coil.

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• When an external magnetic field is briefly applied, a net flux imbalance will occur between
the two coils which means the two coils do not cancel out each other anymore.
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• At this stage current pulses are induced in the second coil which result in a signal
that is dependent on polarity and the external magnetic field.
• This particular signal can be used for feedback and recovery.
• For instance, the direction of any vehicle can be altered by using this signal as an
input.
• In this way for instance, it can control an autopilot.
• Applications of fluxgate compass
• The most common use is for steering, giving direct feedback to the pilot or the
captain through a display.
• The digital output can also be used for other navigational equipment like radar and
chart plotters.

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• The fluxgate compasses are mostly used on (cruise) ships and other kinds of vessels.

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• Disadvantages
• Regardless of the type of compass used, a major drawback concerning the use of the
Earth’s magnetic field for mobile robot applications involves disturbance of that
magnetic field by other magnetic objects and man-made structures, as well as the
bandwidth limitations of electronic compasses and their susceptibility to vibration.
• Particularly in indoor environments mobile robotics applications have often avoided
the use of compasses, although a compass can conceivably provide useful local
orientation information indoors, even in the presence of steel structures.

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• Gyroscope
• A gyroscope ("circle" and "to look") is a device used for measuring or maintaining
orientation and angular velocity.
• An accelerometer measures the linear acceleration or directional movement of an
object, whereas Gyroscope sensor measures the angular velocity or tilt or lateral
orientation of the object.
• It is a spinning wheel or disc in which the axis of rotation (spin axis) is free to
assume any orientation by itself.
• When rotating, the orientation of this axis is unaffected
by tilting or rotation of the mounting, according to
the conservation of angular momentum.

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u8h_hpkHieU

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• Gyroscopes are heading sensors which preserve their orientation in relation to a fixed
reference frame.
• Thus they provide an absolute measure for the heading of a mobile system.
• Gyroscopes can be classified in different categories,
→mechanical gyroscopes
→optical gyroscope
• A gyroscope can be considered as a massive rotor that is fixed on the supporting rings
known as the gimbals.
• The central rotor is isolated from the external torques with the help of frictionless
bearings that are present in the gimbals.
• The spin axis is defined by the axle of the spinning wheel.

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• The rotor has exceptional stability at high speeds as it maintains the high-speed rotation
axis at the central rotor.
• The rotor has three degrees of rotational freedom. 105
• The working principle of gyroscope is based on gravity and is explained as the product of
angular momentum which is experienced by the torque on a disc to produce a gyroscopic
precession in the spinning wheel.
• This process is termed gyroscopic motion or gyroscopic force and is defined as the tendency
of a rotating object to maintain the orientation of its rotation.
• Rotating object possesses angular momentum and this needs to be conserved.
• This is done because when there is any change in the axis of rotation, there will be a change
in the orientation which changes the angular momentum.
• Gyroscopes have two basic properties: Rigidity and Precession
→RIGIDITY: The axis of rotation (spin axis) of the gyro wheel tends to remain in a fixed
direction in space if no force is applied to it.
→PRECESSION: The axis of rotation has a tendency to turn at a right angle to the direction

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of an applied force.
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• A gyroscope consists of a rotor mounted in the inner gimbal.
• The inner gimbal is mounted in the outer gimbal which itself is mounted on a
fixed frame
• When the rotor spins about X-axis with angular velocity ω rad/s and the inner
gimbal rotates about Y-axis, the spatial mechanism is forced to turn about Z-axis
other than its own axis of rotation.
• Sensing systems (pick-offs): These are capable of reading angular
displacements between the two adjacent gimbals and to transduce them into
electric signals by means of potentiometers, resolvers or encoders, thus
constituting the input for a computing unit.

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• Optical gyroscopes
• Optical gyroscopes, with virtually no moving parts, are used in commercial jetliners,
booster rockets, and orbiting satellites.
• Such devices are based on the Sagnac effect.
• In Sagnac’s demonstration, a beam of light was split such that part traveled clockwise
and part counterclockwise around a rotating platform.
• Although both beams traveled within a closed loop, the beam traveling in the
direction of rotation of the platform returned to the point of origin slightly after the
beam traveling opposite to the rotation.
• As a result, a “fringe interference” pattern (alternate bands
of light and dark) was detected that depended on the precise
rate of rotation of the turntable.

