1.

Methods of Production for

Engineering Materials
1.1 Ferrous Materials (Iron & Steel)


Sources: blast furnace (iron ore → pig iron → steel), scrap recycling.




Processes: open-hearth, basic oxygen, electric-arc furnaces.




Properties: high strength, ductility varies with carbon content.




Uses: structural sections, machine parts, tools.

1.2 Non-Ferrous Materials (Aluminium, Copper, Lead, Zinc, Brass)



Sources: bauxite (Al), chalcopyrite (Cu), galena (Pb), sphalerite (Zn).




Processes: electrolysis/refining (Al), smelting and casting (Cu, Pb, Zn),

alloying (Brass).




Properties: lightweight (Al), excellent conductivity (Cu), corrosion resistance

(Zn).




Uses: electrical wiring, piping, bearings, decorative items.


1.3 Plastics (Thermoplastics & Polymers)


Production: polymerisation (e.g. polyethylene, PVC) and moulding

(injection, extrusion).




Properties: corrosion resistance, low density, variable strength.




Uses: housings, tubing, insulations.

2. Selection Factors for Engineering

Materials
When choosing a material, consider …

Function of product (load-bearing vs. insulating)




Design requirements (shape, finish)




Mechanical properties (tensile/compressive strength, toughness)




Cost and availability




Wear and corrosion resistance

 


Fabrication methods (weldability, machinability)

3. Engineering Hand Tools for Bench

Work
3.1 Marking-Out Tools


Surface plate, scriber, surface gauge, punches

3.2 Measurement Tools



Steel rule, vernier/dividers, calipers, micrometre

3.3 Inspection & Holding Devices



V-blocks, centre-punch, clamps, bench vice

3.4 Diagrams & Sketches



Learn symbol conventions and produce clear labelled sketches of each tool.

4. Response of Solid Materials to Forces

4.1 Types of Stress & Strain


Tension/Compression: axial loads cause elongation/shortening.




Shear Stress: parallel forces causing sliding failure.




Normal Stress: perpendicular forces on a cross-section.




Strain: deformation per unit length.

4.2 Elastic Constants



Young’s Modulus (E): stress/strain in elastic region.




Modulus of Rigidity (G): shear stress/strain relationship.

5. Heat-Treatment Methods for Metals

5.1 Heat-Transfer Concepts


Conduction, Convection, Radiation; governed by Zeroth & First Laws of

Thermodynamics.

5.2 Processes & Their Functions

 

Annealing: soften, relieve stresses.




Normalising: refine grain structure.




Case Hardening: carburise surface for wear resistance.




Tempering: reduce brittleness after hardening.

5.3 Equipment & Cooling Media



Forges, Ovens, Flames; quench in water, oil or sand.




Iron-Carbon Diagram: critical temperatures and phase changes.

6. Practical Heat-Treatment of
Materials
6.1 Ferrous Materials


Annealing: heat to ~ 760 °C, slow cooling in furnace.




Normalising: heat above critical, air-cool.

 


Case Hardening: pack-carburise then quench.

6.2 Non-Ferrous Materials



Stress-relief Anneal: lower temperatures (~ 300 °C for brass), air or oil cool.




Process Control: monitor temperature, soak time, cooling rate.

7. Bench-Work Operations
7.1 Safety & Setup


Wear goggles, gloves; secure work in vice; keep tools sharp and handles
intact.

7.2 Hand-Tool Techniques



Hacksawing: proper blade tension, smooth strokes.




Filing: flat, half-round, triangular files for shaping and finishing.




Chiselling: use cold chisels and bolster in vice for grooves/notches.



 Drilling: centre-punch, pilot drilling, correct speed and lubrication.




Screw-cutting: use taps and dies, back-out to clear swarf.

8. Cutting Tools & Their Maintenance

8.1 Classification


Single-point (turning, shaping)




Double-point (drills)




Multi-point (milling cutters, gear cutters)

8.2 Key Features



Rake & Clearance Angles: control chip flow, prevent rubbing.




Cutting-fluid Selection: straight, soluble, synthetic oils for lubrication and

cooling.

8.3 Factors Affecting Tool Life



Cutting speed, depth of cut, feed rate, tool geometry, coolant application.
 

8.4 Maintenance


Sharpening: abrasive stones for single-point tools; grinding to correct angles.




