UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF YAOUNDE

HIGHER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF YAOUNDE

ACADEMIC YEAR 2022-2023

INSTITUT UNIVERSITAIRE DES SCIENCES ET TECHNIQUES DE YAOUNDE

INSTITUT SUPERIEUR DES SCIENCES ET DES TECHNIQUES DE YAOUNDE

ANNEE ACADEMIQUE 2022-2023

NIVEAU / Level: 1& 2 FILIERE(S) / Filière :COMPUTER / Option: GENERAL COMPUTING TEPREUVE / Test:
GENERAL COMPUTING
Durée/Duration : 02 Heures
ENSEIGNANT / Examiner : MR MBAH ELIJAH
INSTRUCTIONS:Answer All Questions. Mark allocation for each question is indicated in
the bracket. You are reminded to use good English and to present your work orderly

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

PREFACE
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

This document is divided into the following parts: Computer concepts; Types of
computers; Categories of computer systems; Storage devices and media;
Programming methods for programme; Application software: a word
processor, spreadsheets, interactive computing and networks, program,
 programming, programming languages; Role of computer in
agriculture; Computer viruses
This document contains reading materials for first year and second year students at
the Universit

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Lecture 1: Computer Concepts and their 1

Applications…………………
Lecture 2: Types of 24
Computers……………………………………….....
Lecture 3: Computer 39
Systems…………………………………………..
Lecture 4: Categories of Computer 54
Systems…………………………..
Lecture 5: Storage Devices and 74
Media…………………………………
Lecture 6: Programming Method for 87
Programs…………………………
Lesson 7: Application Software: A Word 94
Processor…………………...
Lesson 8: Spreadsheets…………………………………………… 12
…… 4
Lecture 9: Interactive Computing and 13
Network……………………….. 7
Lecture 10: Program, Programming and Programming 14
Language………. 4
Lecture 11: Role of Computer in 15
Agriculture……………………………. 0
Lesson 12: Computer 16
viruses…………………………………………..... 2
Lesson 13 classification of compputers 16
5
 INTRODUCTION

The module “Introduction to Computers” aims to give general overview of what a

Computer is and lay foundation of the science of computing..
The course contents examines the internal organization of the computer system
which include CPU elements, memory, internal storage, and input/output units,
CPU functionality and concepts, the CPU terminology, memory functionality,
trend and concepts, RAM and ROM, External Storage (floppy and hard disk
storage), monitor and their controllers (video graphic, driver software et cetera,
Knowledge of internal data representation (number systems, base system, data
organization-bit, byte, word et cetera), problem solving techniques, algorithms,
syntax, data expression types, overview of operating systems, database systems,
webserver properties and internet and human computer interaction.

Course Objectives
By the end of the course the learner should be able to:

• Have a general overview of computer system, which includes the

fundamental components for computer system; hardware and software;
• A broad overview of the field of computer science and include a
fundamental and topical issues in computer science;
• Programme using programming languages;

• Learn how an operating system interfaces the hardware resources with

user’s environment;
• Provide fundamental concepts of database; 6. Develop internet and web
applications
 LECTURE ONE
COMPUTER CONCEPTS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
Lecture Outline
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Objectives
1.3. Computer Carts
1.4. Computer Functions
1.5. Application of Computer, Advantages and Disadvantages
1.6. DOS, Windows, File and Extension Programs
1.7. Summary
1.8. Model Exam Questions
1.9. Further Readings

1.1 Introduction and Definition of Computer

The 20th century saw the birth of one of the most important tools widely in use
today called a computer. Today, computers are used for communication,
management, research, drawing and design as well as entertainment.

This 21st century is being referred to as the digital age

A computer is an electronic device that accepts user input (data) and processes it
under the influence of a set of instructions referred to as programs to produce the
desired output generally referred to as information.
• Data are the raw facts may not make much meaning to the user.
• Programs are set of instructions that instruct a computer what to do.
• Information is result after data has been processed.
 1.2 Objectives
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
• Identify and name computer parts
• Define basic concepts used in computer
• Explain applications of computers
• Discuss advantages & disadvantages of computers
• Practice the DOS, Windows, File and Extension
programs with computers

1.3 Computer Parts

There are 4 basic types of computer parts:
• Input devices - parts of the computer that allow information or data to be
given to the computer like keyboard or a mouse.
• Storage devices – parts of the computer that hold information. The primary
storage device is the computer’s memory called RAM (random access
memory). It remembers everything that is read, input, or output. But,
because the computer’s memory is on a temporary area—it forgets
everything when turned off—it must have another place to store information
permanently. This secondary storage device is usually a disk.
• Processing device – part of the computer that processes and controls the
flow of information; it actually does the work. The one part of the computer
that handles this job is the central processing unit or CPU.
• Output devices - parts of the computer that gives out information generated
by the computer, like a monitor, printer or speaker.

4
 Fundamentals of Computing

1.4 Computers and their Functions

Computer - An electronic device that receives data and computes high-speed
mathematical or logical operations or that assembles, stores, correlates, or
otherwise processes and presents information.

What makes a computer powerful?

Speed A computer can do billions of actions per second.
Reliability Failures are usually due to human error, one way or
another. (Blush for us all!)
Storage A computer can keep huge amounts of data.

Characteristics of the Computer

Speed, accuracy, diligence, storage capability and versatility are some of the key
characteristics of a computer.
• Speed: The computer can process data very fast, at the rate of millions of
instructions per second. Computer speed is measured in Hertz.
• Accuracy: Computer provides a high degree of accuracy. For example, the
computer can accurately give the result of division of any two numbers up to 10
decimal places.
• Diligence: When used for a longer period of time, the computer does not get
tired or fatigued. It can perform long and complex calculations with the same
speed and accuracy from the start till the end.
• Storage Capability: Large volumes of data and information can be stored in
the computer and also retrieved whenever required. Computer storage is measured
in Bytes.
Versatility: Computer is versatile in nature. It can perform different types of tasks
with the same ease. At one moment you can use the computer to prepare a letter
document and in the next moment you may play music or print a document. E.g 1
kilobyte = 1024 megabytes, 1024mb=1 Gigabyte. FAQ: How many Kb make
2Gb?

Glossary of Basic Concepts

GUI – A Graphical User Interface – which uses visual displays to eliminate the
need for typing commands.

Formatting – The process of preparing a disc so that it can store information.

During formatting, sectors, tracks, a director and the FAT are created on the disc.
Sector – disc space normally 512 bytes long.
Track – A track is also a data storage ring on a computer floppy
diskette or hard disk drive that is capable of containing information. a
track goes all around the platter and is used to help locate and retrieve
information from a disk or diskette.
Directory- an area on disc where information relating to a group of
files is kept.
FAT – the File Allocation Table – an area on disc where information is
kept on which part of the disc the file is to be found.

Directory tree – a pictorial representation of your disc’s structure.

Boot – to start up the computer and load the DOS.

BIOS – The BASIC Input/Output System. It allows the core of the operating
system to communicate with the hardware.

Bit – a binary digit, the smallest unit of information that can be stores either
as 1 or 0.
Byte – a grouping of binary digits (0 or 1) which represent information.
CPU – the Central Processing Unit – the main chip that executes all commands.

Disc – a device which you can store programs and data

Cold boot – the process of starting your PC by switching it on.

Warm boot - the process of starting your PC by using the Ctrl+Alt+Del key
combination.
File – the name given to an area on disc containing a program or data.

Filename – the name given to a file. It must not exceed 8-characters in length and
can have up to 3-characters.

File extension – the optional three-letter suffix following the period in a filename.

Processor – The electronic device which performs calculations.

Prompt – A symbol that appears on a monitor to indicate that DOS is ready to

receive input or commands, such as A> or C>.

Peripheral – A device attached to a PC.

Path – The drive and directories that DOS should look in for files. A path tells
DOS how to locate a file within the directory structure. E.g. C:\SPREADSH\
SSFILES\SALARY.TMP

Port – an Input/Output address through which your PC interacts with external

devices.

Program – a set of instructions which cause a computer to perform certain tasks.

Hardcopy – Output on paper

Hardware – the visible, tangible equipment that makes up a computer system.

Software – the non- visible, non-tangible programs and instructions that
control your PC’s functionality

Root directory – The main disc directory under which a number of sub-
directories can be created.

ROM – Read Only Memory – the microcomputer’s non-volatile memory.

Data are written into this memory at manufacture and are not affected by
power loss.

RAM – Random Access Memory – the microcomputer’s volatile memory.

Data held in it is lost when power is switched off.
 Memory – Storage elements organized into addressable locations that can
hold data and instructions in a PC.

Megabyte – MB – 1024 kilobytes of information or storage space.

Megahertz – MHz – Speed of processor in million of cycles/second.

Mouse – a devise used to manipulate a pointer around the display.

Monitor – the display devices connected to a PC. Also known as the Screen,
VDU.

Microprocessor – A PC’s calculating chip.

Multitasking – Running more than one computer application at the same

time. An operating system that permits multitasking allows the user to be
printing a document from one program while working in another, as well as
downloading content from the Internet in the background.

Backbone - A cable to which multiple nodes or workstations are attached.

Bit - Binary digit in the binary numbering system. Its value can be 0 or 1. In an 8-
bit character scheme, it takes 8 bits to make a byte (character) of data.
Client/Server - A networking system in which one or more file servers (Server)
provide services; such as network management, application and centralized data
storage for workstations (Clients).

Hub - A hardware device that contains multiple independent but connected

modules of network and internetwork equipment. Hubs can be active (where they
repeat signals sent through them) or passive (where they do not repeat but merely
split signals sent through them).

Infrared - Electromagnetic waves whose frequency range is above that of

microwaves, but below that of the visible spectrum.

Intranet - Network internal to an organization that uses Internet protocols.

Internet - A global network of networks used to exchange information using the

TCP/IP protocol. It allows for electronic mail and the accessing ad retrieval of
information from remote sources.

LAN (Local Area Network) - A network connecting computers in a relatively small

area such as a building.

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) - A network connecting computers over a large

geographical area, such as a city or school district.

Modem (Modulator/Demodulator) - Devices that convert digital and analog

signals.
Modems allow computer data (digital) to be transmitted over voice-grade
telephone lines (analog).

Multiplexer - A device that allows multiple logical signals to be transmitted

simultaneously across a single physical channel.

Network Modem - A modem connected to a Local Area Network (LAN) that is

accessible from any workstation on the network.
Network Interface Card (NIC) - A board that provides network communication
capabilities to and from a computer.

Network Operating System (NOS) - Operating system designed to pass

information and communicate between more than one computer. Examples include
AppleShare, Novell NetWare, and Windows NT Server.

Node - End point of a network connection. Nodes include any device attached to a
network such as file servers, printers, or workstations.

Node Devices - Any computer or peripheral that is connected to the network.

Peer-to-Peer Network - A network in which resources and files are shared without
a centralized management source.

Physical Topology - The physical layout of the network; how the cables are
arranged; and how the computers are connected.

Point-to-Point - A direct link between two objects in a network.

Ports - A connection point for a cable.

Protocol -A formal description of a set of rules and conventions that govern how
devices on a network exchange information.

Repeater - A device used in a network to strengthen a signal as it is passed along

the network cable.

Star Topology - LAN topology in which each node on a network is connected

directly to a central network hub or concentrator.

Star-Wired Ring - Network topology that connects network devices (such as

computers and printers) in a complete circle.
Topology - There are two types of topology: physical and logical. The physical
topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables, computers, and other
peripherals. Logical topology is the method used to pass the information between
workstations. Issues involving logical topologies are discussed on the Protocol
chapter

Tree Topology - LAN topology similar to linear bus topology, except that tree
networks can contain branches with multiple nodes.

WAN (Wide Area Network) - A network connecting computers within very large
areas, such as states, countries, and the world.
Workstation - A computer connected to a network at which users interact with
software stored on the network.

Business Information Systems: Information systems within a business organization

that support one of the traditional functions of business such as marketing, finance,
or production. Business information systems can be either operations or
management information systems.

Control: The systems component that evaluates feedback to determine whether the
system is moving toward the achievement of its goal and then makes any
necessary adjustments to the input and processing components of the system to
ensure that proper output is produced.
 Cross-Functional Information System: Information systems that cross the
boundaries of functional business areas in order to support business processes
across the organization.

Data: Facts or observations about physical phenomena or business transactions.

More specifically, data are objective measurements of the attributes
(characteristics) of entities, such as people, places, things, and events.

Data or Information Processing: The act of converting data into information.

Data Resources: Data, model, and knowledge bases

Decision Support Systems (DSS): An information system that utilizes decision
models, a database, and a decision maker’s own insights in an ad hoc, interactive
analytical modeling process to reach a specific decision by a specific decision
maker.

Enterprise Collaboration Systems: Enhance collaboration among networked teams

and workgroups

Executive Information Systems (EIS): Information systems that provides strategic

information tailored to needs of top management.

Expert System: A computer-based information system that uses its knowledge

about a specific complex application area to act as an expert consultant to users.
The system consists of a knowledge base and software modules that perform
inferences on the knowledge, and communicates answers to a user’s questions.

Feedback: Data or information concerning the components and operations of a

systems performance.

Hardware Resources: Includes all physical devices and materials used in

information processing (machines and media).

Information: Data that has been placed into a meaningful context for an end user.