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• In reality, the “closed loop” are usually triangles, squares, or rectangles filled with
inert gases through which the beams are reflected by mirrors.
• As the vehicle executes a turning or pitching motion, interference patterns created in
the corresponding rings of the gyroscope are measured by photoelectric cells.
• The patterns of all three rings are then numerically integrated in order to determine
the

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• Gyroscopes applications
• Gyroscopes find applications in the compasses of boats, spacecraft, and aeroplanes.
The orientation and the pitch of the aeroplane are determined against the steady
spin of the gyroscope.
• In spacecraft, the navigation of the desired target is done with the help of a
gyroscope.
• The spinning centre of the gyroscope is used as the orientation point.
• The stabilization of the large boats and satellites is done with the help of massive
gyroscopes.
• Gyroscopes along with accelerometers are used in the design of smartphones
providing excellent motion sensing

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• IMU
• The term IMU stands for “Inertial Measurement Unit,”
• A collection of measurement tools.
• When installed in a device, these tools can capture data about the device’s movement.
• IMUs contains sensors such as accelerometers, gyroscopes, and magnetometers.

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• IMUs can measure a variety of factors, including speed, direction, acceleration,
specific force, angular rate, and magnetic fields surrounding the device.
• Each tool in an IMU is used to capture different data types:
• Accelerometer: measures velocity and acceleration
• Gyroscope: measures rotation and rotational rate
• Magnetometer: To measure magnetic fields. When applied in navigation or
orientation systems, it helps establish cardinal directions (North, East, South, West)
by detecting the Earth's magnetic field and determining the heading relative to the
magnetic north.
• IMUs combine input from several different sensor types in order to accurately output
movement.
• Typical configurations contain one accelerometer, gyro, and magnetometer per axis

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for each of the three principal axes: pitch, roll and yaw

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IMU APPLICATION
→Manned and unmanned aircraft. A connected (or onboard) computer can use
an IMU’s measurements to calculate altitude and relative position to a reference
frame, making them exceedingly useful in aircraft applications.
→GPS positioning systems IMUs serve as a supplement to GPS positioning
systems, allowing the navigational device to continue with an estimated position
and heading if it loses satellite connection.
• Most smartphones, tablets and fitness tracking devices contain a low-cost IMU.

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• Beyond their obvious applications in navigation, you can apply an IMU in nearly
any field where motion detection comes
into play:
• Most smartphones, tablets and fitness tracking devices contain a low-cost IMU
• IMUs are involved in sports training applications that need to measure, for
example, the precise angle and force of a swing in golf or baseball.
• IMUs drive the self-balancing systems of personal transportation devices like
Segways and hoverboards
• Disadvantages of IMUs
• They are prone to error that accumulates over time, also known as “drift.”

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 SENSOR CHARACTERISTICS
• The characteristics of a sensor related to steady state output when a constant
input is applied are known as static characteristics.
• Dynamic characteristics are related to the response or output of the sensor for
time-varying input. The input signals can be step, ramp, impulse, or sinusoidal.
• The characteristics of sensors can also be classified as input, transfer, and output
characteristics.
1. Range 5. Bandwidth 9. Hysteresis 10. Type of Output
2. Sensitivity 6. Accuracy 11. Size and Weight 12. Environment
3. Linearity 7. Repeatability and Precision 13.Interfacing
4. Response time 8. Resolution and Threshold

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14. Reliability and maintainability
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• Range or span is a measure of the difference between the minimum and
maximum values of its input or output (response) so as to maintain a required
level of output accuracy.
• It is defined as the limits between which inputs can vary.
• Eg: strain gauge might be able to measure output values over the range from
0.1 to 10 Newtons
• The range of LM35 is -500C to 1500C, and span is 200 0C
• Note: Strain gauge is a sensor whose resistance varies with applied force; It
converts force, pressure, tension, weight, etc., into a change in electrical resistance
which can then be measured.

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• Sensitivity : is the ability of the measuring instrument to respond to
changes in measured quantity.
• Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of the change of output to change in
input.
• Eg. if a movement of 0.025 mm in a linear potentiometer causes an
output voltage by 0.02 volt then the sensitivity is 0.8 volts per mm.
• It is sometimes used to indicate the smallest change in input that will be
observable as a change in output.
• Usually, maximum sensitivity that provides a linear and accurate signal is
desired
• In the case of LM35, output is voltage, sensitivity is defined as 10 mV/0C.