Drill Care: spot face, correct point angles; remove swarf.

Study Tips & Activities

Draw and label production-process flowcharts (steel, aluminium, plastics).




Practice marking-out and bench operations on mild-steel samples.




Carry out simple annealing and hardening experiments, noting microstructure

changes (grain size).




Assemble a cutting-tool kit and practise sharpening drills and lathe tools.




Keep a log of each tool’s cutting conditions and measure wear after fixed
intervals.
1. Basic Methods of Graphic
Communication

Pictures & Diagrams: quick conceptual sketches and process flow
illustrations.




Pictorial vs. Orthographic: pictorial shows 3-D appearance; orthographic

(multi-view) shows exact dimensions and relationships of features.




Working & Assembly Drawings: detail individual parts versus showing how
parts fit together.




Geometrical Drawings: surface developments, interpenetration of solids,

projections of points/lines/planes.




Notes & Notation: use of legends, material call-outs, finish symbols.




Manual vs. CAD:


1.

Manual: freehand sketching, board drafting; emphasises line-weight

control and lettering.

2.
3.

CAD: precise, easily modified; supports 2D drafting and 3D modelling.

4.
5.

CAM integration: understanding tool axes (X, Z), absolute coordinates

for CNC machining .

6.
2. Orthographic Drawings


Projection Methods:


o

First-angle (Europe, CARICOM) – object between observer and plane.

o
o

Third-angle (USA) – plane between observer and object.

o


Views: front, top, right side (minimum).




Dimensioning & Lettering: follow ISO/BS conventions; uniform text height

(e.g. 3 mm), clear arrowheads.




Title Block & Revision Table: include drawing number, scale, material,
author, date. .

3. Pictorial Drawings


Isometric: equal foreshortening on three axes; axes at 120°.




Oblique:


o
 Cavalier: full-scale depth; faces true shape.

o
o

Cabinet (commonly used): depth at half scale.

o


Perspective: realistic vanishing points, converging lines.




CAD Pictorials: 2D isometric commands or 3D viewport renders.




Functions: convey overall form and appearance for non-technical audiences

or early concept review .

4. Engineering Drawings


Multi-View: detailed orthographic projections of typical parts (nuts, bolts,

cams, springs).




Sectional: reveal interior features; indicate section plane with arrows and
labels.




Assembly: exploded or conventional showing how parts fit together.




Auxiliary: views on inclined planes to show true shape of sloping surfaces.



 Geometric Solids & Developments: draw prisms, cones, cylinders; develop
flat patterns for fabrication.




Title Block, Notes & Tolerances: include general notes, material specs,
finish, hole tolerances. .

5. Reading and Interpreting Drawings



Standards: ISO line conventions, BS dimensioning rules.




Units & Scales: convert between metric/imperial; interpret scale factors (1:1;
1:2; 2:1; 1:10).




Symbols: diameter (⌀), centreline, countersink, counterbore, threads (M6 × 1),

datum references, surface finish symbols.




Views & Sections: identify by view labels, section arrows.




Parts List (Bill of Materials): cross-reference item numbers to drawing

balloons.




Notes & Notation: read material call-outs, surface treatment, welding

symbols. .


6. Assessing Engineering Components


Design Features: examine component construction (material choice, cross-

section), assembly method (fasteners, welds), functional mechanisms (gears,
levers), and relation of design to intended utility.




Report Structure:

1.

Introduction – component purpose and context.

2.
3.

Methodology – how inspection or testing was conducted.

4.
5.

Findings – strengths, weaknesses, non-compliance with standards.

6.
7.

Conclusions – overall assessment.

8.
9.

Recommendations – design improvements, material or process

changes. .

10.

7. Designing Simple Engineering

Products

Design Process:

1.

Problem Identification – define requirements.

2.
3.

Concept Generation – freehand and CAD sketches.

4.
5.

Preliminary Design – select best concept based on function, strength,

economy, aesthetics.

6.
7.

Working Drawings – detailed orthographic and pictorial.

8.
9.

Prototype/Model – build physical or virtual mock-up.

10.
11.

Testing & Evaluation – assess ergonomics, functionality, durability.

12.
13.

Final Design – revise drawings, prepare for manufacture.

14.

Elements of Good Design: clarity, manufacturability, maintainability, cost-

effectiveness, environmental considerations. .


