NETWORK TOPOLOGY

Network topology defines how devices in a network are connected and how they can interact.

ISP - Internet Service Provider

Categories of Network Topology

-​ Physical Technology: deals with the way we connect & arrange devices together. It is all
about the arrangement of various components that make up a network. NB; A network
is the connection of two or more devices.
-​ Logical Topology: this describes the way in which data will flow from one end of the
network to another. It also defines the path/route the packet passes to its destination.
Network protocol is a set of rules that defines how data is being transmitted between devices
within a network. They are language devices that communicate within themselves on a network.
End devices are any device you connect to a network, also known as a node (eg. laptop, printer,
PC, etc.).

Physical Topology
Bus Topology: All devices are connected to a center cable
Ring Topology: Nodes are connected in a closed ring
Star Topology: All nodes are connected to a centralized device (switch, router, etc.)
Mesh Topology:
 Full mesh topology: All nodes are connected to every nodes in the network
Partial mesh topology: Few nodes are connected to every nodes in the network
Tree Topology: This is a combination of a Bus and Star Topology. There is a root (switch) where
other branches (sub-hubs) are attached to which then carries other nodes.

Things to consider before selecting a topology:

1.​ Implementation cost
2.​ Reliability
3.​ Maintenance
4.​ Ease
5.​ Scalability - Topology must always give room for upgrade

Network Protocol and Port Numbers

Network Protocols are a set of rules outlining how connected devices communicate across a
network to exchange information easily and safely. Protocols serve as a common language for
devices to enable communication irrespective of differences in software, hardware, or internal
processes.
Port Numbers are

Assignment:
Study on Network Protocols, Port Numbers, Sockets, and the relationship between Network
Protocols and Port Numbers.

LOGICAL TOPOLOGY
FTP (File Transfer Protocol):
Secure Shell (SSH): allows to join a network remotely
Telnet: also used for remote services, it gives us access to infrastructures remotely. It allows a
user in a location to access a particular network without leaving his/her location.
Remote Desktop Protocol: It provides users graphical interface that allows us to have access to
infrastructure.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): SMTP is the protocols that work on our email services. It
is a communication protocol that is used to transmit email messages over the internet to the
destination server.
Domain Name System (DNS): DNS is like a telephone directory to convert IP address to a
domain name
Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP): It is a kind of
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP):

Ping means packet internet grouper, it is used to check for connectivity between two (2)
devices.

INTERNETWORKING MODEL
Internetworking models are the standard put in place for 2 or more devices to interact and
communicate with each other.
There are 2 major models in networking:
-​ Open System Network Standard: a standard that is openly accessible and usable by
anyone.
-​ Vendor Propeitory Network Standard: These are standards that work majorly on a single
network vendor.
1. Open System Interconnection (OSI) Model

OSI LAYERS
7 - Application: They are the starting point of every communication in a network. This layer is
also known as the Desktop layer.
6 - Presentation: Data input on the application layer cannot be translated or processed raw.
The data will be converted to a usable format and that is done on the presentation layer. The
presentation layer is more or less like the interpreter that translates, encrypts, and compresses
the data.
5 - Session: This layer is responsible for setting up sessions. It defines the path
4 - Transport: The transport layer handles data delivery. It ensures that the data gets to the
right destination. It provides end-to-end data delivery. The transport layer will always ensure
error
3 - Network:
2 - Data Link:
1 - Physical Layer:
Application Layer, Presentation Layer, Session Layer (Software Layers)
Transport Layer (Heart of OSI)
Network Layer, Data Link Layer, Physical Layer (Hardware Layers)

TCP - Transmission Control Protocol, this protocol ensures that devices are connected with
each other before they start transmitting data. TCP makes use of flow control to ensure
delivery.

Read up on three-way handshake.

TCP/IP - TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL/INTERNET PROTOCOL

TCP layers
4 - Application Layer: This is the topmost layer and defines the interface of host programs with
the transport layer services. THis layer includes all high-level protocols like Telnet, DNS, HTTP,
FTP, SMTP, etc.
3 - Transport Layer: It is responsible for error-free end-to-end data delivery. The protocols
defined here are Transmission COntrol Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
2 - Internet Layer/Network: It defines the protocols for logical transmission of data over the
network. The main protocol in this layer is Internet Protocol (IP) and is supported by ICMP,
IGMP, RAMP, and ARP.
1 - Host-to-Network Layer: It is the lowest layer that is concerned with the physical
transmission of data. TCP/IP does not specifically define any protocol here but supports all the
standard protocols. This layer entails the data link and the physical layer of the OSI. This layer
defines the physical connection between 2 devices.