Information System Activities: Input, processing, output, storage, and control

Information System Model: An information system uses people, hardware,

software, network, and data resources to perform input, processing, output,
storage, and control activities that transform data resources into information
products.
Integrated Information Systems

Information systems that combine the capabilities of several types of information

systems.
Knowledge Management System: Collect, organize, and disseminate business
know-how within a company.

Management Information System: Information systems designed to provide

information needed for effective decision-making by managers.

Management Support System: Include executive information systems, decision

support systems, and management information systems.

Network Resources: Network resources include communications media and

network support.

Operations Support Systems: Include office automation systems, transaction

processing systems, and process control systems.

People Resources: IS Specialists and end users.

Process Control Systems: Computer-based systems that control an ongoing

physical process such as petrochemical production.
Programs: A set of instructions that cause a computer to perform a particular task.

Procedures: Set of instructions used by people to complete a task.

Strategic Information Systems: Information systems that provide a firm with

competitive products and services that give it a strategic advantage over its
competitors in the marketplace.

Subsystem: A system that is a component of a larger system

System: A system is a group of interrelated components working together toward a
common goal by accepting inputs and producing outputs in an organized
transformation process.
Transaction Processing Systems (TPS): Information systems that process data
arising from the occurrence of business transactions.

Types of Information Systems: Information systems can be classified into

operations, management, and other categories

1.5 Application of Computer, Advantages and Disadvantages

Computers have become important tools in our day-to-day’s operations. Some of
the areas computers are used are in:

Engineering
In engineering computers are used for designing using computer aided design
(CAD) software. Modelling and testing processes etc.

In Biosystems engineering, computers are being used for biometric analysis,

genetic engineering and cloning etc.

Space exploration would hardly be impossible without the assistance of

computers.

Manufacturing
Computers have made industrial processes more efficient through optimization
scheduling, process control, and using robots to perform automated manufacturing
process control which are otherwise dangerous to human beings.
Automobile assembly robot at work

A wire repair robot at work

Communication
The integration of computers and communication technologies is what is being
referred to as ICT. This merger has resulted to more efficient communication using
computers and other handheld devices such as mobile phones used to facilitate
sending and receiving of messages over the internet. Computers also control many
telecommunications equipment.

Education and research

Computers are used in educational institution as teaching aid, online teaching
especially in open and distance learning and to enhance management.
Internet contains a lot of information for researchers, scholars and
teachers/lecturers.

Computers in education

16 Fundamentals of Computing

Other application areas

Law enforcement to carry out biometric mapping activities like fingerprint
matching and store forensic information.
 Banking to keep client accounts details and issue cash transaction services at
the automated teller machines (ATM).

System Software
Does fundamental tasks such as computer boot up and system control. System
software are further classified into:
• Operating system
• Utility software
• Network software
• Firmware

Operating System
An operating system is a program that manages the computer hardware resources
and controls the execution of application programs. Examples are:
• Microsoft Windows 98/2000/Me/2003/Vista
• UNIX
• Linux
• MacOS

Utility Software
Utility software also called service programs are special programs used to
enhance perform both at system and user levels.
System level utilities optimizes system performance while application level
utilities help in smooth running of application programs. Examples are
• Norton utility
• McAfee suites

Network Software
Networking software enables computers and other peripheral devices connected on
a network to communicate and share resources. Examples are:
• Novell Netware
• UNIX
• Windows NT based operating systems
Firmware
Firmware, also referred to as stored logic is an integration of both hardware and
software on a single silicon chip. These are mostly packaged as ROM chips.

Advantages and disadvantages of computer

In this lecture, you will be introduced to the advantages and disadvantages of
computers.
Advantages of computers
Large storage of data in small amount of space.
Quick and accurate calculations than humans.
Continuously work with repetitive work( contusive environment)
Simulation of dangerous situations.
Disadvantages
Expensive to introduce.
Health hazards.
Downtime-.
Redundancy in the work place.
It can lead to misuse of information.

1.6 DOS, Windows, File and Extension Programs

Below is a comparison of DOS and Windows

Comparison of DOS and Windows

DOS WINDOWS
Command line interface GUI
Terminate and stay resident (TSR)
The memory is dynamic – can
memory – one at a time load many programs at the same
time
Does not allow multi-tasking – Allows multi-tasking – run many
run only one program job at a programs/jobs simultaneously
time
Filename is limited to Filename has upto 128 characters
only 8.3 characters -
128.3, 4 characters
No spaces in filename Allows spaces in filename
Commands keyed-in through Commands keyed-in through the
the keyboard The mouse
Not user friendly User friendly
File extensions and programs
FILE EXTENSION PROGRAM
.XLS Excel
.DOC Winword, MS-Word
.RTF Winword, MS-Word
.BAT Batchfile
.DAT Data files
.INI Initialization files, text files
.COM Command interpretor
.TMP Temporary files
.HTML Internet explorer

1.7 Summary
In this lecture, you have been exposed to definitions and
basic parts of a computer. Computer concepts, their
definitions, functions and applications have been explained
and diagrams for identification of a computer and its parts
presented. Advantages and disadvantages of a computer have
been discussed and we have also made comparisons of the
DOS and the Windows, file extensions and programs.
 Activity 1.1
• Practice drawing parts of a computer and try to
identify them on the computer.
• Define the concepts in their own words and practice
with each other the terminologies and applications of
the terms.

Activity 1.2
1. Define the following terms indicating their
functions:
FAT, Formatting, Bios, Multitasking, Byte,
Processor, Path, Program, Memory, Megabyte,
Hub, LAN, Expert style,.
• Diagramatically show the interrelatedness of
input, processes, output and discuss their
functions.
• Define and discuss the four basic parts of a
computer.
• Clearly explain the following types of software:
System software, Operating system, Utility
software, Network software, Firmware,
Application software,
Database software, Presentation software
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of a
computer?
• Clearly explain the differences between DOS
and
Windows: File and Extension Program

Further Readings
• Bartee, T.,1984. Introduction to Computer
Systems
McGrall-Hill International Book company, Aukland
 • Stallings, William 2009.Operating Systems:
Internals and Design Principles (6thEd) Prentice
Hall-Pearson

LECTURE TWO
TYPES OF COMPUTERS
Lecture Outline
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Lecture Objectives
2.3 Super computers
2.4 Mini computers
2.5 Micro computer
2.6 Laptop
2.7 Main frame computers
2.8 Embedded computers
2.9 Terminal computers
2.10 Cloud computers
2.11 Summary
2.13 Questions for practice
2.14 Suggestion for further reading

2.1 Introduction
In this lecture you will learn about the different types of computers and practice
how to use of some of these computers. We shall also see how the various
computers look like and the functions they perform in various organizations.
Latest computers such as cloud computers will also be discussed.
 Objectives
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
• Recognize super computers
• Use Mini computers
• Describe how Main frame computers are used by large
organizations
• Recognize and use Cloud computing
• Identify and name any other type of computers

We are going to learn about the following types of computers. Carry up your hand
if you know any of these computers.
Supercomputers
Minicomputers
Microcomputers
Laptops/notebooks
Mainframe computer
Embedded computers
Terminals
Cloud computing.
This is how some of the computers look like
Microcomputers

Desktop PC

Laptop/Notebook PC

Pocket PC
Minicomputers

A mainframe computer

A super computer

2.3 Super Computers

Supercomputers
Unlike mainframes and minicomputers, supercomputers are used for the heavy
stuff like weather maps, construction of atom bombs, finding oil, earthquake
prediction, and sciences where a lot of calculations must be done.

They are also used to help governments eavesdrop on anything passing through
telephone, data lines, e-mail, or radio waves; and anything that is written, etc.
Historically, a supercomputer is associated with the fastest computer available or
the largest in size.

Supercomputing means "mass computing at ultra high speed."

Though all contemporary personal computers perform in the tens or hundreds of
megaflops (millions of calculations per second), they still cannot solve certain
problems fast enough.

Construction of supercomputers is an awesome and very expensive task.

To get a machine from the laboratory to the market may take several years.
Using a supercomputer is expensive as well.
As a user, you are charged according to the time you use the system what is
expressed in the number of processor (CPU) seconds your program runs.
Why do we need a supercomputer? Well, as a normal person on the street, you
don't.
Your cell phone or PDA has more computing power than the first mainframes.

Who really needs supercomputing today are mostly scientists performing mass
computing at ultra high speed. They use such computers in all imaginable
disciplines: space exploration and related imagery (picturing galaxies and
intergalactic matter), environmental simulations (global warming effects)
mathematics, physics (the search for the really smallest part of matter), gene
technology (what gene it is that makes us old), and many others.

As you can see in the table below, the ranking of a supercomputer is near the top
of the computer spectrum.

2.4 Minicomputers
Introduced in the early 1960s and announced a new era in computing. They are
relatively low cost and small. Historically, a mini is associated with de-centralized
computing. Meaning most computing takes (physically) place on the mini itself

2.5 Microcomputers
A microcomputer is a computer with a microprocessor as its central processing
unit. Another general characteristic of these computers is that they occupy
physically small amounts of space when compared to mainframe and
minicomputers.

Many microcomputers (when equipped with a keyboard and screen for input and
output) are also personal computers
Monitors, keyboards and other devices for input and output may be integrated or
separate.
Computer memory in the form of RAM, and at least one other less volatile,
memory storage device are usually combined with the CPU on a system bus in a
single unit.
Other devices that make up a complete microcomputer system include, batteries, a
power supply unit, a keyboard and various input/output devices used to convey
information to and from a human operator (printers, monitors, human interface
devices)
Microcomputers are designed to serve only a single user at a time, although they
can often be modified with software or hardware to concurrently serve more than
one user. Microcomputers fit well on or under desks or tables, so that they are
within easy access of the user.
Bigger computers like minicomputers, mainframes, and supercomputers take up
large cabinets or even a dedicated room.

A microcomputer comes equipped with at least one type of data storage, usually
RAM. Although some microcomputers (particularly early 8-bit home micros)
perform tasks using RAM alone, some form of secondary storage is normally
desirable. In the early days of home micros, this was often a data cassette deck (in
many cases as an external unit). Later, secondary storage (particularly in the form
of floppy disk and hard disk drives) were built in to the microcomputer case itself.

Microcomputers, or PC's as they are often called, are abundant on our desks,
tables, offices, suitcases, everywhere.
This is the most visible form of computers in the present world and comes in all
forms and breeds.
There are many generations of particular design and technical specifications from
the start of this particular design.
Historically, a micro is associated with stand alone computing.
Meaning most computing takes (physically) place on the micro itself.
In the 1980's when networking started to integrate into the offices PC'S became
connected with network servers, and also mainframes and supers.
 2.6 Laptops/notebooks
A laptop computer or simply laptop (also notebook computer, notebook and
notepad) is a small mobile computer, typically weighing 1.4 to 5.4 kg, although
older laptops may weigh more.

Laptops usually run on a single main battery or from an external AC/DC adapter
that charges the battery while also supplying power to the computer itself even in
the event of a power failure.

Laptops contain components that are similar to their desktop counterparts and
perform the same functions, but are miniaturized and optimized for mobile use and
efficient power consumption, although typically less powerful for the same price.

Laptops usually have liquid crystal displays (flat display device made up of any
number of color or monochrome pixels arrayed in front of a light source or
reflector. It is often utilized in battery-powered electronic devices because it uses
very small amounts of electric power.) and most of them use different memory
modules for their random access memory (RAM), for instance, SO-DIMM in lieu
of the larger DIMMs. utilize a touchpad or a pointing stick, though an extern can
2.7 Mainframe Computer
Mainframes are computers used mainly by large organizations for critical
applications, typically bulk data processing such as census, industry and consumer
statistics, ERP, and financial transaction processing.

The term probably originated from the early mainframes, as they were housed in
enormous, room-sized metal boxes or frames.
Characteristics
Nearly all mainframes have the ability to run (or host) multiple operating systems
and thereby operate not as a single computer but as a number of virtual machines.
In this role, a single mainframe can replace dozens or even hundreds of smaller
servers, reducing management and administrative costs while providing greatly
improved scalability and reliability.
Mainframes can add or hot swap system capacity non disruptively and granularly.
 2.8 Embedded Computers
Embedded computers can be compared to "computers on a chip".
All in one so to speak. You will find them in all kind of appareils that
surround us.
Washing machines, ticket machines at the subway, camera's, cars, motors,
sewing machines, clocks.
Everywhere needing something to regulate, control of check something.
Historically, embedded computing is associated with self contained
preprogrammed computing.
Meaning there are mostly no connections outside the environment where that
particular type of computing takes (physically) place and influences the
working of that embedded computing device.

2.9 Terminals
• Terminals exist in all forms and breeds.
• There are "smart" and "dumb" terminals used for a enormous variety of
purposes.
• Historically, a terminal is associated with de-centralized computing.
• Meaning most computing takes (physically) place somewhere else then
where the terminal is physically situated

2.10 Cloud Computers (computing).

Usually based up in the satellite and stores information instead of the common
current ways of storages.
 2.11 Summary
In this lecture, different types of computers have been
identified and you have been able to describe the
mainframe computers, minicomputers, supercomputers
and cloud computers. The following are the major points
covered on different types of computers:
Super computer
Fastest computer in the world.
Very large and may take several rooms.
Used in fields that require vast amounts of complex
mathematical calculations eg simulating and nuclear research.
Main frame
Very fast large-scale computer systems.
Have a large number of terminals and peripheral
devices because they are used simultaneously by
hundreds ( or even thousands ) of persons.
Larger than super computers.
A large memory and large storage capacity.
Uses
In banks for processing customer accounts.
By utility companies for processing telephone, water
and electricity bills.
By airlines for making flight arrangements.
By Universities for processing exams and payrolls
Minicomputers
They support fewer users than mainframes.
Smaller than the main frame.
Examples of application
 In networking the operations in an automobile sales and service
outlet.
In manufacturing, for inventory control, accounts and process
control.
Microcomputer.
Used in homes for recreation.
For communication through the use of internet services.
In an office for processing documents and processing data eg
payroll, inventory etc.