1. Safe Work Practices & Equipment
Maintenance


Occupational Health & Safety (OHS): always wear PPE (goggles, gloves,
ear protection), observe no-loiter zones around machines, post emergency
shutdown procedures.



 Preventive Maintenance: clean, lubricate and inspect hand tools; check
machine guards, belts, bearings; record maintenance in logbooks.

2. Processes Used to Shape Metals

2.1 Casting


Sand Casting: create mould from sand and binder around a pattern; pour
molten metal; break mould, clean casting.




Die Casting: inject molten metal under high pressure into a reusable steel die;
faster cycle times, better surface finish.




Comparison: sand casting is low-cost, flexible for large parts but rough
finish; die casting gives high precision but high tooling cost and limited part
size .

2.2 Forging, Rolling, Extrusion, Sintering



Forging: deform heated metal under compressive forces—improves grain

structure.




Rolling: pass metal between rollers to reduce thickness.




Extrusion: force billet through a die to produce constant-section profiles.



 Sintering: compact powdered metal and heat below melting point to bond
particles.

3. Simple Machines: Features &

Principles


Levers: three classes (fulcrum/load/effort placements)—mechanical

advantage = effort arm ÷ load arm.




Pulleys: single fixed vs. movable systems—mechanical advantage equals

number of supporting ropes.




Wheel & Axle: effort applied to larger wheel yields greater force at axle: MA
= wheel radius ÷ axle radius.

4. Special Parts, Accessories & Processes

4.1 Keys in Couplings


Square, Gib-headed, Tapered, Woodruff: transmit torque between shaft and

hub; selection based on load and ease of assembly.

4.2 Couplings


Rigid: for precise alignment (e.g. flange); Flexible: accommodate

misalignment (e.g. jaw); Gear: positive torque transmission.
 

4.3 Seals


Mechanical seals (rotary shafts) vs. gasket/synthetic (static flanges); prevent

lubricant leakage and ingress of contaminants.

5. Production Engineering Projects

Students must plan, execute and document projects that integrate multiple processes:

5.1 Sheet-Metal Operations



Pattern Development: radial-line, parallel-line, triangulation methods for

cylinders, cones, ducts.




Cutting & Forming: hand snips, foot shears, punch; bending on bar folders
and brakes; roll forming on slip-roll machines.




Seaming & Joining: lap, riveted, grooved seams; soldering, riveting, spot
welding; finish with polishing or protective coatings.

5.2 Machining Operations



Power Saws: select blade type (band, chop) and speeds/feeds for mild steel or
cast iron.



 Drill Presses: bench, radial, pedestal—set speeds, feeds, reamer allowances;
operations: drill, ream, countersink, spot-face.




Grinding: inspect, balance, dress wheels; grind flat surfaces, shoulders,

tapers.




Centre Lathe: turning between centres or in chuck; use tool bits for roughing,
finishing, parting, threading; calculate speeds, feeds, depths.

6. Engineering Calculations & Quality

Standards


Machine Setup Calculations: cutting speeds (m/min), spindle RPM = (1000

× cutting speed) ÷ (π × diameter).




Allowance & Tolerance: add machining allowance; adhere to drawing

tolerances for fits (e.g. H7/g6).




Inspection: verify dimensions with micrometres, verniers, gauges; test

flatness and squareness before assembly.

7. Project Documentation & Evaluation



Planning: Gantt chart of operations, material/tool list, risk assessment.

 


Execution Log: record machine settings, parameters, tool wear, deviations.




Quality Control: checklist for dimensional accuracy, surface finish, fit and
function.




Reflection: assess process choices, suggest improvements in efficiency and

safety.

1. Processes Used in Art Metal Work

1.1 Shaping Metals

Understand and safely perform each of these forging and forming operations:

Bending: using hammers, stakes or press-brakes to produce curves and angles.




Drawing-down: tapering or thinning sections by hammering over a stake.

 


Upsetting: increasing cross-sectional area (e.g. upsetting a rivet head) by

hammering end of bar.




Punching & Drifting: making or enlarging holes with solid punches and
tapered drifts.




Fullering: spreading metal by hammering in a groove.




Flattening: producing flat plates or sheets by hammering.




Swaging: shaping metal over a mandrel or forming tool.




Twisting: creating decorative spirals using v-blocks and twisting wrench.




Cutting & Scrolling: sawing patterns, then curling edges into scrollwork.