Types of tables on a router.

The routing table entails all the best routes/paths in our network.
The router determines the best route to send packets.

Neighbor table: All the devices directly connected to the router have their information stored on
the neighbor table.

Topology table: Stores all the information of all the connections within our internetwork.

For every device to be on a network, each device must carry an IP address. This is the means
of communication within the network.

INTERNET
IP ADDRESSING
Important Terminologies
Bits (Binary): 0 or 1
Byte: a combination of 8-bits
Octet: 8 bits
Digits: values within 0-9
Nibbles: Combination of 4 bits

Network Address: A network address is an IP address assigned to a network. (They are like
surname/last/family name)
Host Address: A host address is an address that is assigned to any device that joins a network.
Two (2) devices cannot use similar host addresses. A valid host address will be picked within
the network address. (They are like first names).
Broadcast Address: They are the address being used in internetwork to reach out to every
device connected.

Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) is a method of converting decimal numbers into their binary
equivalents.
4 BITS:​ 8​ 4​ 2​ 1

8 BITS:​ 128​ 64​ 32​ 16​ 8​ 4​ 2​ 1

​ ​ 1​ 0​ 1​ 0​ 1​ 1​ 0​ 0

200.100.50.35

​ ​ 128​ 64​ 32​ 16​ 8​ 4​ 2​ 1

200​ ​ 1​ 1​ 0​ 0​ 1​ 0​ 0​ 0
100​ ​ 0​ 1​ 1​ 0​ 0​ 1​ 0​ 0
50​ ​ 0​ 0​ 1​ 1​ 0​ 0​ 1​ 0
35​ ​ 0​ 0​ 1​ 0​ 0​ 0​ 1​ 1

11001000.01100100.00110010.00100011

​ ​ 128​ 64​ 32​ 16​ 8​ 4​ 2​ 1

65​ ​ 0​ 1​ 0​ 0​ 0​ 0​ 0​ 1

IP ADDRESSING
An IP Address is a unique numeric identifier assigned to each machines (nodes) in a network.
Two devices in a network cannot be given same IP addresses.
IP address is designed to allow host to communicate with other devices on the network.
IP Addresses are assigned by the use of DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) or
manually (static).

Internetwork is the connection of 2 or more networks and it is the router that assigns IP address
to nodes of the network. The router is at the internet layer of OSI model. The router is also
responsible for packet (data sent over network) switching.

-​ Private IP address: An IP address is said to be a private IP address if it is being used in

a private network (LAN). This only works within a geographical location.
-​ Public IP address: They are IP address assigned to individuals and networks from a
valid global network. It is the network that is being used to setup a WAN.
-​ Elastic IP Address (cloud)

NETWORK ADDRESSING
Network addresses are unique identifiers assigned to each network.

Router to Router = WAN

Switch = LAN

The IP address that is assigned to any device that joins a network is called the host address.
Host address is being picked within the range of a valid network address.

Classes of Network Address

The class of network address will determine the network that is for the network and for host.

Class A Network Address

N​ H​ H​ H
10.​ 10.​ 10.​ 6

Class B Network Address

N​ N​ H​ H
10.​ 10.​ 8.​ 0

Class C Network Address

N​ N​ N​ H
10.​ 10.​ 8.​ 1

CLASS A NETWORK
Rule: The first bit of the first byte/segment will be turned off while the remaining bits will either
be turned off or on.
Addresses that start with 0 or 127 are used for special purposes (wildcard). These IP Addresses
will be exempted from the list of IP Addresses under Class A Network.
Addresses within 1-126 are Class A addresses

CLASS B NETWORK
Rule: The first bit of the first byte/segment is turned on while the second bit of the first
byte/segment will be turned off permanently while the remaining six bits can either be off or on.
Any IP Address within the range of 128 - 191 is a Class B Network Address.

CLASS C NETWORK
Rule: The first two bits of the first byte/segment is turned on while the third bit is turned off
permanently while the remaining five bits can be turned off/on.
11011111 = 223
1100000 = 192
Any IP Address that starts within the range of 192 - 223 is a Class C Network Address.

SUBNETTING IP ADDRESS
This is the principle/act of breaking a large block/network address into smaller IP addresses.