Activity 2.2
• Discuss the following types of computers and give
examples of each:
Super computers, minicomputers, microcomputers,
laptop, mainframe, embedded, terminal, and cloud
computers
• What are the functions of each of the computers
named in (a)
• Indicate the organization where each of the computers
is appropriately used.
• Explain how a notebook PC differs from a pocket PC
2.12 Further Reading
• Tiebel, Walter A., and Artar Singh 1991. The 68000 and 68020
Microprocessors, Architecture, Software and Techniques.
Printice-Hall International Inc. Englewwod Cliffs

• Luehrmann, Arthur and Herbert Peckham 1983. Computer

Literacy: A hands-on Approach (1St Ed). McGraw-Hill
Book Company
 LECTURE THREE
COMPUTER SYSTEMS
Lecture Outline
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Hardware
3.4 Software
3.5 Summary
3.6 Questions for Practice
3.7 Further Readings

3.1 Introduction
The section will expose students to computer hardware parts, their definitions and
use. Typical pc hardware, mother-board, removable media devices such as CD,
DVD will be explained. Students will also learn how to use floppy disks, USB
Flash, internal storage, sound card and networking.
3.2 Objectives
By the end of the lecture, you will be able to:
• Identify and name the computer hardware
• Describe the various functions of computer
hardware
• Discuss the categories of software
• Use computer software

3.3 Computer Hardware

These are physical parts such as the system unit and peripheral devices.
Peripheral devices connect to the system unit. They include:
Input devices,
Central processing unit (CPU),
Output devices
Storage devices

Computer Hardware is different from computer software as illustrated below:

Hardware Software
Physical components of the Programs that run on the
computer hardware.

Hardware is the physical parts of the computer like the monitor, keyboard, mouse,
speakers, and of course the computer itself called the system unit. Hardware is
also the parts inside the system unit that you can’t see unless you open

Computer hardware is the physical part of a computer, including its digital

circuitry, as distinguished from the computer software that executes within the
hardware. The hardware of a computer is infrequently changed.

Typical PC hardware

A typical personal computer consists of a case or chassis in a tower shape

(desktop) and the following parts:

Motherboard - It is the "body" or mainframe of the computer, through which all

other components interface.

Central processing unit (CPU) - Performs most of the calculations which enable a
computer to function, sometimes referred to as the "brain" of the computer.

Computer fan - Used to lower the temperature of the computer; a fan is almost
always attached to the CPU, and the computer case will generally have several
fans to maintain a constant airflow.

Random Access Memory (RAM)' - Fast-access memory that is cleared when the
computer is powered-down. RAM attaches directly to the motherboard, and is used
to store programs that are currently running.
Power supply - A case control, and (usually) a cooling fan, and supplies power to
run the rest of the computer

Storage controllers - Controllers for hard disk, CD-ROM and other drives

Video display controller - Produces the output for the visual display unit. This will
either be built into the motherboard or attached in its own separate slot
Removable media devices:-

CD-ROM Drive - a device used for reading data from a CD.

CD Writer - a device used for both reading and writing data to and from a CD.

DVD (digital versatile disc) - a popular type of removable media that is the same
dimensions as a CD but stores up to 6 times as much information. It is the most
common way of transferring digital video.

DVD-ROM Drive - a device used for reading data from a DVD.

DVD Writer - a device used for both reading and writing data to and from a DVD.
DVDRAM Drive - a device used for rapid writing and reading of data from a
special type of DVD.

Floppy disk - an outdated storage device consisting of a thin disk of a flexible

magnetic storage medium.

Zip drive - an outdated medium-capacity removable disk storage system, first

introduced by Iomega in 1994.

USB flash drive - a flash memory data storage device integrated with a USB
interface, typically small, lightweight, removable, and rewritable.

Tape drive - a device that reads and writes data on a magnetic tape, usually used
for long term storage.
Internal storage
Hardware that keeps data inside the computer for later use and remains persistent
even when the computer has no power.

Hard disk - for medium-term storage of data.

Sound card Networking

Connects the computer to the Internet and/or other computers.
Modem - for dial-up connections
Network card - for DSL/Cable internet, and/or connecting to other computers
Direct
Cable Connection - Use of a null modem, connecting two computers together
using their serial ports or a Laplink Cable, connecting two computers together with
their parallel ports.

Other peripherals
In addition, hardware devices can include external components of a computer
system.
The following are either standard or very common.

Includes various input and output devices, usually external to the computer system

Input Text input devices

Keyboard - a device, to input text and characters by depressing buttons (referred to

as keys), similar to a typewriter. The most common English-language key layout is
the QWERTY layout.
Pointing devices
Mouse - a pointing device that detects two dimensional motion relative to its
supporting surface.

Trackball - a pointing device consisting of an exposed portruding ball housed in a

socket that detects rotation about two axes.
Xbox 360 Controller - A controller used for Xbox 360, Which with the use of the
application Switchblade(tm), can be used as an additional pointing device with the
left or right thumbstick.

Gaming devices
Joystick - a general control device that consists of a handheld stick that pivots
around one end, to detect angles in two or three dimensions.

Gamepad - a general game controller held in the hand that relies on the digits
(especially thumbs) to provide input.
Game controller - a specific type of controller specialized for certain gaming
purposes.

Image, Video input devices

Image scanner - a device that provides input by analyzing images, printed text,
handwriting, or an object.

Webcam - a low resolution video camera used to provide visual input that can be
easily transferred over the internet.

Audio input devices

Microphone - an acoustic sensor that provides input by converting sound into an

electrical signals

it up. Parts like the motherboard, expansion cards, and modem. Many hardware
devices can be attached to a system unit to expand its capabilities, such as a
speaker, scanner or printer
Hardware Elements

Storage devices
Secondary storage devices (auxiliary storage) are so called because unlike
primary storage, they are not directly accessible by the CPU.

Secondary storage offer long term storage for data and information. They can be
classified according to:

Portability (removable or fixed)

Technology used to store (magnetic, optical or solid state).

Magnetic tapes

A magnetic tape is made using a thin ribbon of mylar (plastic) coated with
a thin layer of magnetic material composed of iron oxide.
 Fundamentals of Computing 40

Floppy disks

A floppy disk has concentric circles called tracks in which data is written.
The tracks are further divided into units called sectors

Fundamentals of Computing 41

Zip Disk

The Zip disk is a special type of diskette, which can hold data of up to 750 MB. It
is stable, inexpensive and easy to work with. Zip disks are read using a zip drive
which may be internal or external.

Optical storage media are so called because data is written and read from them
using a laser beam.
Compact disks
A compact disk (CD) is made of a small plastic disk with a reflective aluminum
coating on one side. CDs can store data of approximately 700MB. There are three
common types of CDs namely read only, recordable and rewritable CDs.
Digital versatile disk (DVD)
Digital versatile disks resemble CD-ROMs in every aspect only that they can store
more data than CD-ROMs.

For example, a typical DVD can store approximately 17 GB. Just like CDs, there
are three common types of DVDs namely read only, recordable and rewritable
DVDs.

Solid state storage devices

Solid state storage is a kind of nonvolatile storage media that employs

integrated circuits rather than mechanical, magnetic or optical technology.
Examples of solid state devices include flash disks and memory cards

Hard Disks
A hard disks also known as hard drive is an example of fixed storage.
However, this is not absolutely the case because some hard disks are
removable.

It is called a hard disk because it is made up of metallic disk platters

housed in a protective metal case. The read/write head moves just
above the surface of the rapidly rotating disk to read or write data.

One of the advantages of the hard disk over the other storage media is that
they store very large volumes of data and offer faster data access.
To avoid accidental loss of data or information observe the following:

Care of Storage Media

• Do not expose a magnetic media to strong magnetic fields.
• Do not expose a media to excessive heat.
• Do not drop, bend or scratch the media
• Do not remove a media from the drive when it is still being accessible by the
computer

Computer Software
Software - software is the instructions given to the computer that tells it what to
do. A computer cannot do anything without instructions. A computer must first
read instructions before it can start to work. These instructions are called operating
system software. When a computer is turned on, the first thing it does is find and
read its system software. This software tells the computer how to work; how to be
a computer. Once a computer has done this and is “booted up” or ready to go, it
can read other instructions called application software. This type of software tells
the computer how to do a specific task with a user, like writing a report, playing a
game, or creating a graph.

Software also referred to as programs is a set of instructions that directs a

computer what to do. Generally classified into:
• System software
• Application software

System Software
Does fundamental tasks such as computer boot up and system control. System
software are further classified into:
• Operating system
• Utility software
• Network software
• Firmware

Operating System
An operating system is a program that manages the computer hardware resources
and controls the execution of application programs. Examples are:
Microsoft Windows 98/2000/Me/2003/Vista
UNIX
Linux
MacOS

Utility Software:
Utility software also called service programs are special programs used to
enhance perform both system and user levels.
System level utilities optimizes system performance while application level
utilities help in smooth running of application programs. Examples are
Norton utility
 McAfee suites

Network Software:
Networking software enables computers and other peripheral devices connected on
a network to communicate and share resources. Examples are:
Novell Netware
UNIX
Windows NT based operating systems

Firmware:
Firmware, also referred to as stored logic is an integration of both hardware and
software on a single silicon chip. These are mostly packaged as ROM chips.
3.5 Summary
In this lecture you have learnt computer hardware and
software. Specific functions of computer hardware and
software have been discussed and you have been able to use
the various categories of computer software.

Activity 3.2
How are systems software classified?
• Discuss and give examples of operating systems.
• How does utility software differ from network
software?
• Differentiate hardware from software system.(ii) what
are their functions

3.8 Further Reading

• Timothy J.O’Leary and Linda I.O”Leary 2010. Computing
Essentials, Introductory The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Stallings, William 2009. Operating Systems: Internals and

Design Principles (6th Ed) Prentice-Hall-Pearson
 LECTURE FOUR
CATEGORIES OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS
Lecture Outline
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 CPU
4.4 Input devices
4.5 Processing-converting inputs into outputs
4.6 Output devices
4.7 Summary
4.8 Questions for practice
4.9 Further Reading

4.1 Introduction
The lecture exposes students to categories of computer systems. The CPU as the
brain of the computer that contains registers for holding data instructions,
peripheral devices such as the input and output and the processing which involves
converting input into output are identified and discussed.
4.2 Objectives
By the end of the lecture, you will be able to:
1. Describe the CPU and its functions
2 Discuss and identify the functions of input devices
• State the process of converting input into output
• Produce printed material from a computer

4.3 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

We are going to learn about the brain of a computer called the CPU. It is the brain
of the computer because it is where data is manipulated and arithmetic and logic
carried out.
The central processing unit (CPU) also referred to as the processor is the
central part of the computer where data processing takes part. It is regarded
as the brain
 of the computer. Take out the intestine, and you are dead. In the same way,
take out the CPU, the computer would be dead.
As mentioned earlier, the CPU of a microcomputer is a tiny chip etched into a
silicon chip. The processor is mounted onto a board known as the
motherboard or system board.

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the brain of the computer. It is a computer
chip found on the motherboard that carries out instructions, directs the flow of
information through the system, and makes calculations. It works very quickly
carrying out millions of instructions each second. It is a very complex computer
chip. Manufacturers are continually improving CPUs to be more powerful and
faster. Just as there are different makes of cars and other products, there are
different manufactures of computer chips such as Intel, MD and Cyrix. are
improved, each generation is more powerful than those.

The CPU and the Memory are the two components in a computer that
handle data processing.
The CPU is where data is manipulated.
It is considered the brain of the computer.
In a PC, the entire CPU is contained on a tiny chip called the micro-
processor. Every CPU has at least 2 basic part – the Control Unit and the
Arithmetic and
Logic Unit (ALU).

Control Unit
The CPU’s function is to coordinate al the activities of the computer.
All the computer resources are managed from the CPU.
The CPU can be considered as a traffic policeman directing the flow of data
around the CPU and around the computer.
The CU contains the CPU’s instructions for command execution.
The instruction set, which is built into the circuitry of the CPU is a list of all
possible operations that the CPU can perform.
Each instruction in the instruction set is accompanied by a micro-code which are
very basic instructions that tell the tell CPU how to execute the instruction.
The control circuitry is the primary functional unit within the CPU using clock
inputs. The CU maintains the proper sequence of events required for any
processing

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU).

When the CU encounters an instruction that involves arithmetic or logic, it passes
control to the 2nd components of the CPU – the ALU.
ALU includes a group of registers which are memory locations built directly into
the CPU that are used to hold data that are being processed by the current
instruction.