Safety & Standards: PPE (leather gloves, eye protection), secure work-
holding, clean work area .

1.2 Finishing Processes



Enamelling: fusing powdered glass to metal surface for colour and protection.



 Etching: using acid resist and etchants to create relief patterns.




Hammering (Planishing): smoothing and hardening surfaces with specialized

hammers.




Follow manufacturer’s guidelines for temperatures, dwell times (for enamels),

acid concentrations (for etching), and appropriate hammer types. .

2. Ornamental Metals for Products

2.1 Material Selection & Properties

Know the characteristics and safe handling of:

Aluminium: lightweight, corrosion-resistant, soft enough for rolling and

raising.




Brass: malleable, good for intricate details and etching.




Copper: ductile, excellent for enamelling and patination.




Silver & Gold (where available): highly malleable, used for fine decorative
work.




Safety: proper ventilation for soldering/brazing; avoid acid fumes in etching;

store alloys securely .


2.2 Decorative Forming Techniques


Rolling: reduce thickness or create uniform sheet using hand or mechanical

rollers.




Hollowing: sinking a sheet into a form with hammers and stakes to make
bowls, vases.




Raising: gradually forming a flat disc into a three-dimensional shape by

repeated hammering and annealing.




Annealing Cycles: heat (red-glow) then quench or allow air-cool to restore

ductility between forming stages. .

3. Finishing and Decoration Techniques



Enamelling

1.

Clean and degrease metal; apply flux.

2.
3.

Dust enamel powder or paste; fire in kiln to recommended temperature

(~750 °C).

4.
5.

Cool slowly to avoid cracking.

 6.

Etching

1.

Polish metal surface; apply acid-resist (e.g. rosin).

2.
3.

Scratch design through resist; immerse in appropriate etchant (ferric

chloride for copper/brass).

4.
5.

Neutralize, rinse, remove resist, and patinate if desired.

6.

Hammering

1.

Use planishing or cross-peen hammers on stakes to work-harden and

smooth.

2.
3.

Maintain consistent hammer blows to avoid deformation.

4.

Observe quality standards for surface finish (smoothness, absence of dents),

dimensional accuracy (fit of components), and consistency of decorative effect .

4. Practical Exercises & Project Ideas

 

Project A: Simple Scroll Bracket

Material: 12 × 1.5 mm mild-steel strip (or brass).

o
o

Tasks: layout, sawing, filing, bending into scroll with bar folder,
finishing with planishing hammer, etching decorative motif.

Project B: Raised Bowl (Copper)

Material: 0.8 mm copper sheet.

o
o

Tasks: anneal, sinking into hemispherical stake, multiple anneal-

hammer cycles, planish, enamelling interior.

Project C: Decorative Panel


o

Material: 1 mm brass sheet.

o
o

Tasks: draw design, punch/drift holes, sawing out pattern, filing edges,
etch relief background, buff and polish.

o
For each project:

1.

Plan the sequence of operations, required tools and safety measures.

2.
3.

Execute with attention to annealing cycles and accurate tool handling.

4.
5.

Inspect against quality criteria (smooth finish, correct dimensions, consistent

decoration).

6.

5. Safety, Quality & Maintenance



Always wear leather gloves, safety glasses, and hearing protection when
hammering.




Use fume extraction when enamelling or etching.




Maintain tools: keep hammers, stakes and punches free of burrs; regularly oil
moving parts on rolling mills.




Adhere to quality standards: tight tolerances on joins, consistent decorative

patterns, correct material selection.


 Production Processes
A. Ferrous Materials (Iron → Steel)
1. Ironmaking in the Blast Furnace

1.

Raw Material Preparation

2.
1.

Iron ore (hematite/magnetite): crushed and sintered or pelletized.

2.
3.

Coke: produced in coke ovens by destructive distillation of coal.

4.
 5.

Limestone: crushed to act as flux.

6.
3.

Charging the Furnace

4.

1.

Alternate layers of iron ore, coke and limestone are fed in at the top.

2.

5.

Combustion Zone

6.

1.

Hot air blast injected near the base burns coke → CO₂, then CO.

2.

7.

Reduction Zone

8.

1.

CO reduces iron oxides → molten iron (pig iron) and CO₂.

2.

9.

Slag Formation

10.