Benefits:
1.​ It reduces network traffic
2.​ It optimizes network performance
3.​ No limits to where network can cover

Subnet Mask: Subnet mask is like a pointer that tells which path is for the network and which
one is for the host.
 -​ Subnet determines the numbers of required id(network)/ip for each subnet
-​ It determines the number of hosts that can be on each id/ip (network)

255.0.0.0​ - Class A
11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000
N​ ​ H​ H​ ​ H

255.255.0.0​ - Class B
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
N​ ​ N​ H​ ​ H

255.255.255..​ - Class C
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
N​ ​ N​ N​ H

CIDR - Classless Interdomain Routing: This determines the number of IP Addresses allocated
to individuals or companies.

NO OF BITS SUBNET MASK CIDR

11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000 255.0.0.0 /8 - default class A of a subnet mask

11111111.100000000.00000000.00000000 255.128.0.0 /9

11111111.11111111.1111111.00000000 255.255.255.0 /24 - default Class C

11111111.11111111.1111111.10000000 255.255.255.128 /25

11111111.11111111.1111111.11000000 255.255.255.192 /26

11111111.11111111.1111111.11100000 255.255.255.224 /27

NO OF BITS SUBNET MASK CIDR

11111111.11111111.1111111.11110000 255.255.255.240 /28HVB

Block Size are the values that is being used to determine the increment of our subnet (the rate
at which subnet increases)

How do we subnet?
a.​ How many subnets can the chosen subnet mask produce?
b.​ How many hosts per subnets are available?
c.​ What are the valid subnet addresses?
d.​ What are the broadcast address for each subnets?
e.​ What are the valid hosts for each subnets?

SUBNETTING CLASS C IP ADDRESS

Example: 192.168.10.0/28
11111111.11111111.11111111.11110000
255.255.255.240 - Subnet mask

a. Subnet = 2x (x = number of bits turned on) {x=4}

​ = 24 = 16 subnets/networks
b. Host = 2y - 2 (y = number of bits turned off) (-2 accounts for network and broadcast
addresses) {y=4}
​ = 24 - 2 = 14 hosts
c. Valid Subnet Address (Using Block Size) = 256 - subnet mask
​ = 256 - 240 = 16
​ 0, 16, 32, 48, 64, 80, 96, 112, 128, 144, 160, 176, 192, 208, 224, 240
​ 192.168.10.0 || 192.168.10.16 || 192.168.10.32 || 192.168.10.48 …
d. Broadcast Address is the IP before the next subnet address
​ Subnet Address​ ​ Broadcast Address
​ 192.168.10.0​ ​ ​ 192.168.10.15
​ 192.168.10.16​​ ​ 192.168.10.31
​ 192.168.10.32​​ ​ 192.168.10.47
​ 192.168.10.48​​ ​ 192.168.10.63
​ …
​ 192.168.10.240​ ​ 192.168.10.255
e. Host Address is the IP Address after the subnet address and it stops before the
Broadcast Address
​ Subnet Address​ ​ Host Address
​ 192.168.10.0​ ​ ​ 192.168.10.1 - 192.168.10.14
​ 192.168.10.16​​ ​ 192.168.10.17 - 192.168.10.30
​ 192.168.10.32​​ ​ 192.168.10.33 - 192.168.10.46
​ 192.168.10.48​​ ​ 192.168.10.49 - 192.168.10.62
​ …
​ 192.168.10.240​ ​ 192.168.10.255

SUBNETTING CLASS B IP ADDRESS

Example: 172.16.0.0/17
11111111.11111111.10000000.00000000
255.255.128.0 - Subnet Mask
a. Subnet = 2x = 21 = 2 subnets/networks
b. Host = 2y - 2 = 215 - 2 = 32768 - 2 = 32,766 Hosts
c. Block Size = 256 - 128 = 128
​ 0, 128
​ 172.16.0.0 || 172.16.128.0
d. Broadcast Address
​ Subnet Address​ ​ Broadcast Address
​ 172.16.0.0​ ​ ​ 172.16.127.255
​ 172.16.128.0​ ​ ​ 172.16.255.255
e. Host Address
​ Subnet Address​ ​ Host Address
​ 172.16.0.0​ ​ ​ 172.16.0.1 - 172.16.127.254
​ 172.16.128.0​ ​ ​ 172.16.128.1 - 172.16.255.254