The ALU must contain an adder capable of combining the contents of two
registers in accordance with the logic of binary arithmetic.
+, - , *, / <,>
Arithmetic Logic

Memory
The CPU contains the Logic and Circuitry to run the computer but does not have
room to store programs and data.
The CPU contains registers for holding data and instructions.
The CPU also requires space where it can holed whole programs and data being
manipulated by these programs.
There are two types of memory – RAM and ROM

ROM
Means that computer can read contents of this memory but cannot write to that
area of memory.
The contents of ROM cannot be altered.
ROM performs a check the functionality of a PC when it is first powered on.
ROM contains boot (start-up) instructions that ensure that the rest of memory is
functioning properly.
ROM is non-volatile Functions:
Checks if the rest of the memory is functioning
Checks for all hardware devices available
Check the operating system in harddisc Passes
control to the OS.
RAM
Memory that can be changed or altered
The computer holds data for the current processing task
RAM serves as a place to store instructions which direct the activities of the CPU
and data processed by the CPU.
RAM is volatile.

Motherboard

4.4 Input
Input devices
Have you heard of a typewriter? How many have seen a typewriter and how it
works?
How a bout a mouse not a rat? Anybody who has ever been taken a picture by a
camera?
Have you ever scanned a document, a letter?

Input devices are used to enter data into a computer. Data entered is first converted
into machine code (binary digitsform – 1s and 0s) in short bits before processing
takes place. For example 00000101 may be used to represent 5. Input devices are
used to enter data into a computer. Data entered is first converted into machine
code (binary digitsform – 1s and 0s) in short bits before processing takes place.
For example 00000101 may be used to represent 5.
Input devices can be classified according into:

Keying devices
Pointing
devices
Scanners
other
 technologie
s.

Keying Devices
Keying devices such as keyboards and keypads are used for typing data and
instructions.
This is the most common way of entering data into the computer.

Pointing devices
Pointing devices are used to control a pointer or cursor on the screen.
They are mostly used on computers running graphical user interface
(GUI) operating systems such as
Microsoft Windows.

Some examples of pointing devices include mouse, track ball, joystick,

light pen and stylus.
Pointing devices

Mouse Joystick

Fundamentals of Computing 53

Scanners
Scanners are used to automatically capture data from the source and convert it into
digital form.The two types of scanners are optical and magnetic scanners. Scanners
are used to automatically capture data from the source and convert it into digital
form. The two types of scanners are optical and magnetic scanners.
Optical and magnetic scanners

Optical scanner
ATM – Magnetic card reader

Fundamentals of Computing 54

Digital Cameras
Digital cameras capture data the same way as other cameras but it is stored in
digital form.
In digital cameras, pictures are stored on a memory card instead of film.
Digital cameras

Digital video camera

Fundamentals of Computing 55

Voice Input
Data can be entered directly into a computer using voice input devices such as
microphones. A microphone is attached to a sound card which has an analog-
digital converter.

Emerging trends in voice input is the inclusion of voice tag in cell phones that
allows the user to simply store and dial contacts.

Touch Screen
Touch screen works by allowing the user to touch the screen in order to select an
item.
The screen consists of infrared light crisscrossing behind it. When the user touches
a location on the screen, the finger interrupts the infrared light and the command
touched is executed.
Digitizer
A digitizer also known as graphic tablet is made up of a flat surface and allows the
user to draw an image using a stylus. The image drawn does not appear on the
tablet but on the computer screen. The digitizer is used for tracing highly detailed
engineering and architectural drawings and designs.

4.5 Processing
Information processing (or data processing) activities that occur in information
system include the following:
Input of data resources
Processing of data into information
Output of information products
Storage of data resources
Control of system performance

Input of Data Resources

Data about business transactions and other events must be captured and prepared
for processing by the input activity. Input typically takes the form of data entry
activities such as recording and editing.
Once entered, data may be transferred onto a machine-readable medium such as
magnetic disk or type, until needed for processing.

Processing of Data into Information

Data is typically subjected to processing activities such as calculating, comparing,
sorting, classifying, and summarizing. These activities organize, analyse, and
manipulate data, thus converting them into information for end users.
Output of Information Products
Information in various forms is transmitted to end-users and made available to
them in the output activity. The goal of information systems is the production of
appropriate information products for end users.

It is useful to think of information as having the three dimensions of:

Time Content Form
 4.6 Output
Output devices
Output devices make it possible for the user to get processed information from the
computer. Examples of output include monitors, speakers, data projector, printers
and plotters.
Sound output devices

Sound output devices produce sound such as beeps, audio or digital sounds.
Examples are speakers and headphones. Some computers come with inbuilt
speakers hence no need to connect external ones. An external speaker should be
connected to a sound the jacks on the system unit or on a multimedia monitor.

Fundamentals of Computing 58

Data projector

A data projectors is used to display output from a computer on plain white

screen like a wall or whiteboard. It is a creative way of presenting computer
output to an audience and this technology is gradually replacing the traditional
overhead projectors.

Fundamentals of Computing 59

Printers

Printers are used to produce hardcopies. A hardcopy can be defined as

 tangible output that can be seen and touched such as a print out.

Fundamentals of Computing 60
Plotter

A plotter print their output by moving a pen across the surface of a piece of
paper. They are mostly used to line art such as engineering and architectural
designs, maps and photos.

61
Fundamentals of Computing

4.7 Summary
In summary, we have learnt the elements of CPU
and noted the following:
Regardless of size, a processor is consists of three
functional elements namely
Control unit
Arithmetic & logic unit
Main memory (primary storage)
Arithmetic and Logic Unit
The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) performs
arithmetic and logical operations on data as
directed by the control
unit. Data to be executed by the ALU is temporarily held in
special purpose memories located inside the processor
called registers.
Main Memory
The main memory or primary storage store data and
instructions that are directly accessible to the processor. The
 two main types of primary storage are Rndom access
memory (RAM) and read only memory (ROM).

RAM
RAM mostly referred to as working storage is a volatile,
temporary storage that holds input entered into the computer
for processing and output after processing

ROM
ROM contains nonvolatile, relatively permanent data and
instructions that cannot be easily changed. Participants have
therefore ,been exposed to categories of computer systems
and learnt the functions of the CPU and how to use
peripheral devices of the computer. They have also been
able to use computer input devices and learnt how data is
processed to convert input into output.

4.9 Questions for practice

• Discuss the elements of a CPU and give their functions
• What are the classification of Input Device?
• CPU is the intestine of the Computer. Discuss.
• What is a microprocessor?
• How does the arithmetic and logic unit function?
• Differentiate ROM from RAM
• What characteristics would make information valuable and useful to you?
Answer:
Examine the characteristics or attributes of information quality.
Information that is outdated, inaccurate, or hard to understand would not be
very meaningful, useful, or valuable to you or other end users. People want
information of high quality, that is, information products whose
characteristics, attributes, or qualities help make it valuable to them.
 4.10 Further Readings
• Timothy J.O’Leary and Linda I.O”Leary 2010. Computing
Essentials,
Introductory The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• French, C.S., 2009. Data Processing and Information

Technology (10th Ed) CENGAGE learningMartins The Printers
Ltd, UK.

LECTURE FIVE
STORAGE DEVICES AND MEDIA
Lecture outline
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives
5.3 Primary Storage (RAM & ROM) and Media
5.4 Secondary Storage (Magnetic Tapes, Floppy Disks, Hard Disks) And Media
5.5 Summary
5.6 Questions for practice
5.7 Further Reading

5.1 Introduction
Participants will be taken through primary and secondary storage devices . They
will revise the concepts ROM and RAM and learn them as primary storage
devices.
Additionally, they will learn secondary storage devices and media.

5.2 Lecture Objectives

By the end of the lecture students will be able to:
• Differentiate computer primary storages, RAM and ROM
• Discuss the functions of the RAM as microcomputer volatile memory and
the ROM as the microcomputer non-volatile memory
• Identify types of ROM and their disadvantages
• Discuss secondary storage devices and media
 • Examines functions of various disks, floppy, hard, optical, CDs

5.3 Primary Storage (RAM & ROM)

-There are two types:-
RAM- Random Access Memory.
Rom- Read Only Memory.
Comparison of the primary storages(main memory/ immediate access
storage):
- There are two types: RAM; ROM.
• Random access memory (RAM)
The contents in the memory are temporary and are lost whether computer is
turned off (the data is volatile).
Used to store the instructions and data for currently running programs and the
operating system.
• Read only memory( ROM)
Used to store data that must not be lost even when the computer is turned off eg
the commands which start up (boot up) the computer.
These instructions are programmed into the ROM chips by the manufacturers.
The contents can only be read.
They are usually programmed by the manufacturers.
Used to store the commands and data that are executed each time the computer
is turned on.

Types of ROM
Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM).
Can be programmed with a special machine as opposed to using the expensive
masks needed to produce large volumes of roll chips. Once a PROM is
programmed, its contents cannot be changed.

Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory.

This type of ROM is designed so that its contents can be erased using ultra-violet
light.
Then the chip can be re-programmed.

Disadvantages
 Its contents do not last as long as those of other types of ROM. because sunlight
contains ultra-violet rays, you must protect EPROM chips from exposure to
sunlight.

A bit- a unit of storage that has two possible values, 0 and 1. it is the smallest
unit.
A byte- a group of eight bits (2 nibbles).
A nibble- a group of 4 bits.
Word- the size of the data (or instructor) that the CPU can handle
in a single cycle.
Word-length/word size- the number of bits in a word.
Address- the identification of a particular location in the memory where the data
item or an instruction is stored.
Address content- the data or instruction that is stored in a given address.
Character- any digit, letter or symbol.
Bistable devices-a device that can exist in one of two possible states age on
loftswitsh a bit; a key on a keyboard-it can either be up or down.

5.4 Secondary Storage Devices and Media

1. Magnetic tape
Used for storing large amounts of data.
Magnetic tape comes in the form of a reel or cartridge and is made in plastic
that is coated with a metal oxide.
The tape is divided into [parallel rows known as tracks.
The most common tape is one with nine tracks.
Tracks are one to eight and each store a bitin or byte.
Track nine is called parity track-used as a method of checking the accuracy of
data.
Each group of nine bits( one on each track) is known as a frame.
There are two types of parity:- odd parity( number of ones is odd) and even
parity( number of ones is even)
Magnetic tape is high-density, high speed and has a large capacity.
It is read using a magnetic tape drive.
Magnetic tape is used for:- backing up the data of the hard disk; data entry
 using key-to-tape device; archiving data

2. Floppy disks
Typically used to store documents so that they can be used on more than one
computer.
The term floppy disk is used to refer to a 5.25 inch flexible disk. Nowadays the
term commonly used to refer what was known as microfloppy disk is the 3.5
inch disk.
Floppy disks are read by the floppy disk drives.

Examples of the use and application of floppy disks are :

• Storing small programs.
• Backing up data files.
• Storing small documents.

Precautions needed with floppy disks

• Don’t place the disk on a device that has or generates a magnetic field eg a
speaker.
• Don’t bend the disk.
• Don’t place the disk in hot or wet places.
• Only write on the disk with a soft-tip pen.
• Don’t remove the disk from the drive when the disk’s drive light is on.

Determining the storage capacity of a diskette

In order to determine the storage on any disk the following formulae:
Storage capacity= number of surfaces x number of tracks x number of sectors per
tack x number of bytes per sector.
So for a floppy disk:
The number of bytes per track= number of sectors per track x number of bytes per
sector.

= 18 x 0.5 KB= 91 KB.

The number of bytes per side= number of bytes per tack x number of tracks per
side.
= 9KB X 80= 720 KB.

The number of bytes on the disk= number of bytes per side x number of sides.
= 720 KB x 2= 720 KB or 1.44MB.

Hard disk (fixed)

A hard disk is a large capacity, rigid magnetic disk that is sued for storing
data.
Data is read from or written to a hard disk using an arm-like device known as
read/write head.
Data may be read from/written to a hard disk using either a moving
read/write head or a fixed head.
A moving read/write head moves to the track that corresponds to the data
while the disk is spinning.
A fixed read/write head does not move. Instead there is a fixed head for each
track.
This gives the fixed head system the advantage of having a faster access time
( time it takes for the data to be accessed)
This faster access time is because of the faster seek time( the time it takes the
read/write head to get to s specific position on the disk)
The fixed head system is more expensive than the moving head system.
Hard drive- a collection of hard disks and read/write heads.
Hard drive Floppy disk drive
Much faster than a floppy disk drive Slower than the hard drive
Each surface has a much larger Each surface has a lower capacity
capacity than a floppy disk than a floppy disk
Much more expensive Cheaper than the hard drive.
Uses
Used for storing a wide variety of things such as:-
Operating systems.
Office programs.
Multimedia programs.
Games.
 Images, songs.
Databases.
Precautions needed with the hard disk
Don’t turn the power off without shutting the computer down through the
normal shut-down procedure. Failure to shut down the computer correctly
can lead to corruption of data.
Don’t subject the computer to severe vibrations or jerks or move the
computer if the power is turned on. This could cause physical damage to the
hard drive.

Hard disk (Exchangeable)

It is similar to its fixed counterpart except that it can be removed from the
hard drive (removing a fixed hard disk from a hard drive can damage it).
It is not as reliable as the fixed disk.

Optical disk
These are disks that are read using laser beams eg CD’s and DVD’s.
They are both disc shaped objects with a hole in the middle and a reflective
surface.
They store data in tracks.
An optical disk has only one track spiraling from the inside of the disk (the
hole in the middle) to the outside of the disk.