1.
 Limestone decomposes to CaO, reacts with silica impurities → liquid
slag floats atop the iron.

2.

11.

Tapping

12.

1.

Molten pig iron and slag are drained separately through tapholes.

2.

2. Steelmaking

a. Basic Oxygen Process (BOP)

1.

Charge Converter Vessel

2.

1.

Fill with molten pig iron (≈ 90–95%) and scrap steel (5–10%).

2.

3.

Oxygen Blow

4.

1.

Pure O₂ is blown at high velocity onto the melt via a lance.

2.

5.

Oxidation of Impurities

6.
 1.

C, Si, Mn, P oxidize → CO, SiO₂, MnO, P₂O₅ (form slag).

2.

7.

Slag Removal & Alloying

8.

1.

Remove slag; add alloying elements (e.g. Mn, Cr) for desired grade.

2.

9.

Tapping

10.

1.

Pour refined steel into ladles for secondary treatment or casting.

2.

b. Electric-Arc Furnace (EAF)

1.

Charging

2.

1.

Load with scrap steel and, if needed, direct-reduced iron.

2.

3.

Melting

4.
 1.

Large graphite electrodes strike an arc to melt the charge.

2.

5.

Refining

6.

1.

Oxygen lancing and flux additions remove impurities; alloy

adjustments made.

2.

7.

Tapping

8.

1.

Pour the molten steel for casting or continuous casting.

2.

B. Non-Ferrous Materials
1. Aluminium (Bayer + Hall–Héroult Processes)

a. Bayer Process (Alumina Extraction)

1.

Bauxite Crushing & Digestion

2.

1.

Crush bauxite; mix with concentrated NaOH at ~200 °C → dissolves

alumina.
 2.

3.

Clarification

4.

1.

Remove undissolved residues (“red mud”) by settling/filtration.

2.

5.

Precipitation

6.

1.

Cool and seed solution → precipitate aluminium hydroxide.

2.

7.

Calcination

8.

1.

Heat Al(OH)₃ at ~1 000 °C → pure Al₂O₃ (alumina).

2.

b. Hall–Héroult Process (Smelting)

1.

Electrolyte Preparation

2.

1.

Dissolve alumina in molten cryolite bath at ~960 °C.

 2.

3.

Electrolysis

4.

1.

Carbon anodes: alumina decomposes → Al³⁺ reduced at cathode →

molten Al; O²⁻ oxidized at anode → CO₂.

2.

5.

Tapping

6.

1.

Periodically drain molten aluminium from cell.

2.

7.

Casting

8.

1.

Cast into ingots or billets for rolling/forging.

2.

2. Copper (Smelting & Electrolytic Refining)

1.

Concentration

2.

1.

Crush and froth-float copper ore → copper-rich concentrate.

 2.

3.

Smelting

4.

1.

Roast concentrate → remove sulphur; melt in furnace with silica flux

→ matte (Cu₂S + FeS).

2.

5.

Converting

6.

1.

Blow air through matte → oxidize FeS → slag; further blow →

convert Cu₂S → blister copper (~98–99% Cu).

2.

7.

Electrolytic Refining

8.

1.

Anodes: blister copper; Cathodes: pure copper starter sheets;

Electrolyte: CuSO₄ + H₂SO₄.

2.
3.

Under DC, Cu dissolves at anode, plates onto cathode as 99.99% pure

copper.

4.

3. Other Non-Ferrous (Lead, Zinc, Brass)


 Lead & Zinc: similar smelting and refining (roasting → smelting → refining).




Brass (Cu-Zn Alloy): melt copper and zinc in desired ratio; cast and
homogenize in annealing furnace.

C. Plastics (Thermoplastics & Polymers)

1. Polymerisation

1.

Monomer Preparation

2.

Purify vinyl monomers (e.g. ethylene, propylene, PVC).

3.

Initiation

4.

Add catalyst (free-radical or coordination) under controlled

temperature/pressure.

5.

Propagation

6.

o
 Monomers link into long polymer chains; control chain length via
inhibitors or chain-transfer agents.

7.

Termination

8.

Cease chain growth by radical recombination or disproportionation.

9.

Purification & Pelletizing

10.

Remove unreacted monomer, additives; cool and pelletize resin.

2. Moulding & Shaping

a. Injection Moulding

1.

Feeding

2.

Hopper feeds plastic pellets into heated barrel.