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• Linearity: Perfect linearity would allow output versus input to be plotted
as a straight line on a graph paper.
• Linearity is a measure of the constancy of the ratio of output to input.
• In the form of an equation, it is y = mx where x is input and y is output, and
m is a constant.
• If m is a variable, the relationship is not linear.
• Linearity error is the deviation of the sensor output curve from a specified
straight line over a desired range.
• This linearity error is also defined as non-linearity
•

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• Response time is the time required for a sensor to respond completely
to a change in input.
• The response time of a system with sensors is the combination of the
responses of all individual components, including the sensor.
• An important aspect in selecting an appropriate sensor is to match its
time response to that of the complete system.
• Bandwidth is the maximum speed or frequency at which an instrument
associated with a sensor is capable of operating.
• High bandwidth implies a faster speed of response.
• Instrument bandwidth should be several times greater than the
maximum frequency of interest in the input signals.

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• Repeatability is a measure of the difference in value between two
successive measurements under the same conditions.
• As long as the forces, temperature, and other parameters have not
changed, one would expect the successive values to be the same,
however poor the accuracy is.
• It is the ability to reproduce the output signal exactly when the same
measured quantity is applied repeatedly under the same environmental
conditions.
• The repeatability is defined for a specific value of input or measurand.
• Precision, means the ‘closeness of agreement’ between independent
measurements of a quantity under the same conditions without any
reference to the true value.

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• The number of divisions on the scale of the measuring device generally
affects the consistency of repeated measurement and, therefore, the
precision. 120
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• Resolution and Threshold
• The sensor resolution or measurement resolution is the smallest change that can
be detected in the quantity that is being measured which is observable.
• Threshold is a particular case of resolution.
• Threshold is defined as the minimum value of input below which no output can
be detected.
• Hysteresis
• It is defined as the change in the input/ output curve when the sign of
measurement changes.
• The effect of obtaining different outputs for the same input when input is
increasing and decreasing.
• This behaviour is common in loose components such as gears, which have
backlash, and magnetic devices with ferromagnetic media, and others.

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• Type of Output: Output can be in the form of a mechanical movement, an
electrical current or voltage, a pressure, or liquid level, a light intensity, or
another form.
• To be useful, it must be converted to another form, as in the LVDT (Linear
Variable Differential Transducer) or strain gauges.
• Size and weight are usually important physical characteristics of sensors.
• If the sensor is to be mounted on the robot’s hand or arm, it becomes a part
of the mass that must be accelerated and decelerated by the drive motors of
the wrist and arm.
• So, it directly affects the performance of the robot.
• It is a challenge to sensor designers to reduce size and weight.
• An early wrist force-torque sensor, for example, was about 125 mm in

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diameter but was reduced to about 75 mm in diameter through careful
redesign.
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• Environmental Conditions: Power requirement and its easy availability
should be considered.
• Besides, conditions like chemical reactions including corrosion, extreme
temperatures, light, dirt accumulation, electromagnetic field, radioactive
environments, shock and vibrations, etc., should be taken into account
while selecting a sensor or considering how to shield them.
• Reliability is of major importance in all robot applications.
• It can be measured in terms of Mean Time To Failure (MTTF) as the
average number of hours between failures that cause some part of the
sensor to become inoperative.
• In industrial use, the total robot system is expected to be available as
much as 98 or 99% of the working days.
• Since there are hundreds of components in a robot system, each one

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must have a very high reliability.
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• Some otherwise good sensors cannot stand the daily environmental
stress and, therefore, cannot be used with robots
• Maintainability : Part of the requirement for reliability is ease of
maintenance.
• A sensor that can be easily replaced does not have to be as reliable
as one that is hidden in the depths of the robot.
• Maintainability is a measure in terms of Mean Time To Repair (MTTR)
• Interfacing of sensors with signal-conditioning devices and the
controller of the robot is often a determining factor in the use of
sensors.
• Nonstandard plugs or requirements for nonstandard voltages and
currents may make a sensor too complex and expensive to use.