CD’s/compact discs
Can hold data worth 650-700 Mb.
There are three types of CD’s commonly used:-
1. CD-ROM
The manufacturers distribute the programs on CD-ROM as opposed to other
types of CD because it is the only type of CD found in the computer
industry that is really suited for mass production.
Large number of CD-ROMs can be created in a manner similar to printing a
book.
The original CD-ROM is created by using a laser to burn it. From this master,
thousands of identical copies are created using CD-Rom makers.
 The reflective surface of the CD-Rom has combinations of pits (bumps) and
lands (the flat areas with no bumps) that are used to represent data.

Uses
Used to store songs.
Used to store files that can be recognized by the computer. These files are
commonly used to store things like large programs, multimedia
encyclopedias etc.
-CD-ROMs can be read by CD-ROM drives and can also be read in CD-R and
CD-RW.

CD-R (Compact Disc Recordable)

It is a WORM (write only read many) storage media.
It means that a user can record on a blank CD-R but once he/she has finished
recording, the CD-r can only be read.
Uses
Used for storing a wide variety of things such as:-
Operating systems.
Office programs.
Multimedia programs.
Games.
Images, songs.
Databases.

Precautions needed with the hard disk

Don’t turn the power off without shutting the computer down through the
normal shut-down procedure. Failure to shut down the computer correctly
can lead to corruption of data.
Don’t subject the computer to severe vibrations or jerks or move the computer
if the power is turned on. This could cause physical damage to the hard
drive.
 5.5 Summary
The lecture covered computer storage devices focusing on primary and
secondary storages. Functions and uses of RAM, ROM, magnetic,
optical and magnetic optical have been explained in
detail. The summaries of the storage devices are given
below.
Primary storage devices
RAM.
ROM.
RAM ROM
Can be read and Can only be read.
written to
Volatile memory Permanent. contents not lost
when the c
Running programmes Hold information for booting and
startin
Faster than ROM Slower than RAM

Similarities
Both use chips
Information can be accessed randomly from both.

Secondary storage devices

HD
Magnetic tape.
Floppy disks.
Microfilm.
CD’s
DVD’s
Secondary storage are generally grouped as follows:
• Magnetic.
• Optical
• Magnetic optical.
Used for backup
Computer Bus.
 Activity 5.1
Students practice on computers.
Identify and draw the following showing their functions:
hard disks, floppy disks, magnetic tapes, microfilm CDs,
DVDs etc Describe the following storage devices-
magnetic tape drive, hard drive, floppy drive

Activity 5.2
Describe the following storages: hard disks, floppy
disks, magnetic tapes, microfilm CDs, DVDs etc
• Describe the type of data stored in secondary storage
(magnetic tapes, floppy disks, hard disks)
• Compare and contrast the RAM and ROM

5.8 Further Readings

1. Govindaraju S., M,Chandrasekaran,A.Abdul Haq, and
T,R.Narayanan 1996. Introduction to Computer
Science New
Age International (P) Ltd. Publishers
Timothy J.O’Leary and Linda I.O”Leary
2. 2010.Computing Essentials, Introductory The
McGrawHill Companies Inc.

1 LECTURE SIX: PROGRAMMING METHOD FOR PROGRAMS

Course outline
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Lecture Objectives
6.3 Programming Method to create Programs
6.4 Numeric & Strings
6.5 Summary
6.6 Activity
6.7 Suggestion for further reading
 6.1 Introduction
The lecture provides an explanation of computer programming as a method used
to create computer programs. Computer language is explained as means to
communicate with a computer. Algorithm is another language used to solve
problems and so are mathematical expressions.
6.2 Lecture Objectives
By the end of the lecture, the student should be able to:
• Analyze a programming language based on generic
characteristics.

• Discuss virtual machine translation, compiling code

generation and interpreters
• Differentiate numeric from string
• Discuss numeric variables and string variables

6.3 Computer programming

Method used to create computer programmes.
• Computer language means to communicate with the computer.
• Algorithm- step by step procedure to solve a problem.
Review of typical elements of (imperative) programming languages
Compiler and interpreters
Specification of syntax and semantics of programming languages:
• Expressions and assignments
• Side effects
• Control structures
• Data and procedural abstractions
• Parameter passing mechanisms
• Binding
• Scopes
• Type system
Recursive descent technique used for illustration of aspects of syntax
analysis Code generation and error recovery
Language interpreters for low-level and high level languages.
 6.4 Numeric Vs String
Numeric- just a number:- integer (no decimals); floating point( number with
decimals)
String- collection of characters. Differentiating between string and numeric
stringenclosed in double quotes.

Mathematical expressions
+
- *
/
^- exponent eg for square root.

-Variable: name given to a storage location in the computer memory. -

There are two main types of variables:-
• Numeric variables.
• String variables.

Assign statement
Giving a fixed value to a variable eg duty=0.16
• String variables look the same as numeric variables except the $ sign at
the end of the name.
• Variable names can be anything with few exceptions( of reserved names)
- User input- anything that the user types at the keyboard into the
programme (when running). Otherwise the information is hard coded.
• Input statement- to store user input.
Two forms eg
1. print “ what is your name”
input name $
print “ “ name $

or 2. input “ what is your name ?”; name $ print “

“ ; name $
 • The input statement, like the print statement lets your display
information to the run on the screen.
Loops if you want to do something over and over again you could just repeat the
same code a number of times. However this is inefficient and wastes time.
Liberty basic uses two types of loops (for loops and while lops)
For loops(each time through the loop is iteration)
Use a counter variable. a counter variable is a variable which keeps track of what
iteration your loop is on.
• counters –I, J, k.
How the For loop works -The for
loop is given three times:
• a variable.
• a starting number.
• an ending number.
You may also include counter steps- look for eg

Eg this program points the number fro 1-10 For i=

1 to 10 print I next.

6.5
Summary
In this lecture we have learnt computer programming,
numeric and strings, numeric variables, string variables ,
mathematical expressions, assign statement and loops.

6.6
Activity
Lectures
Written exercises
Student presentations
Class discussions
Structured laboratory
Students practice mathematical expression on the
computer and solve problems by use of algorithm
 6.7 Model Questions
• Differentiate numeric from strings .
• What is a counter variable?
• Explain the specification and syntax and semantics of programming
languages
6.8 Equipment
Black board
Text book
Handouts

6.9 Course Asssessment

Examination % Weight 70%
Course Assessment Test % Weight 30%
Total 100%
6.10
References
R. Clark and L. Wilson (1992), Comparative
Programming Language (2nd Edition), Addison Wesley
H.E Bal and D Grune (1993), Programming Languages
Essential
M. Ben Ari (1993), John Willey, Understanding
Programming Languages
A. E. Fischer and Grondzinksky (1993), The Anatomy
of
Programming Language, Prentice Hall
Various applicable manuals and journals.
Variety of electronic information resources as prescribed
by the lecturer.
LESSON SEVEN: APPLICATION SOFTWARE: AWORD
PROCESSOR Course outline
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Lecture Objectives
7.3 Features of a word processor window
7.4 Creating, editing, formatting a document
7.5 Bullets, page numbers, Headers and Footers
7.6 Printing
7.7 Summary
7.8 Activity
7.9 Model exam questions
7.10 Suggestions for further reading

7.1 Introduction
Application Software
These are programs used to perform specific user tasks such as typing,
calculations, publishing, drawing , presentation, design and accounting. Examples
are:
• Word processors
• Spreadsheets
• Databases software
• Presentation Software
• Computer Aided Design (CAD)
• Accounting software
A word processor application window

Word Processors
• A word processor is application software that enables the user to create, save,
edit, format and print text-rich documents. Examples of common word processors
are Microsoft ® Word, Corel WordPerfect, Lotus Word Pro and AppleWorks for
Macintosh. The figure below shows a sample word processor application window.
Word processors are mainly used to create text-based documents such as mails,
CV, reports etc. Examples of word processors are:
• Microsoft Word
 • Corel WordPerfect
• Lotus Word Pro
These software have superior text editing and formatting features.
Spreadsheets
These are programs used to analyze and manipulate numeric data. The analyzed
data can be used to generate graphs. The work area is divided into rows and
columns. Examples of include:
• Microsoft Excel
• Lotus 1-2-3
• Corel Quattro Pro

Databases Software
Database software commonly referred to as Database management systems
(DBMS) are used to create and manipulate databases.
A database is like an electronic cabinet. It is a collection of related data. For
example UoN database contains of STUDENTS and STAFF databases.

Presentation Software
These are programs that combines a variety of visual objects to create attractive
and interesting electronic presentations.

They are excellent tools to communicate and persuade to audience such as

potential customers. Examples are:
• Microsoft PowerPoint
• Lotus Freelance Graphics
• Corel Presentation 4. Harvard Graphics
CAD
This is a specialized design software used to draw architectural and engineering
designs. Example is AutoCAD

Accounting Software
As opposed to Spreadsheets that are more general, Accounting software are
specialized programs used to analyse financial data. For example, they can be used
to generate financial statements such trial balance and balance sheets. Examples
are:
Sage
QuickBooks
This lesson will focus on word processor window and the next lesson will address
the spreadsheets.
7.2 Lecture Objectives
By the end of this lecture,you should be able to:
• identify features of a word processor window
• learn how to create, edit and format a new
document
• learn how to insert bullets, page number
header and footer
• learn how to print a document

7.3 Features of a Word Processor Window

Title bar

• Title bar indicates the name of the application program in use the currently
open file, minimize, restore and the close buttons.

Menu bar

The menu bar provides the user with group of commands in drop down list
used to create and manipulate a document.

Toolbars
• Toolbars consists of button of commands that provide shortcut to the same
 commands available in the menu bar.

Document window

•This is the work area where you create your document. It resembles an
ordinary piece of paper.

• Status bar

• The status bar is the communication point between the user and the
application program. For example in Microsoft Word, when saving a
document the status bar may indicate “Word is saving ……”.

Advantages of word processor programs

• Easier to use due to automated features such as Word-wrap, autocorrect and

autocomplete.
• They have superior editing tools such as spelling checker, the Thesaurus etc.
hence making editing easier.
• Can store documents for future retrieval
• They have superior formatting features that make a document more
appealing to
7.4 Creating, editing, formatting a new document
• A word processor provides the user with a blank screen in which you enter
text or graphical objects such as a pictures and drawings. As you type, once
you reach the end of the current line, the cursor automatically wraps the last
word that cannot fit the current line to the next line. This is referred to as word
wrap.
• At the end of the page, Word automatically inserts a new page and scrolls up
the screen.
• To start Microsoft Word 2003
• Click start then, point to Programs
• From the side kick menu, Point to Microsoft Office, then click Microsoft
Word
2003. See figure below

Starting word 2003

Saving the document

• To save a word processor document:

• From the File menu, click the Save As command or simply click the save
button.
• In the Save As dialog box, select the location (drive/folder) from the “Save
in”
list box
• Type in the name of the file in the File name box
• Click the save button or press the Enter key
Editing a document

Editing refers to making necessary changes or modification to an existing

document.
Some editing operations include:
Delete
To delete a character, a word or a block of text:
1.Highlight the text to delete
2.Press the Delete or the backspace key.
NB

Delete key erases characters to the right of the cursor while the backspace deletes
characters to the right.

Spelling and grammar checker

Spelling and grammar checker lets you automatically locate for misspelled words
and grammatical problems.

To spell check a document:

• From Tools menu click Spelling and Grammar or press F7

• In the displayed dialog box, misspelled words are shown in red while
grammatically incorrect phrases are in green.
• From the suggestion list, select the correct spelling or grammar.
• Click Change (All) button. To ignore, click the ignore (All) button.
 Thesaurus
Thesaurus lets the user automatically find words or phrases with similar meaning
(synonym) or opposite meaning (antonym) to the selected.

To use thesaurus:
• Highlight the text
• From Tools menu, Point to Language then click Thesaurus.
• Select a synonym or an antonym

Autocorrect and AutoText:

Autocorrect and AutoText make are used to automatically correct a commonly

misspelled word and insert a predefined text when creating a document.

To create an autocorrect or Autotext:

• From the Insert menu, point to Autotext, then click AutoText

command
• Click the Autotext or Autocorrect tab and type the autocorrect or
Autotext
• Click OK to apply and close the dialog box.

Find and Replace

 This is a feature used to locate for a word or a phrase and replace it with another.

To find and replace a word or phrase:

• From Edit menu, click Find or Replace
• In the “Find What” box, type the word or phrase to find.
• Click the Replace tab and in the “Replace With” type the word or phrase
to
replace the found word or phrase.

Undo and Redo

Undo cancels the last issued command while redo reverts back to the cancelled
action.

To undo or redo:
From the Edit menu, click Undo or Redo alternatively press Ctrl+Z to Undo, or
Ctrl+Y to Redo.

Formatting a document
Formatting refers to enhancing the appearance of a document. You format text,
paragraphs, page or the entire document.

Text formatting
You format text by applying different font types, style, size, colour and other
attributes.

Applying fonts To
format text font:
• Highlight the text
• From the Format menu, click Font
• In the font dialog box, select the font type, style, size and colour.
• Apply other font attributes then click OK.
Text formatting

Case
The cases applied to text are; lowercase, UPPERCASE, Sentence case, Title Case
and tOGGLE cASE. To change case:
• Highlight the text
• From the Format menu, click Change Case
• From change case dialog box, select the case option you want to apply then
OK.