3.

Melting & Mixing

4.
 o

Screw rotates, melts and mixes polymer.

5.

Injection

6.

High-pressure ram injects melt into mould cavity.

7.

Cooling & Ejection

8.

Solidify in cooled mould; open mould and eject part.

b. Extrusion

1.

Feeding & Melting

2.

Similar to injection, but screw pushes melt continuously toward a die.

3.

Forming

4.

o
 Melt forced through die → produces constant-section profiles (pipe,
sheet).

5.

Cooling & Cutting

6.

Extrudate cools (water bath/air) and is cut to length.

1. Sand Casting
1.

Pattern Making

2.
1.

Produce a full-size replica of the part (pattern) in wood, metal or

plastic, including draft angles.

2.
3.

Mould Preparation
 4.

1.

Place the pattern in a moulding box (“flask”).

2.
3.

Pack green sand (sand + clay + moisture) around the pattern in two
halves (“cope” and “drag”).

4.

5.

Core Placement (if internal cavities are required)

6.

1.

Position pre-made sand cores in the drag before closing the cope.

2.

7.

Pattern Removal

8.

1.

Carefully lift out the pattern, leaving a cavity in the sand.

2.

9.

Gating & Risering

10.

1.

Cut channels in the cope for metal entry (sprue, runners, gates) and
venting; place risers to feed molten metal as it solidifies.

2.
 11.

Assembly & Pre-heat

12.

1.

Reassemble cope and drag; preheat the mould slightly to drive off
excess moisture.

2.

13.

Pouring

14.

1.

Melt metal in a furnace; skim off slag; pour steadily into the sprue until
risers overflow.

2.

15.

Solidification & Cooling

16.

1.

Allow the casting to cool fully (time depends on section thickness).

2.

17.

Shake-out & Cleaning

18.

1.

Break away the sand; remove gating and riser remains; blast or wire-
brush the casting.

2.
 19.

Inspection & Finishing

20.

1.

Check dimensions, surface finish, internal soundness (e.g. dye-

penetrant or X-ray); perform any machining or fettling.

2.

2. Die Casting
1.

Die Design & Preparation

2.

1.

Machine two hardened steel halves to the negative of the desired

shape; include ejector pins and cooling channels.

2.

3.

Closing the Die

4.

1.

Clamp the die halves firmly in the die-casting machine.

2.

5.

Injection of Molten Metal

6.

1.
 Melt metal (e.g. zinc, aluminium) in a furnace; transfer into the shot
sleeve; a hydraulically-driven plunger injects metal under high
pressure into the die.

2.

7.

Die Filling & Solidification

8.

1.

Maintain pressure during solidification to compensate for shrinkage;

coolant circulates through channels to speed cooling.

2.

9.

Die Opening & Ejection

10.

1.

Once solidified, open the die; eject the casting with pins.

2.

11.

Trimming & Cleaning

12.

1.

Remove flash (excess metal at parting line) and gate material with
presses or cutting tools; deburr and tumble-finish if required.

2.

13.

Inspection

14.
 1.

Verify dimensions, mechanical properties and surface quality; perform

any secondary machining.

2.

3. Forging
1.

Billet Preparation

2.

1.

Cut an appropriate-sized piece of metal stock; preheat in a furnace to

forging temperature (e.g. 1 100–1 250 °C for steel).

2.

3.

Upsetting or Drawing-Down

4.

1.

Use a hammer or press to compress (upset) or elongate (draw-down)

the heated billet to rough shape.

2.

5.

Blocking (Pre-form)

6.

1.

Forge the billet into a basic approximate shape of the final part using
flatter and fuller dies.

2.
 7.

Finishing Die Forging

8.

1.

Move the workpiece to finishing dies that impart final geometry and
tolerances.

2.

9.

Trimming

10.

1.

Remove excess flash around the die impression with chisels or

trimming dies.

2.

11.

Annealing & Straightening

12.

1.

Heat-treat the forging to relieve stresses and refine grain, then

straighten any distortions.

2.

13.

Cleaning & Inspection

14.

1.

Shot-blast or pickling to remove scale; inspect for internal defects

(ultrasonic or magnetic particle testing).
 2.

4. Rolling
1.

Billet Heating

2.

1.

Preheat metal billet in a soaking furnace to rolling temperature (e.g. 1

100 °C for steel).

