06-01-2025

Welcome to my
YouTube Channel
SarcasticTeacher
@ShameemSir
Please Remember me in
Your Prayers .

Basic Electronics Engg.

Unit - 5

Sensors:
• A sensor is a device that detects and measures a physical
quantity and converts it into an equivalent electrical signal
either voltage or current.

1
 06-01-2025

Classification of Sensors:

Selection criteria of sensors

• Accuracy: The degree to which the sensor's measurements match the true value.
• Sensitivity: The sensor's ability to detect small changes in the measured quantity.
• Response Time: The time it takes for the sensor to respond to a change in the
measured quantity.
• Stability: The sensor's ability to maintain consistent performance over time.
• Linearity: The extent to which the sensor's output is directly proportional to the
measured quantity.
• Operating Conditions: The environmental conditions in which the sensor can
operate.
• Power Consumption: The amount of power the sensor requires for operation.
• Size and Form Factor: The physical dimensions and shape of the sensor.
• Cost: The overall cost of the sensor: purchase, installation, and maintenance.
• Compatibility: The sensor's ability to interface with other components and
systems.

2
 06-01-2025

Motion Sensors:
• LVDT: Linear Variable Differential Transformer
✓ It works on faradays law of self induced emf and mutually
induced emf of primary and secondary coil.
✓ The basic principal of working of LVDT is L = µ0 µr N2 A / l
Where µ0= permeability of free space, µr = relative permeability of the core
N= number of turns, A cross sectional area, l = length of magnetic path

Construction of LVDT:
•The transformer consists of a primary winding P and two secondary windings
S1 and S2 wound on a cylindrical former (which is hollow in nature and
contains the core).
•Both the secondary windings have an equal number of turns, and we place
them on either side of primary winding.
•The primary winding is connected to an AC source which produces a flux in
the air gap and voltages are induced in secondary windings.
•A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former and displacement to be
measured is connected to the iron core.
•The iron core is generally of high
permeability which helps in
reducing harmonics and high
sensitivity of LVDT.
•The LVDT is placed inside a stainless
steel housing because it will provide
electrostatic and electromagnetic
shielding.
•The both the secondary windings are
connected in such a way that resulted
output is the difference between
the voltages of two windings.

3
 06-01-2025

Principle of Operation and Working:

• As the primary is connected to an AC source so alternating current and
voltages are produced in the secondary of the LVDT. The output in secondary
S1 is e1 and in the secondary S2 is e2. So the differential output is,
• Three cases arise according to the locations of core which explains the
working of LVDT are discussed below as,
▪ CASE I When the core is at null position (for no displacement)
When the core is at null position then the flux linking with both the
secondary windings is equal so the induced emf is equal in both the
windings. So for no displacement the value of output eout is zero as
e1 and e2 both are equal. So it shows that no displacement took place.

•CASE II When the core is moved to upward of null position (For displacement to the
upward of reference point)
In the this case the flux linking with secondary winding S 1 is more as compared to flux
linking with S2. Due to this e1 will be more as that of e2. Due to this output voltage eout is
positive.
•CASE III When the core is moved to downward of Null position (for displacement to
the downward of the reference point). In this case magnitude of
e2 will be more as that of e1.

Due to this output eout will be

negative and shows the
output to downward of the
reference point.
Output VS Core
Displacement:
A linear curve shows that
output voltage varies linearly
with displacement of core.

4
 06-01-2025

Temperature Sensors:
• These sensors measure the amount of heat energy or even coldness
that is generated by an object or system.
• We have the following types of temperature sensors among so many.

Temp
Sensor

Thermo-
couple RTD

Thermocouples:
• It is an active temperature sensor which generates voltage proportional to applied
temperature.
• Working of thermocouple:
▪ A thermocouple consists of two plates of different metals. Both plates are
connected at both ends to make two junction.
▪ According to the Seebeck effect, the temperature difference between the two
different metals induces the potential differences between two points of the
thermocouple plates.
▪ One of the thermocouple junction is kept as reference junction (J1) and other
is considered as measuring junction (J2).
▪ The reference junction is kept at ambient temperature (T) and the measuring
junction is exposed to chamber whose temperature is to be measured. Then
due to temperature difference the thermo emf (Vo) is generated.
▪ A voltmeter is connected to the circuit. The voltage measured by the voltmeter
is a function of a temperature difference between two junctions.