NB
The use of case in this sentence is deliberate.
Case dialog box

Superscript and Subscript

A superscript appears just above the rest of the characters as in cm2 while a
subscript appears just below other characters as in H2O.
To make text superscript or subscript:
• Highlight the character(s)
• From the Format menu, click font
• From the font dialog box check superscript or subscript

Paragraph formatting
A paragraph is a separate block of text dealing with a single theme and
starting on a new line or indent. Some of the formatting features you can
apply onto a paragraph include:
• Alignment
• Line spacing
• Setting tabs & indents
• Drop cap etc
Alignment
Alignment is the arrangement of text relative to the left margin, centre of page or
the right margin. The five major alignment options available are the left, center,
right and justified and force justified.

To align text:
• Highlight the text
• From the Format menu, click Paragraph.
• In the paragraph dialog box, select the alignment option from the alignment list
box then click the OK.

NB
You can apply alignment by simply clicking any of the five alignment buttons on
the formatting toolbar
Paragraph dialog box

Line spacing
You can set the space between lines, paragraphs or blocks text.

To space lines:
• Highlight the lines of text
• From the Format menu, click Paragraph
• In the paragraph dialog box, select the line spacing option from the line spacing
list box then click the OK button..

Setting tabs and indents

Tabs refer to definite stops when the tab key is pressed while indenting is
moving a sentence or a block of text away from the margin using the tab key.

To set tabs and indents:

• From the Format menu, click Tabs
• In the Tab dialog box, set the tab stop, alignment and leading then click the OK.
• Press the Tab key to increase or the Spacebar to decrease the indent.
 Alternatively, click the increase/decrease indent buttons on the formatting
toolbar.

Setting tabs and indents

Drop cap
A drop cap is a large character in a paragraph that occupies more than one line
down.

To create a dropped cap:

• Highlight the paragraph you want to begin with drop cap
• From Format menu, click Drop Cap.
• Click Dropped or In Margin.
• Specify the number of lines and other options then click OK.
Drop cap

7.5 Bullets, numbering, header, footer

Bullets and numbers are used to create ordered lists.

To add bullets or numbers to a list:

• Highlight the text
• From the Format menu, click Bullets and Numbering
• From dialog box displayed, click Bullets or Numbered.
• Click the bullet or numbering thumbnail you want to apply.
 Bullet's and numbers

Inserting columns
Columns subdivide a page into several vertical sections.

To set columns:
• Highlight the text
• From the Format menu, click columns
• In the columns dialog box enter the number of columns, set the column width
then click OK.

Page and column breaks

Page, section and column breaks are used to force the cursor to move from a
new page, section or column even before the end of the current.

To insert a break:
• Position the insertion pointer where you want to break
• From the insert menu, click Break
• In the break dialog box, set the break type then OK.

Setting breaks

Formatting a large document

Page set up options let you define the paper size, margins and operations.

Page setup To set up

a page:
• From File menu, click Page Setup
• In the page setup dialog box, click either of the following:
• Margins tab to set up page margins
• Paper tab to specify the paper type and orientation
 • Layout tab to specify the page content layout relative to
the margins Click OK to apply the settings.

Formatting a large document

Page set up options let you define the paper size, margins and operations.

Page setup To set up

a page:
• From File menu, click Page Setup
• In the page setup dialog box, click either of the following:
• Margins tab to set up page margins
• Paper tab to specify the paper type and orientation
• Layout tab to specify the page content layout relative to the margins
• Click OK to apply the settings.

Page numbers
Page numbers are used to organize a large document for ease of reference.
To insert page numbers:
• Click Insert then Page Numbers.
• In the Position box, specify whether to place the page numbers at the top of
page (header) or at the bottom of the page (footer).
• In the Alignment box, specify whether to align page numbers to the left,
center or right of page.
• If you don’t want a number on the first page, clear the “Show number on first
page” check box then click OK. Page numbers are used to organize a large
document for ease of reference.

To insert page numbers:

• Click Insert then Page Numbers.
• In the Position box, specify whether to place the page numbers at the top of
page (header) or at the bottom of the page (footer).
• In the Alignment box, specify whether to align page numbers to the left,
center or right of page.
• If you don’t want a number on the first page, clear the “Show number on first
page” check box then click OK.
Headers and footers
Headers are lines of text that appears at the top margin of every page or selected
pages while footers appears at the bottom margin.

To insert a header or footer:

• From the View menu, click Header and Footer
• To create a header, enter text or graphical object in the header area.
• To create footer, click inside the footer area and enter the text or graphical
object.
• Click Close on the header and footer toolbar.

Headers and footers

Footnotes and endnotes

Footnotes and endnotes are used in large documents to explain, comment
on, or provide references for text in a document. Footnotes appear at the
bottom of the page while endnote appears at the end of a section or the
document.

To insert a footnote or endnote:

• From the Insert menu, point to Reference, and then click Footnote. A dialog
box is displayed.
• In the location section, click Footnotes or Endnotes and specify the location
of the footnote or endnote
• In the Format section, specify the number type, start and continuity
• Click Insert.

Footnotes and endnotes

Inserting graphical objects
You can insert a graphical object such as a picture, a clip art or drawing on to your
document. To insert an object:
• On the Insert menu point to Picture .
• Click one of the following options
• Clip Art
• From File
• From Scanner or Camera.
• Organization chart, Autoshape, WordArt or Chart.
2. Depending on the option selected, insert or import the object.

Inserting special symbols

A symbol is a special character that is not included on the keyboard such as Ø, Ù
etc: To insert a symbol:
• Move the text cursor to the position where the new symbol will be
inserted.
• On the insert menu, click Symbol. In the dialog box select the
appropriate symbol
• Click the Insert button then Close.

Password protecting a document

To protect a document from unauthorized access or modification, use password.
Since password is case sensitive, avoid mixed case, preferably use lower case. To
create a password:
• On the Tools menu, click Options, and then click the Security tab.
• Type in a password in the Password to open box or the Password to
modify box
• Set other security options then click OK.
 7.6 Printing a document
Word processing is not complete without producing a hardcopy. To print a
document:
• First preview it by clicking Print preview on the File menu.
• To print, On the File menu click Print
• Select the printer, range, number of copies and other options from the dialog
box.
• Click OK.
Troubleshooting printing problems
Some of the printing problems you may encounter are:
• Lack of two-way communication due to poor installation of the printer
software (drivers), if the printer is off or not connected.
• Paper jams due to use of poor quality of paper or paper folds.
• Poor quality print due to poor quality ink or toner used.
Summary

The lesson has introduced six major application

softwares, namely, word processor, Spreadsheets,
databases software, presentation

software, CAD, and accounting software. The lesson has

concentrated more on the word processor window.
Various features and functions of the word processor
have been explained. Tool bars, status bars, creating
and formatting in word processor have been
demonstrated and practiced. Students have been led
through formatting, space setting, inserting bullets and
numbering. Students have learnt how to create columns
, do footnoting and print a document.

7.8 Model exam questions

• Explain how you can insert the following:
A header or footer
Page number
 Columns
• How do you set tabs?
• State the steps for spacing?
• How do you make text superscripts and subscripts?
• List the four steps to go through when printing a document.
Suggestions for further reading
• Date C.J., Kaman, A.S. Swanaynathan 2009. An Introduction to Database
Systems (8th Ed.)
Practice Hall-Pearson

• Mukhopadhyay, A.K. 2007.

Microprocessor Microcomputer and Their Applications (3rd Ed)
Narosa Publishing House Ltd. New Delhi

• Wyatt Allen L. 1992:

Windows 3.1, The Pocket Reference:
Osborne McGraw-Hill, USA

LESSON 8: SPREADSHEETS Course outline

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Lecture Objectives
8.3 Creation of workbook/worksheet
8.4 Data editing
8.5 Data formatting
8.6 Formulae and Functions
8.7 Data application and management
8.8 Charting
8.9 MS excel
8.10 Summary
8.11 Activity
8.12 Model exam questions
8.13 Suggestions for further reading
8.1 Introduction
• A spreadsheet, manual or electronic is a ledger sheet that enables the user to
enter, edit and manipulate numeric data. An electronic spreadsheet is an
automated version of the accountant’s ledger. It eliminates the paper, pencil
and eraser.
• Usually, data is organized into rows and columns.
• The rows are designated by numbers
1 – 65556 while the columns are designated by letters A – IV (256
columns).

8.2 Lecture Objectives

By the end of the course, participants will be able to:

• Create a workbook/worksheet
• Edit data in a worksheet
• Format data in a worksheet
• Create formulae and use Functions to analyze worksheet data
• Apply data management on worksheet data
• Create charts/graphs
• Learn about MS Excel and how to start it
•
8.3 Creating a simple worksheet

Bluechip Communication Ltd

Summary of Year 2006 Sales Report
Nairobi Kisumu Mombas Total Average
a Sales Sales
January
February 78000.00 23000.0 67000.00
0
March 90000.00 28000.0 56000.00
0
April 67000.00 45000.0 56000.00
0
May 67000.00 28000.0 45000.00
0
June 89000.00 31000.0 45000.00
 0
July 50000.00 45000.0 78000.00
0
August 45000.00 42000.0 54000.00
0
September 67500.00 43000.0 56700.00
0
October 79000.00 28000.0 65000.00
0
November 78000.00 56000.0 45000.00
0
December 120000.0 87000.0 97000.00
0 0

Yearly Sales
Minimum
Sale
Average
Sales

Saving your Workbook

Procedure for saving a newly created workbook
• Click File menu
• Click Save As from the drop down menu
(The Save As dialog box is displayed)
• Specify the Save location eg 3½ Floppy A:
• Type in the name of the workbook in the filename box
• Click the Save button

8.4 Data editing

Editing
• To edit the contents of a cell,
• Either click the cell
• click on the formula bar to type new cell contents
Or double click the cell and type in the new cell contents
NB: Cell – This is the intersection between a row and a column.
 8.5 Data formatting
Worksheet Formatting
The purpose of formatting a worksheet is to enhance the appearance of the
worksheet and to improve the readability of the worksheet data. This includes
changing the fonts and applying attributes such as borders, patterns colours etc.
The formatting toolbar or the Format menu is used to apply formatting styles.
Example: Rotating text
Column Labels can be rotated counter-clockwise between 0 to 90 degrees to read
upwards or clockwise between
0 to -90 to read downwards

Procedure
• Select the cells containing the data to be rotated
• From the format menu, choose cells
• Click Alignment tab
• In the orientation box, drag the red tipped pointer up or down to change the
orientation or specify a value between 90 and -90 in the degrees box.
• Click OK

8.6 Formulae Functions

A mathematical expression that evaluates into a value. It is an instruction to
perform operations on values.
A numeric value (number) that may be used to perform numeric computations

Cell Addresses / Referencing

A cell address or reference identifies a cell or a range of cells in a worksheet.
These include the following:

Types of cell addresses

Relative cell referencing
The structure of the formula remains the same when it is copied to other cells
but the cells change relative to the position of the formula.
e.g. Consider the formula =A1+B1 entered in C1. What happens when it is
 copied into B2 through B10?

Absolute cell referencing

When a formula is copied to other cells, the cell references remain unchanged. A
dollar sign is placed before the column and the row
e.g. $B$20

Mixed cell referencing

Either the column or the row is absolutely referenced but not both
e.g. $B20, B$20

8.7 Data application and management

Sorting
This means to arrange in a particular order which could be ascending or
descending order.
eg sorting a list of names of students alphabetically or marks in descending
order from the highest to the lowest.

Filtering
You can filter data to display only that data that meets a given criteria. This is
useful when you have a large worksheet and you are interested only in a small
portion of it.

Example
Procedure for filtering data
• From the Data menu, choose filter, then Autofilter.
• Click Custom
• Specify the filter criteria
• Click OK

8.8 Charting
A chart/graph is a graphical representation of the work sheet data and hence shows
the relationships between values. The choice of the chart depends very much on
the kind of data you are trying to chart and how you want t present the data.
Creating Charts - Procedure
• Select the data
• From the Insert menu, choose Chart
• Select the type of chart you want
• Follow the steps of the Chart Wizard

8.9 MS Excel
Starting Microsoft Excel
• Click the Start button
• Select Programs/All Programs
• Select Microsoft Office
• Click Microsoft Excel

The MS Excel window is displayed i.e. a workbook with a number of sheets which
can be used to enter data. Ms Excel is application software classified under
spreadsheets.
Terms used in MS excel include worksheet, workbook, columns, rows, column
header, row header/identifiers, cell, cell pointer, cell selector, cell address, auto fill
handle, sheet tab, range, formular bar and worksheet selector.
NB: By default, a typical workbook consists of three sheets labeled Sheet 1, Sheet
2, Sheet 3

Excel application window

Title bar
Name of the application and the current workbook

Menu bar
A list of menu options containing various commands to work with.

Standard toolbar
Icons that provide shortcuts to commands

Formatting toolbar
Used to format contents of cells in a worksheet.

Formula bar
Displays the contents of the active cell including formulas and functions.

Name box
Displays the active cell, i.e. cell with a dark outline that indicates where data in the
formula bar will be inserted.