Example 2: 172.16.0.0/29
11111111.11111111.11111111.11111000
255.255.255.248 - Subnet Mask
a. Subnet = 2x = 213 = 8192 Subnets/Networks
b. Host = 2y - 2 = 23 - 2 = 8 - 2 = 6 Hosts
c. Block Size = 256 - 248 = 8
​ 0, 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56, 64, 72, 80, 88, 96, 104, 112, 120, 128, 136, 144, 152, 160 …
​ 172.16.0.0 || 172.168.0.8 || 172.162.0.16 || 172.168.0.24 …. 172.168.1.0|| 172.168.1.8
…
d. Broadcast Address
​ Subnet Address​ ​ Broadcast Address
​ 172.16.0.0​ ​ ​ 172.16.0.7
​ 172.16.0.8​ ​ ​ 172.16.0.15
​ 172.16.0.16​ ​ ​ 172.16.0.31
​ …
​ 172.16.255.248​ ​ 172.16.255.255
e. Host Address
​ Subnet Address​ ​ Host Address
​ 172.16.0.0​ ​ ​ 172.16.0.1 - 172.16.0.6
​ 172.16.0.8​ ​ ​ 172.16.0.7 - 172.16.0.14
​ 172.16.0.16​ ​ ​ 172.16.0.17 - 172.16.0.30
​ …
​ 172.16.255.248​ ​ 172.16.255.249 - 172.16.255.254

SUBNETTING CLASS A IP ADDRESS

Example: 10.0.0.0/9
11111111.10000000.00000000.00000000
255.128.0.0 - Subnet Mask
a. Subnet = 2x = 21 = 2 Subnets/Networks
b. Host = 2y - 2 = 223 - 2 = 8,388,608 - 2 = 8,388,606 Hosts
c. Block Size = 256 - 128 = 128
​ 0, 128
​ 10.0.0.0 || 10.128.0.0
d. Broadcast Address
​ Subnet Address​ ​ Broadcast Address
​ 10.0.0.0​ ​ ​ 10.127.255.255
​ 10.128.0.0​ ​ ​ 10.255.255.255
e. Host Address
​ Subnet Address​ ​ Host Address
​ 10.0.0.0​ ​ ​ 10.0.0.1 - 10.127.255.254
​ 10.128.0.0​ ​ ​ 10.128.0.1 - 10.255.255.254

Example 2: 10.0.0.0/18
11111111.11111111.11000000.00000000
255.255.192.0 - Subnet Mask
a. Subnet = 2x = 210 = 1024
b. Host = 2y - 2 = 214 - 2 = 16,384 - 2 = 16,382
c. Block Size = 256 - 192 = 64
​ 0, 64, 128, 192
​ 10.0.0.0 || 10.0.64.0 || 10.0.128.0 || 10.0.192.0 || 10.1.0.0 || 10.1.64.0 || 10.1.128.0
…10.192.255.0
d. Broadcast Address
​ Subnet Address​ ​ Broadcast Address
​ 10.0.0.0​ ​ ​ 10.0.63.255
​ 10.0.64.0​ ​ ​ 10.0.127.255
​ 10.0.128.0​ ​ ​ 10.0.191.255
​ 10.0.192.0​ ​ ​ 10.1.255.255 ???
10.1.0.0​ ​ ​ 10
e. Host Address
​ Subnet Address​ ​ Host Address
​ 10.0.0.0​ ​ ​ 10.0.0.1 - 10.0.63.254
​ 10.0.64.0​ ​ ​ 10.0.64.1 - 10.0.127.254
​ 10.0.128.0​ ​ ​ 10.0.128.1 - 10.0.191.254

INTERNET OPERATING SYSTEM

Operating systems are programs, software, and protocols that are put in place to allow … It also
allows users to communicate with such infrastructure. They are programs that allow devices to
function accordingly. OS are configured to suit whatever purpose we need them for.

-​ To configure/implement security in hardware (routers/switches, etc.) there is a need for

an OS to communicate with them.
 -​ Network operating systems are the operating system pre-installed on networking
devices.

Console Cable this is a factory-made cable

Straight Through Cables are network cables used to connect devices that are not of the same
type together (eg. switch to router)
Cross-over cables are the cables used to connect devices of the same type together.
Fiber cables are cables used in setting up a Wide or Local Area Network. This cable has the
highest power to transfer data at a very fast speed.
Serial Cables are also used to set up a WAN.

Routing Protocols is a way of

NSS LEVEL 2
Memory Hierarchy
-​ Memory hierarchy is a computer architecture technique that organizes a computer’s
storage based on response time, access speed, cost, and size.
-​