5
 06-01-2025

We have,

For better accuracy, the reference junction is

𝑉𝑜
kept in ice bath to have T1=0, then 𝑇2 =
𝐶
This eliminates error due to fluctuations in
ambient temperature

Resistor Temperature Detector (RTD):

RTD works on the principle that "the electric resistance of a metal changes
with change in its temperature". (increases with increase in temperature)
• The relation is given by,

• The sensitive portion of an RTD, called an element

is a coil of small-diameter, high purity wire, usually
constructed of platinum, copper or nickel.
This type of RTD is called a wire wound RTD.
• With thin-film elements, a thin film of platinum is
deposited onto a ceramic substrate.

6
 06-01-2025

RTD: Working
• RTD is inserted in the system of which
temperature is to be measured.
• The resistance of RTD changes with
change in temperature.
• The bridge circuit is used to convert
the change in resistance into
corresponding voltage.
• In this circuit R1, R2 & R3 are fixed
resistors and Rx (RTD) is the variable
resistor.
• As the temperature of the system
changes the resistance of RTD changes
and corresponding voltage is produced
at output terminals.
Applications:
• Air conditioning and refrigeration servicing • Food Processing`• Textile
processing`• Plastics processing`• Petrochemical processing
• Air, gas and liquid temperature measurement in pipes and tanks`
• Exhaust gas temperature measurement

Mechanical Sensors:
• Strain gauge and Load Cells:
A strain gauge is a sensor whose measured electrical resistance varies
with changes in strain. Strain is the deformation or displacement of
material that results from an applied stress. Stress is the force applied
to a material, divided by the material’s cross-sectional area.
Load cell is a sensor or a transducer
that converts a load or force acting
on it into an electronic signal. This
electronic signal can be a voltage
change, current change or
frequency change depending on the
type of load cell and circuitry used.

7
 06-01-2025

Biosensors:
• Biosensors are used for our health care which includes diet, monitoring, detection and
cure etc.
• It also can be defined as the sensor which is used for detecting chemical contents if a
sample of spit, blood, urine, stool etc.
• The block diagram of the biosensor consists of three segments namely, sensor, transducer,
and electrical circuit.
• i. Sensor or detector: The first segment is the sensor or detector which is a biological
component. it is a biochemical receptor. It interacts with the analyte and signal the
change in its composition as electrical signal.
• ii. Transducer: The second segment is the transducer and it is a physical component
which amplifies the biochemical signal received from detector, alters the resulting
signal into electrical and displays in an attainable way.
• iii. Electrical circuit: It is the associated part which consists of Signal Conditioning Unit,
a Processor or Micro-controller and a Display Unit.
• Types:
On the basis of sensor device as well as the biological material the biosensors are
classified as:
• 1. Electrochemical biosensors
• 2. Calorimetric/Thermal detection biosensors
• 3. Optical biosensors

Biosensors: Block diagram

8
 06-01-2025

Block diagram of IoT based Data Acquisition and

Automation System

User Interface Cloud/Server

Data
Communication
Acquisition Computer
Module
Unit

Sensors Actuators

9
 06-01-2025

Communication Systems
• Basic Communication System:
► Block Diagram
► Communication Media: Wired and Wireless
► Electromagnetic Spectrum

• Mobile Communication System:

► Cellular concept
► Simple block diagram of GSM system

Block diagram of Communication system:

• The communication system basically deals with the
transmission of information from one point to another using
the well-defined steps which are carried out in sequential
manner.