2.

3.

Roughing Passes

4.

1.

Feed billet between grooved “roughing” rolls to break down size and
shape into a rough slab or bloom.

2.

5.

Intermediate Passes

6.

1.

Pass the material through progressively finer roll gaps to approach

final dimensions.

2.

7.

Finishing Passes
 8.

1.

Use precision “finishing” rolls to achieve exact thickness and surface

finish.

2.

9.

Cut-Off

10.

1.

Shear or chop the rolled strip to required lengths.

2.

11.

Cooling & Coiling

12.

1.

Cool under controlled conditions to manage microstructure; coil or

stack the finished product.

2.

13.

Inspection

14.

1.

Measure thickness, width, flatness; check surface quality.

2.

5. Extrusion
 1.

Billet Loading

2.

1.

Preheat a cylindrical billet to extrusion temperature (e.g. 400–500 °C

for aluminium).

2.
3.

Place it into the extrusion container of a hydraulic press.

4.

3.

Container Sealing

4.

1.

Insert a dummy block (dummy) behind the billet and close the
container.

2.

5.

Extrusion

6.

1.

Apply hydraulic pressure to force the billet through a shaped steel die,
creating a continuous profile.

2.

7.

Quenching

8.
 1.

Immediately cool the extruded profile (air or water quench) to control

mechanical properties.

2.

9.

Stretching & Straightening

10.

1.

Pull the extrusion under tension to align grains and remove residual
stresses.

2.

11.

Cutting to Length

12.

1.

Saw the extrusion to specified lengths.

2.

13.

Aging or Heat Treatment

14.

1.

For certain alloys, age-harden by controlled heating to develop final

strength.

2.

15.

Inspection

16.
 1.

Check dimensional tolerances, surface finish, mechanical properties.

2.

6. Powder Metallurgy (Sintering)

1.

Powder Production

2.

1.

Atomise molten metal to form fine powders, or chemically reduce

oxides to powder.

2.

3.

Blending & Additives

4.

1.

Mix metal powder with lubricants or binders to aid compaction.

2.

5.

Compaction

6.

1.

Compress the powder in a steel die under high pressure to form a

“green” compact.

2.

7.
Binder Removal (Debinding)

8.

1.

Heat the compacts at low temperature or solvent-wash to remove

organic binders.

2.

9.

Sintering

10.

1.

Heat compacts in a controlled-atmosphere furnace below melting point

(e.g. 1 100 °C for steel) to bond particles.

2.

11.

Secondary Operations (if required)

12.

1.

Impregnation (lubricant filling), sizing (re-pressing), heat treatments or

machining to meet final tolerances.

2.

13.

Inspection

14.

1.

Check density, porosity, dimensional accuracy and mechanical

properties.

2.
1. Power Saw Operations (Band Saw / Chop Saw)
1.

Pre-Start Safety Checks

2.
1.

Inspect blade for wear or damage; ensure correct blade type (tooth
pitch) for the material .

2.
3.

Verify guards are in place and functioning.

 4.
5.

Clear swarf and obstructions from saw table.

6.
3.

Machine Setup

4.

1.

Select and securely mount appropriate vice or fixture.

2.
3.

Set cutting angle (miter gauge) or fence for straight cuts.

4.
5.

Adjust blade tension per manufacturer’s gauge.

6.

5.

Speed and Feed Selection

6.

1.

Refer to material chart: e.g., for mild steel use ~30 m/min band-saw
speed; for aluminum ~100 m/min.

2.

7.

Cutting Operation

8.

1.

Power on coolant system (if available).

 2.
3.

Start saw; allow blade to reach full speed.

4.
5.

Feed workpiece gently, keeping hands clear of blade path.

6.
7.

Maintain even feed rate—do not force the cut.

8.

9.

Completion and Shutdown

10.

1.

Retract the workpiece and power off the saw.

2.
3.

Wait for blade to come to a complete stop before opening guard.

4.
5.

Remove workpiece, deburr edge if required.

6.
7.

Clean swarf and apply a light film of machine oil to guideways.

8.

2. Drill Press Operations

1.
Pre-Start Safety Checks

2.

1.

Ensure chuck key is removed after tightening.

2.
3.

Check that table and saddle are clamped securely.

4.

3.

Tooling and Workholding

4.

1.

Select correct drill bit (material, point angle, coating).