Work Area/worksheet
Blank area made up of rows and columns which holds data

Status bar
The communication channel between the user and the program indicates messages
such us Ready, Saving etc

Data entry into a cell

A cell can hold any of the following:
Label
This is any text typed into a cell such as Names, place

Value
8.10
Summary
Spreadsheetsis a program used for manipulation of
numeric data, performing numerous calculations and
presenting numerical data graphically. Spreadsheets are
used to prepare students’ progress, personal budget,
business stock and employees payroll.
In addition to neatness, electronic spreadsheets have the
following advantages:
• Numeric data can be edited and manipulated easily ie one
can play about with figures.
• A large virtual sheet for data entry and manipulation. 256
columns X 65556 rows compared to 51 X 30 manual ledger sheet
• Enhanced formatting capabilities.
• Built-in functions which enable the user to create powerful
mathematical formulae.
• Automatic recalculation – The result of a given formula auto-
adjusts when a value used in formula is changed.

Examples of Spreadsheet Applications

• Microsoft Excel
• Quattro Pro
• Lotus 1-2-3
• VisiCalc

8.11
Activity
Students practice creating identical sheets in the same
work sheet file. They practice inserting worksheet,
charting, sorting data, finding records, application of
Excel and getting data (an argument) to work on and use
in functions.
 8.12 Model Exam Questions
• Define the following concepts: worksheet, columns, cell, sheet tab formular
Bar
• Define freezing panes and list steps
• How do you enter a formular?
• What is relative referencing?
5 What steps are used to find records?
• List and explain the 3 function categories.
• Give steps for sorting data.
• How do you enhance worksheet appearance?

8.13
References

• Khandare, S.S. 2010Programming in JAVAS, CHAD and

Company Ltd. Ram Nagar, New Delhi-110055
• Mukhopadhyay, A.K. 2007.
Microprocessor Microcomputer and Their Applications (3rd
Ed)
Narosa Publishing House Ltd. New Delhi
• Malay K. Pakhira:2010.
Computer Graphics Multimedia and Animation
(2nd Ed) PHI learning: Private Limited. New
Delhi-110001.
• Thangaraj P., 2010
Computer-Oriented Numerical Methods
PHI learning Private Linited. New Delhi 110001

LECTURE 9.0 INTERACTIVE COMPUTING AND NETWORK

9.1 Introduction
9.2 Lecture Objectives
9.3 Types of Computer Networks
9.4 Advantages of having University Network
9.5 Disadvantages of Installing University Network
9.6 Network Resources
9.7 Summary
 9.8 Activity
9.9 Model Exam Questions
9.10 Suggestion for further reading

9.1 Introduction
Computer network is the means of making several computers work together.
Computer Network is made possible when several computers are linked together
over telephone lines through wires and cords and or through radio or
electromagnetic waves.
A network therefore, consists of two or more computers that are joined in order to
share resources (such as printers and CD-ROMs), exchange files, or allow
electronic communications. The computers on a network may be linked through
cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.

9.2 Course Objectives

At the end of the lecture, you will be able to:
• Define and discuss the different types of Networks
• Assess the advantages and disadvantages of installing a Network in an
institution
• identify network resources necessary for communication networks.

9.3 Types of Computer Networks

The basic types of networks include:
Local Area Network
A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that is confined to a relatively small
area. It is generally limited to a geographic area such as a writing lab, school, or
building. Rarely are LAN computers more than a mile apart. In a typical LAN
configuration, one computer is designated as the file server. It stores all of the
software that controls the network, as well as the software that can be shared by
the computers attached to the network. Computers connected to the file server are
called workstations. The workstations can be less powerful than the file server,
and they may have additional software on their hard drives. On most LANs,
cables are used to connect the network interface cards in each computer.

Wide Area Network

Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect larger geographic areas, such as Nairobi,
the Kenya, or the world. Dedicated transoceanic cabling or satellite uplinks may
be used to connect this type of network.
Using a WAN, learning institutions in Nairobi can communicate with places like
Tokyo in a matter of minutes, without paying enormous phone bills. A WAN is
complicated. It uses multiplexers to connect local and metropolitan networks to
global communications networks like the Internet. To users, however, a WAN will
not appear to be much different than a LAN or a MAN.

9.4 Advantages of Installing University Network

Speed. Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing and transferring files.
Without a network, files are shared by copying them to floppy disks, then
carrying or sending the disks from one computer to another. This method of
transferring files (referred to as sneaker-net) is very time-consuming.
Cost. Networkable versions of many popular software programs are available at
considerable savings when compared to buying individually licensed copies.
Besides monetary savings, sharing a program on a network allows for easier
upgrading of the program. The changes have to be done only once, on the file
server, instead of on all the individual workstations.
Security. Files and programs on a network can be designated as "copy inhibit," so
that you do not have to worry about illegal copying of programs. Also, passwords
can be established for specific directories to restrict access to authorized users.
Centralized Software Management. One of the greatest benefits of installing a
network at a school is the fact that all of the software can be loaded on one
computer (the file server). This eliminates that need to spend time and energy
installing updates and tracking files on independent computers throughout the
building.
Resource Sharing. Sharing resources is another area in which a network exceeds
standalone computers. Most schools cannot afford enough laser printers, fax
machines, modems, scanners, and CD-ROM players for each computer. However,
if these or similar peripherals are added to a network, they can be shared by many
users.
Electronic Mail. The presence of a network provides the hardware necessary to
install an e-mail system. E-mail aids in personal and professional communication
for all school personnel, and it facilitates the dissemination of general information
to the entire school staff. Electronic mail on a LAN can enable students to
communicate with teachers and peers at their own school. If the LAN is connected
to the Internet, students can communicate with others throughout the world.
Flexible Access. School networks allow students to access their files from
computers throughout the school. Students can begin an assignment in their
classroom, save part of it on a public access area of the network, then go to the
media center after school to finish their work. Students can also work
cooperatively through the network.
Workgroup Computing. Workgroup software (such as Microsoft BackOffice)
allows many users to work on a document or project concurrently. For example,
educators located at various schools within a county could simultaneously
contribute their ideas about new curriculum standards to the same document and
spreadsheets.

9.5 Disadvantages of Installing University Network

Expensive to Install. Although a network will generally save money over time, the
initial costs of installation can be prohibitive. Cables, network cards, and software
are expensive, and the installation may require the services of a technician.
Requires Administrative Time. Proper maintenance of a network requires
considerable time and expertise. Many schools have installed a network, only to
find that they did not budget for the necessary administrative support.
File Server May Fail. Although a file server is no more susceptible to failure than
any other computer, when the files server "goes down," the entire network may
come to a halt. When this happens, the entire school may lose access to necessary
programs and files.
9.6 Network Resources
Telecommunications networks like the Internet, intranets, and extranets have
become essential to the successful operations of all types of organizations and their
computerbased information systems. Telecommunications networks consist of
computers, communications processors, and other devices interconnected by
communications media and controlled by communications software. The concept
of network resources emphasizes that communications networks are a fundamental
resource component of all information systems. Network resources include:
Communications media (twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable,
microwave systems, and communications satellite systems.
 Network support (people, hardware, software, and data resources that
directly support the operation and use of a communications network).

9.7 Summary
Summary
In this lecture, computer network has been defined and
advantages and disadvantages of installing a network in an
institution assessed. The LAN, WAN, MAN and INTERNET
have been identified as types of computer networks. Ways
computer networking helps in communication, teleconferencing
resource sharing and conservation have equally been addressed.

9.8 Activity
Activity

Students practice linking computers to access the internet. E-

mail access, sharing printer, softwares, writing letters to each
other and downloading information sent through linked
computers are practiced.

9.9 Model Questions

• What is computer Network?
• How are computers linked to each other?
• What are the benefits of a Computer Network?

• Decode the following acronyms:

LAN___________________________________________
WAN___________________________________________
MAN___________________________________________
INTERNET___________________________________
 9.10 Suggestions for further readings
References
• Timothy J.O’Leary and Linda I.O”Leary
2010. Computing Essentials, Introductory
The McGrawHill Companies Inc.
• Stallings, William 2009.
Operating Systems: Internals and Design
Principles
(6th Ed) Prentice-Hall-Pearson

LECTURE 10.0: PROGRAM, PROGRAMMING AND PROGRAMMING

LANGUAGE Course Outline
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Lecture Objectives
10.3 Definition of computer(programming)language
10.4 Types/levels of computer(programming) languages
10.5 Basic, C, Cobol, Fortran,Pascal languages
10.6 Summary
10.7 Activity
10.8 Model Questions
10.9 Suggestions for further readings

10.1 Introduction
The lesson introduces the meaning of language by referring to ways human beings
talk to one another using human languages. In the same respect we instruct
computers by adopting computer language (s). That is , the language programmers
use in instructing the computer is known as programming language. Computer
(programming) language is therefore the means of communicating, instructing or
talking with computers and between computers. The lesson then introduces and
gives a brief explanation of Basic, C, Cobol, Fortran and Pascal as some of the
major computer languages.

10.2 Lecture Objectives

By the end of this lecture will be able to:
• Define the concept “computer language” and levels of grouping
 • Discuss Basic, “C”, Cobol , Fortran , Pascal languages.

10.3 Definition
Computer language is the means of instructing and communicating with the
computer. Programming is the act of writing the set of instructions to operate the
computer. And those who engage in programming as their job are known as
programmers all over the world. The language programmers use in instructing the
computer is known as Programming Language. Computer (programming)
Languages are broken into:
• Special –purpose languages e.g. Lisp, Prolog.
• General-purpose languages e.g. BASIC, Pascal
• Scientific-purpose languages e.g. Fortran, APL
• Commercial-purpose languages e.g. COBOL, RPG
• Educational-oriented languages e.g. Logo, Algol.
• Fourth-Generation languages e.g. dBASE, Foxpro.

10.4 Types/Levels of Computer( programming) Languages

Primarily, computer languages are broken down into two groups namely:
• Low Level Languages: This group includes-(i) Machine-
language and (ii)
Assembly Languages. These languages are highly dependent on the machines
that run them

• High Level Languages: This group includes (i) General-

purpose language
• Commercial-purpose language
• Educational language
• Special–purpose languages.

10.5 High Level Languages

BASIC
BASIC Means Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code. It was
developed by John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz in early 1960s at Darmouth
College, USA.
C
C is the computer scientists’ language. It is an improvement over B computer
language, which is an improvement over BCPL computer language. BCPL means
Bell Computer Programming Language. It was developed by Dennis Ritchie of
Bell Laboratories, AT & T, USA in 1972. C is the most powerful and efficient of
all high-level computer languages.

COBOL
COBOL stands for Common Business Oriented Languages. It was developed by
CODASYL (i.e Conference On Data t was developed by CODASYL (i.e
Conference On Data System Languages) committee in 1959/1960 led by Grace
Hopper.

FORTRAN
FORTRAN is short for FORmula TRANslator. It is specifically meant for
Scientists and
Engineers who do complex calculations. It was developed by IBM team led by
John Baikus in 1956.

PASCAL
PASCAL is another computer language named after a renowned mathematician,
Blaise Pascal. It was developed by nicklaus Wirth in 1971.

There are several other computer languages-e.g. Forth, Prolog, Lisp, Modula etc.

10.6
Summary
In this lesson, we have learnt the basic meaning of
language as used by human beings and the language as
used by computers for communicating among and
between computers. We have seen the six categories in
which computer programming languages are broken into
and the two groups computer languages are broken into,
namely the low-level languages and the high-level
languages. Some high level languages have been
 discussed with emphasis on Basic, C, Cobol, Fortran and
Pascal.

10.7
Activity
Students practice using English languages to
communicate to each other. They do class exercises on
the various computer languages discussed and draw tables
to fill in the languages, developers of the language and
the purpose of development.

10.8 Model Exam Questions

• What is computer program?
• What is a Programming?
• Give an example of each of the following:
General-purpose language
Education-oriented language
Fourth Generation language 4
Who is a Programmer?
• List the classes of Programming language available.
• What is a computer language?
• List the groupings of computer language in detail?
• Gives names of developers, year of development, and purpose of
development of the following languages: Basic, C, Cobol, and Pascal.
 10.9 References
• Khandare, S.S. 2010 Programming
in JAVA
S.CHAD & Company Ltd
Ram Nagari, New Delhi-110055
• Grover, P.S. 1989
Computer Programming in Basic
Allied Publishers Limited. Ahmeda

LECTURE11.0: ROLE OF COMPUTER IN AGRICULTURE Course

outline
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Lecture Objectives
11.3 ICT in Agriculture
11.4 Application of computers in Agriculture
11.5 Factors influencing farmers’ computer use
11.6 Summary
11.7 Activity
11.6 Model exam questions
11.7 Suggestions for further readings

11.1 Introduction
It is used in record keeping, fertilizer application, determining which crops to plant
to make a maximum of profit, and determine what and how much medication to
give livestock. In dairy farming it is used to give the exact amount of feed to each
cow based on the amount milk the cow gives. You could determine when to market
your products to give you the best advantage. The uses of computers in agriculture
are too many ti list each one, but the difference between profit or loss is so close in
agriculture that the computer can make the difference in success of failure.