10
 06-01-2025

1. Information source:
• We need comm. Sys. To send information. This information originates from the
information source. The information generated by the source may be in the form of
sound, picture, speech.
• Example: In telephone/Mobile communication - information in the form of sound
and the source is voice.
2. Transmitter: (Modulation)
• Transmitters use a technique called modulation to convert the electrical signal into
a form that is suitable for transmission over a given channel or medium.
Modulation is the main function of a transmitter.
3. Communication channel:
• The communication channel is the medium through which the signal (information)
travels from source (transmitter) to destination (receiver).
• Communication channels are divided into two categories: wired and wireless.
• Examples of wired channels - co-axial , fiber optic & twisted pair cables.
• Examples of wireless channels - air, water & vacuum.
4. Noise:
• Noise is an unwanted signal that enters the communication system via the
communication channel and interferes with the transmitted signal. It degrades the
transmitted signal.

5. Receiver: (Demodulation)
The receiver block receives the incoming modified message signal from the channel
and processes it to recreate the original (non-electrical) form of the message signal.
Its most important function is demodulation.
The output of receiver may be fed to a loudspeaker, television picture tube
computer etc.

• Example: TV set receives the signals sent by the TV transmitting stations and
converts the signal into a
form which is easily understandable by the humans who are watching TV.
6. Destination:
• The destination is the final stage in the communication system. Generally, humans
at some place are considered as the destination. A destination is a place where
humans consume the information.
• Example: if you are watching TV, you are considered as the destination.

11
 06-01-2025

Transmission media
• A transmission media or a communication media acts,
as a path for passing information from one end to the
other.
• The transmission media, used for conveying
information can be classified as
• wired (i.e. guided) and
• Wireless (i.e. unguided) media.

Communication Media:
Wired:
1) Twisted wire pair:
• The two wires are typically ``twisted'' together in a helix to
reduce interference between the two conductors
• Twisting decreases crosstalk interference between adjacent pairs
in a cable.
• Typically, a number of pairs are bundled together into a cable
by wrapping them in a tough protective sheath.
• Can carry both analog and digital signals. Actually, they carry
only analog signals. However, the ``analog'' signals can very
closely correspond to the square waves representing bits, so we
often think of them as carrying digital data.
• Data rates of several Mbps common.
• Spans distances of several kilometers.
• Data rate determined by wire thickness and length. In addition,
shielding to eliminate interference from other wires impacts
signal-to-noise ratio, and ultimately, the data rate.
• Good, low-cost communication. Indeed, many sites already have
twisted pair installed in offices -- existing phone lines.

12
 06-01-2025

2) Co-axial cable:
• Typically bandwidth of 300 MHz, total data rate of about 150 Mbps.
• Operates at distances up to 100 km.
• excellent noise immunity, low loses.
• Technology used in cable television.
3) Optical fiber:
• It has a cylindrical shape and consists of three concentric sections: the core, the
cladding, and the jacket.
• The core, innermost section having refractive index n1. The core is surrounded by
cladding of refractive index n2 that is less than n1.
• As a consequence, the light is propagated through multiple total internal reflection.
• The core material is usually made of ultra pure fused silica or glass and the
cladding is either made of glass or plastic. The cladding is surrounded by a jacket
made of plastic.
• The jacket is used to protect against moisture, abrasion, crushing and other
environmental hazards.

Electromagnetic Spectrum: It is a signal made up of oscillating electric

and magnetic fields.
• The entire range of frequencies that the EM wave can produce
oscillations is termed as Electromagnetic Spectrum.
• For the classification purpose, the EM spectrum is divided into small
segments and each segment is given a nomenclature.
• Each range is identified by end frequencies or wavelengths that differ
by a factor of 10.

13
 06-01-2025

IEEE Electromagnetic Frequency Spectrum.

IEEE Electromagnetic Frequency Spectrum.

• The entire range of frequencies that the EM wave can produce

oscillations is termed as Electromagnetic Spectrum.
• For the classification purpose, the EM spectrum is divided into
small segments and each segment is given a nomenclature.