2.
3.

Centre-punch hole location; use centre-drill for deep or large-diameter

holes.

4.
5.

Mount bit in chuck and tighten firmly.

6.
7.

Align and clamp workpiece using a vice or fixture, with parallels if

necessary.

8.

5.

Speed and Feed Settings

6.
 1.

Calculate spindle RPM:

2. RPM=Cutting Speed (m/min)×1000π×Diameter (mm) \text{RPM}

= \frac{\text{Cutting Speed (m/min)} \times 1000}{\pi \times \
text{Diameter
(mm)}}RPM=π×Diameter (mm)Cutting Speed (m/min)×1000
3.

Set belt position or electronic speed to match.

4.

7.

Drilling Operation

8.

1.

Apply cutting fluid at entry.

2.
3.

Slowly lower bit into material under controlled feed; retract

periodically to clear swarf.

4.
5.

For reaming or countersinking, stop the spindle before changing tools.

6.

9.

Completion and Shutdown

10.

1.

Return quill to full up position; switch off motor.

2.
3.
 Remove drill bit, clear chips from chuck and table.

4.
5.

Clean table and apply rust preventative.

6.

3. Surface Grinding
1.

Pre-Start Safety Checks

2.

1.

Inspect grinding wheel for cracks (ring test).

2.
3.

Ensure wheel guards and dust extraction are in place.

4.

3.

Wheel Dressing and Balancing

4.

1.

Dress wheel using diamond dresser to true concentricity and face

flatness.

2.
3.

Balance wheel per machine manual.

4.

5.
Workholding

6.

1.

Mount magnetic chuck and switch on magnet.

2.
3.

Clean underside of workpiece; place and align it on chuck.

4.

7.

Machine Setup

8.

1.

Adjust table feed and down-feed to give ~0.01 mm depth of cut.

2.
3.

Position wheel guard close but not touching the workpiece.

4.

9.

Grinding Operation

10.

1.

Start spindle and table feed; allow wheel to warm up against a test
block first.

2.
3.

Engage down-feed slowly; maintain even traverse speed.

4.
5.
 Use coolant if applicable; avoid overheating the work.

6.

11.

Completion and Shutdown

12.

1.

Retract down-feed fully; switch off spindle and magnetic chuck.

2.
3.

Remove workpiece carefully.

4.
5.

Clean wheel, table and surrounding area; run the wheel at low speed to
clear dust.

6.

4. Centre Lathe Operations

1.

Pre-Start Safety Checks

2.

1.

Check chuck or faceplate mounting, tailstock alignment, compound

rest locking.

2.
3.

Confirm all guards and splash shields are in place.

4.
 3.

Tool Selection and Setup

4.

1.

Choose appropriate cutting tool (tool bit geometry) for operation

(turning, facing, parting).

2.
3.

Set tool height on toolpost so cutting edge is on centre height.

4.
5.

Secure workpiece in 3-jaw or 4-jaw chuck; support long bars with

tailstock live centre.

6.

5.

Speed and Feed Settings

6.

1.

Calculate spindle RPM as with the drill press.

2.
3.

Engage carriage and lead-screw feeds for finishing passes (~0.1–0.3

mm/rev).

4.

7.

Machining Operations

8.

1.
 Facing: bring tool sideways to face of the work; feed across diameter.

2.
3.

Straight Turning: feed tool longitudinally along the bed; maintain

consistent depth of cut.

4.
5.

Parting-Off: use a parting tool; retract slightly after cutting complete

to avoid marking.

6.
7.

Threading: engage leadscrew and change gears to required pitch;

perform in multiple light passes.

8.

9.

Coolant and Chip Control

10.

1.

Direct cutting fluid to the tool-work interface.

2.
3.

Use chip brush to remove swarf; never use hands.

4.

11.

Completion and Shutdown

12.

1.

Return carriage and cross-slide to safe positions; switch off spindle and
feeds.
 2.
3.

Retract tailstock quill; open chuck and remove the work.

4.
5.

Clean bed, carriage and toolpost; apply a light film of oil to sliding
surfaces.

6.

Key Safety & Quality Reminders



Always wear eye protection, hearing protection and appropriate PPE.




Verify speeds, feeds, and tool geometry in line with material data charts.




Maintain clean work areas and perform preventive maintenance on machine

guards, lubricants and chip disposal systems.