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• The signals from a sensor must be compatible with other equipment
being used if the system is to work properly.
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• Other aspects like
• initial cost,
• maintenance cost,
• cost of disposal and replacement,
• reputation of manufacturers,
• operational simplicity
• Ease of availability of the sensors and their spares should
be taken into account.
• In many occasions, these non-technical considerations become the
ultimate deciding factor in the selection of sensors for an
application

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• Slides 18 to 24 are repeating sensor characteristics (in simple
way)

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• Sensor Characteristics
• To choose an appropriate sensor for a particular need, one has to consider a
number of different characteristics.
• These characteristics determine the performance, economy, ease of application,
and applicability of the sensor
1. Cost: The cost of a sensor is an important consideration, especially when many
sensors are needed for one machine.
• However, the cost must be balanced with other requirements of the design, such
as reliability, importance of the data they provide, accuracy, and life.
2. Size: Depending on the application of the sensor, the size may be of primary
importance. For example, the joint displacement sensors have to be adapted into
the design of the joints and move with the robot's body elements.
3. Weight: Since robots are dynamic machines, the weight of the sensors is very

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important. A heavy sensor adds to the inertia of the arm, as well as reduces its
overall payload.
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5. Type of output (digital or analog): The output of a sensor may be digital or
analog, and depending on the application, this output may be used directly, or it
may have to be converted. For example, the output of a potentiometer is analog,
whereas that of an encoder is digital. If an encoder is used in conjunction with a
microprocessor, the output may be directly routed to the input port of the
processor, while the output of a potentiometer will have to be converted to a digital
signal with an analog-to-digital converter (ADC).
6. Interfacing: Sensors must be interfaced with other devices, such as
microprocessors and controllers. The interfacing between the sensor and the
device can become an important issue if they do not match or if other add-on
circuits become necessary
7.Resolution: Resolution is the minimum step size within the range of
measurement of the sensor. In a wire-wound potentiometer, it will be equal to the
resistance of one turn of the wire. In a digital device with n bits, the resolution will
be
For example, an absolute encoder with 4 bits can report positions 16 different
levels.

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Thus, its resolution is 360/16 = 22.5°
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8. Sensitivity: Sensitivity is the ratio of a change in output in response to a change in
input. Highly sensitive sensors will show larger fluctuations in output as a result of
fluctuations in input, including noise.
9. Linearity: Linearity represents the relationship between input variations and
output variations. This means that in a sensor with linear output, the same change in
input at any level within the range will produce the same change in output. Almost all
devices in nature are somewhat nonlinear, with varying degrees of nonlinearity.
Certain devices can be assumed to be linear within a certain range of their
operation. Others may be linearized through assumptions. If an output is not linear,
but its nonlinearity is known, the nonlinearity may be overcome by proper modeling,
addition of equations, or additional electronics.
10. Range: Range is the difference between the smallest and the largest outputs the
sensor can produce, or the difference between the smallest and largest inputs with
which it can operate properly.
11. Response time: Response time is the time that a sensor's output requires to reach
a certain percentage of the total change. It is usually expressed in a percentage of

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total change, such as 95%. It is also defined as the time required to observe the
change in output as a result of a change in input.
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12. Frequency response:
• Systems respond differently to inputs of different frequencies. Some systems may
amplify components of certain frequencies, and attenuate components of other
frequencies.
• The way that the system output is related to the system input for different
frequencies is called the frequency response of the system.
• Suppose that you attach a very-high-quality radio tuner to a small, cheap
speaker. Although the speaker will reproduce the sound, its quality will be very
low, whereas a high-quality speaker system with woofer and tweeter can
reproduce the same signal with much better quality.
• This is because the frequency response of the two-speaker system is very
different from the small, cheap speaker.
13. Reliability: Reliability is the ratio of how many times a system operates
properly divided by how many times it is tried. For continuous, satisfactory

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operation, it is necessary to choose reliable sensors that last a long time, while
considering the cost, as well as other requirements.
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14. Accuracy:
• Accuracy is defined as how close the output of the sensor is to the
expected value.
• If for a given input, the output is expected to be a certain value, the
accuracy" is related to how close the sensor's output is to this value.
15. Repeatability:
• If the sensors output is measured a number of times in response to the
same input, the output may be different each time.
• Repeatability is a measure of how varied the different outputs are
relative to each other.

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