14
 06-01-2025

Mobile communication system: Cellular concept

• The immense potential of conventional telephone cannot be exploited to its
maximum due to the limitation imposed by the connecting wires. But this
restriction has been removed with the advent of the cellular radio.
• If we use dedicated RF loop for every subscriber, we need larger bandwidth
to serve even a limited number of subscriber in a single city.
• To overcome this B.W. problem, subscribers have to share the RF channels
on need basis, instead of dedicated RF loops. This can be achieved by
using multiple access methods FDMA, TDMA, or CDMA.
• Even then the number of RF channels required to serve the subscribers,
works out to be impracticable.
• With limited frequency resource, cellular principle can serve thousands of
subscribers at an affordable cost.
• In a cellular network, total area is subdivided into smaller areas called
"cells". Each cell can cover a limited number of mobile subscribers within
its boundaries. Each cell can have a base station with a number of RF
channels.

Frequencies used in a given cell area will be

simultaneously reused at a different cell which is
geographically separated.
For example,
a typical seven-cell pattern can be considered.
• Total available frequency resources are divided
• into seven parts, each part consisting of a
number of radio channels and allocated to a
cell site
• In a group of 7 cells, available frequency spectrum is consumed totally.
The same seven sets of frequency can be used after certain distance.
• The group of cells where the available frequency spectrum is totally
consumed is called a cluster of cells.
• Two cells having the same number in the adjacent cluster, use the same
set of RF channels and hence are termed as “Co-channel cells”. The
distance between the cells using the same frequency should be
sufficient to keep the co-channel (co-ch) interference to an acceptable
level. Hence, the cellular systems are limited by Co-channel
interference.

15
 06-01-2025

• Shape of Cells
• For analytical purposes a “Hexagon” cell is preferred to
other shapes on due to the following reasons.
• A hexagon layout requires fewer cells to cover a given
area. Hence, it envisages fewer base stations and
minimum capital investment.
• Other geometrical shapes cannot effectively do this.
For example, if circular shaped cells are there, then
there will be overlapping of cells.
• Also for a given area, among square, triangle and
hexagon, radius of a hexagon will be the maximum
which is needed for weaker mobiles.

GSM: Global System for Mobile Communication

• Global System for Mobile (GSM) is a second generation cellular
standard developed to cater voice services and data delivery using digital
modulation .

1/6/2025 Unit VI : ( Communication System) 32

16
 06-01-2025

• The GSM network architecture consists of three major subsystems:

i) Mobile Station (MS)`
ii) Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
iii) Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)
• The wireless link interface between the MS and the Base Transceiver Station
(BTS), which is a part of BSS. Many BTSs are controlled by a Base Station
Controller (BSC). BSC is connected to the Mobile Switching Center (MSC),
which is a part of NSS. Figure shows the key functional elements in the
GSM network architecture.
• 1. Mobile Station (MS):
A mobile station communicates across the air interface with a base station
transceiver in the same cell in which the mobile subscriber unit is located. The
MS has two elements. The Mobile Equipment (ME) refers to the physical
device, which comprises of transceiver, digital signal processors, and the
antenna. The second element of the MS is the Subscriber Identity Module
(SIM). The SIM card is unique to the GSM system

17
 06-01-2025

Visitor Location Register (VLR)

Contains temporary information about mobile subscribers that are currently
located in the MSC service area but whose HLR are elsewhere

Contd.
2. Base Station Subsystem (BSS):
A base station subsystem consists of a base station controller and one or more base
transceiver station. Each Base Transceiver Station defines a single cell. A cell can
have a radius of between 100m to 35km, depending on the environment. A Base
Station Controller may be connected with a BTS. It may control multiple BTS units
and hence multiple cells. There are two main architectural elements in the BSS – the
Base Transceiver Subsystem (BTS) and the Base Station Controller (BSC). The
interface that connects a BTS to a BSC is called the A-bis interface. The interface
between the BSC and the MSC is called the A interface, which is standardised within
GSM.
3. Network and switching subsystem (NSS)
The NSS is responsible for the network operation. It provides the link between the
cellular network and the Public switched telecommunicates Networks.

1/6/2025 Unit VI : ( Communication System) 36

18
 06-01-2025

Thank You
Like Share & Subscribe to
SarcasticTeacher
@ShameemSir

19