11.2: Lecture Objectives

By the end of this lecture, you will be able to:
• Discuss the role of ICT in agriculture
• Describe the application of computers in agriculture
• Identify factors influencing rs’ computer use
11.3: ICT in Agriculture
• Farming methods traditionally passed from one generation to next.
• Neighbouring farmers also help each other on farming tips and hits.
• Over years land, rivers, soil, forests have changed for worse as more and more
people live off same piece of land.
• Farmers therefore need information for best results from their hard work.
• Small-scale farmers need to work together to share ideas and resources.
• Many of them have started using various forms of communication technology
to keep in touch.
• Radio a popular method of communicating and distributing agricultural
information for years
• Radio medium advice reach remote farmers at less cost but listeners do not
interact with radio to share views over airwaves
• African farm radio research initiatives (AFRRI) seeks ways to involve farmers
and communities is making radio program
• AFRRI project is a test on use of ICTS to gather information from farmers and
agricultural experts
• Small inexpensive MP3 players are used by broadcasters to record interviews
with farmers
• Radio stations broadcasts these interviews to wider community enabling
farmers to learn from each other
• Experts give their views and solutions to the farmers’ concerns and expert
advice is broadcast to all farmers
• AFRI radio stations are experimenting on receiving feedback from listeners via
mobile phone- farmers call or send sms messages
• The video recordings are saved onto CDs or DVDs and distributed to other
centers.
• Huge distances between districts call for use of internet, email and radio as they
also support extension and agricultural agencies.
• Farmers need regular exchange of information for business new areas, better
results, access markets, new methods of food processing,storage etc..
• Information is now available as everyone is just a phone call away
• Development of local content- local languages/farmers to develop own
 demanddriven content to increase their bargain and purchasing power
• Language and cultural identity- vehicle communities use to communicate and
identify themselves with appropriate technology – Assess what farmers require
and provide what they really need. If mobile give them that and not expensive
computer
• Approach to using ICTs should focus on people, understanding local reality and
context, listening to needs of rural communities. .
• Technology has potential to enhance opportunities, provide security and play
role in the economic social and political fabric of all societies.
11.4: Application of computers in agriculture
Agriculture is a vast industry that includes plant and animal production,
comprehensive support and infrastructure systems, and food and fiber processing.
Key application areas of computers in agriculture include record keeping,
decision-making, control, and research.

Record-keeping
• Recordkeeping is vital in any business.
• Agricultural enterprises use computers for common financial and business
tasks such as inventory, payroll, accounting, and taxes.
• There are many differences between agricultural businesses and other
businesses (with regard to tax structure, labour management, insurance, and
inventory, for example), software packages have been tailored specifically
for agriculture. Spreadsheet and database templates are common, but
specific application programs also exist.
• Livestock and crop production farms have unique needs for records. For
example, crop production fields have numerous descriptors and variables
that should be recorded (e.g., soil type, drainage, slope, pH, nutrient status);
databases have been developed to deal with this information.
• Precision agriculture (sometimes called site-specific farming) requires such
data to be recorded not only for fields, but for locations within fields.
• Because they provide a combination of database and drawing functions,
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are needed to handle the large
amount of data.
• Global Positioning Systems (GPSs) work with computerized machinery in
 the field to correlate crop and soil conditions with exact locations on the
Earth's surface. Because soil and crop conditions can vary tremendously
within fields, this capability can improve the environmental friendliness of
farming and improve profitability.

• Similarly, livestock farms track individual animals, storing and evaluating

information such as age, growth rate, milk production, health records,
offspring productivity, and reproductive cycle status.
• Unlike with large corporations that employ computer scientists, farmers
generally do not have or cannot hire the expertise to customize relevant
software; therefore, there is a market for software products suitable for those
who are mostly novice computer users.

Decision-Making
Computers can be used to assist agricultural decision-making through such tools
and techniques as optimization, simulation, fuzzy logic, expert systems, and
computer aided drafting (CAD).
A common problem to be solved on crop farms is the selection of the optimal field
machinery set.
Proper equipment should be chosen in order to cut on farms costs and time
consumed on farm operations.
The equipment must function as an interdependent set; operations must flow in a
sequential and timely manner. Simulations can model farm and machine events
over time to predict what would happen if particular machinery sets were chosen.
Important factors include weather, soil type, and desired field operations.

In poultry and livestock production, a major cost of production is feed, often

exceeding 35 percent of gross receipts.
Landscape design and construction, which is also an agriculture-related enterprise,
can benefit from computer aided drafting and drawing packages that help
designers generate and illustrate concepts to clients. By providing projection of
individual plant growth, good packages can show how plants on a site will look
years after installation.

Control
Control of machinery by computers can provide consistency and reliability
unmatched with human operation. Controller area networks (CANs) are common
on tractors and self-propelled equipment; these CANs reduce wiring complexity
and allow one or more on-board chips to control machine functions such as engine
controls, transmission, and hydraulic power output.
Computers are used increasingly to control seeding or chemical application rate
automatically in fields.
Research
Research in agriculture requires some uses of computers not used in other aspects
of agricultural work. Very sophisticated simulation models address issues such as
crop growth, animal nutrition, water flow in soil, thermal and physical behavior of
agricultural products, machinery performance, and integrated farm systems.
As with most areas of research, good agricultural research requires computers for
statistical analysis of data, generation of mathematical models, and control of
research devices. Instrumentation to measure temperature, flow, pressure, electrical
conductivity, and strain also requires computers or data loggers.

11.5 Factors Influencing Farmers' Computer Use?

Complexity of Farm - Two aspects of this factor oppose one another. On the one
hand, the more complicated the farm, the more necessary it would seem for a data
storage and retrieval system.
Degree of External Support - Feed companies figure rations. The Dairy Herd
Improvement Association keeps dairy records. Private firms offer computerized
accounting printouts through farm management services. Many banks also offer
financial record keeping. Agronomists may keep crop records, veterinarians record
herd information, and accountants store tax records. Many farmers subscribe to
terminals that display up-to-the-minute market news and advice. This shows just
how much farmers really need to use computers.
Age: "You can't teach an old dog new tricks." Many farmers actually believe this
old saw. Over and over, we heard statements about age from those who ran into
difficulty learning to use the computer. "I'm too old to learn." "I'll leave it to my
son. He's got computers in school." "It's up to the younger generation." Though we
met older farmers who were using computers, this excuse appeared even among
men in their 30s.
Views on Management: Through talking with and observing farmers, we noticed
what might be an inconsistency. When asked, most of those interviewed affirmed
the need for better farm management to increase farm profitability. Actions often
belie this conviction, however. The implicit view was "the more you work, the
bigger the farm, the more you make." Management activities were often given low
priority. Indeed, fear was expressed more than once that management activities
involving the computer take too much time from important outdoor activities, and
thus are perceived as reducing profits. These sentiments seem exacerbated by a
distaste for management activities.
Time: Of course, some of the problems with management activities involve
legitimate time concerns. Cows must be milked, the fields cultivated, rations
mixed, and hay put up. Data entry and software learning, on the other hand, can be
put off. The single biggest hurdle in computer use is learning and configuring
software. The time required for this is substantial. And repeatedly, we heard there
just wasn't the block of time on the farm to sit down for an extended period to
learn. As one farmer put it, "There just weren't any bad days last winter."
Experience: The successes and difficulties encountered by each individual farmer
in using his/her computer determine to some extent how often the equipment is
turned on. If a farmer's first software package didn't do what it claimed to, or if the
documentation was bad, he/she may dismiss computing altogether. The farmer
invests considerable money in software and is unhappy if it doesn't meet often-
inflated expectations. Many computers seem to be sitting unused for this very
reason, especially those purchased five or more years ago.
Network: Each farm is unique. Each farmer perceives different needs. Those in this
study found general classes on computers of little help because they didn't relate
specifically to their needs. Ultimately, the farmer must resort to an individualized
approach to learning about computer use. One farmer said, "You have to slug it out
on your own."
One factor determining who wins the fight is the number of contacts and sources
of information readily available to the individual. Those who know a number of
others using computers in similar ways were much more likely to use their
computers extensively. Software companies offering support helped tremendously.
There's nothing like being able to pick up the phone and talk with a friendly voice
when you hit a snag.
Availability of Information: Drought in Kenya not only refers to lack of rain. Lack
of information on computers and agricultural software also fits the description.
Few kind words were reserved for computer dealers who wanted to sell hardware
to farmers, but knew nothing about agricultural software. Brochures come in the
mail about this software package or that. Costs, however, are high and expert
reviews are rarely found. The shops sell many computer magazines, but do you
think they mention agriculture? Several farmers asked about information we had
on software and what we thought of this piece or that.
Personality and Approach to Learning: As one might expect, several individuals
were enthusiastic about their computers. They'd carefully researched their
purchases. They'd taken the initiative to dig out information from anybody they
could find who would talk with them. They'd sought out obscure farm computing
magazines. They'd gravitated toward others who used computers both in
agriculture and otherwise. They sought new ways to put their computer to work.
These people seemed to have unique learning skills and personalities that allowed
them to maximize those skills.

11.6
Summary
We have discussed various types of ICT that are likely
to be used in agriculture, some of which are used in Sub-
Saharan-African.
The radio, MP3, videorecordings, cd, DVDs are some of
the ICTs discussed. We then focused on a speficic type
of ICT, the computer and examined its application in
agriculture.. The role of the computers in record-
keeping, decision-making, control, research have been
emphasized. Factors influencing farmers’ computer use
have also been discussed and these include age,
experience, type of farm, management style, time,
network and availability of information.
 11.7 Activity
Group discussion and students practice on the computers
how they can send information to farmers through e-mail.
Use of video recordings of information to farmers is
practiced and so is the use of DVDs. Students sit in
groups listening to information from the radio and thus
learn how the radio can be effective in informing farmers
on new development in agriculture.

11.7 Model exam questions

• List discuss ten types of ICT you can suggest to farmers for use in
getting information on farming.
• How can the CD and video be used in farming to get information to
farmers?
• List and discuss application of computers in agriculture.
• What factors influencing farmers’ computer use?

11.9 Suggestion for further readings

References

1 Okello, Julius J., O. Kirui, G. Njiraini, Z. Gitonga. 2012

Journal of Agricultural Science, Vol. 4 No.2
February 2012

• Irina S., Moira B, Kiesler S. and R. Kraut, 2010.

“Technology Adoption and use in the Aftermath
of hurrican Katrina in New Orleans“ American
Behavioral Scientist: vol. 53;1228

• Eric Gaduno, (2004). South

African University
Technology Transfer:
A comparative Analysis
LESSON 12.0: COMPUTER VIRUSES
12.1 Introduction 12.2
Lecture Objectives
12.3 Signs of viruses.
12.4 Summary
12.5 Activity
12.6 Model exam questions

12.1 Introduction
Computer viruses are small software programs that are designed to spread
from one computer to another and to interfere with computer operation.
A virus might corrupt or delete data on your computer, use your e-mail
program to spread itself to other computers, or even erase everything on
your hard disk.
Viruses are most easily spread by attachments in e-mail messages or instant
messaging messages. That is why it is essential that you never open e-mail
attachments unless you know who it's from and you are expecting it.
Viruses can be disguised as attachments of funny images, greeting cards, or
audio and video files.
Viruses also spread through downloads on the Internet. They can be hidden in
illicit software or other files or programs you might download.

12.2 Lecture Objectives

12.3 Signs of viruses.
Here are a few primary indicators that your computer might be infected:
• Your computer runs more slowly than normal
• Your computer stops responding or locks up often
• Your computer crashes and restarts every few minutes
• Your computer restarts on its own and then fails to run normally
• Applications on your computer don't work correctly
• Disks or disk drives are inaccessible
• You can't print correctly
 • You see unusual error messages
• You see distorted menus and dialog boxes
These are common signs of infection—but they might also indicate hardware or
software problems that have nothing to do with a virus.
12.4 Summary
In this lecture students have learnt the
definition of computer viruses and how they can destroy
your data and how they spread.
Students have been exposed to the indicators of viruses
that show if a computer may be infected.

12.6 Model exam questions

• Define a computer virus?
• Give as many signs of computer viruses as possible?
• How does virus enter a computers?
• How can you get ride of viruses from infecting your computer?

LESSON 12.0: Classification of Computers

Computers can be classified following different criteria including classification by

generation, by size, by purpose and by data mode.
a) Classification by Generations
A computer generation is an era or period in the history of computers in which the
computer was characterized by a major technological development that
fundamentally changed the way computers operate. Each generation is
characterized by a major technological development that fundamentally changed
the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, more
powerful and more efficient and reliable devices.
(i) First Generation (1945-1955)
First generation computers were made using vacuum tubes. A vacuum tube was a
fragile glass device that could control and amplify electronic signals. These
computers were very large taking up entire rooms, very expensive to operate and
in addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was
often the cause of malfunctions. First generation computers relied on machine
language, the lowest-level programming language understood by computers, to
perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time. Input was
based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.
Some examples of first-generation computers are ENIAC (Electronic Numerical
Integrator
And Calculator), EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic
Calculator) and UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer I).
(ii) Second Generation (1955-1965)
Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of
computers. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing
computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more
reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Though the transistor still
generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast
improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still relied on
punched cards for input and printouts for output.
Second generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to
symbolic, or assembly languages, which allowed programmers to specify
instructions in words. High-level programming languages were also being
developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These
were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which
moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.

(iii) Third Generation (1956-1980)

Third generation computers were designed with the use of integrated circuits
(ICs). Integrated circuits made it possible to embed a large number of transistors
into very small surface area of silicon known as chip. Instead of punched cards
and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards
and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device
to run many different applications at one time with a central program that
monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass
audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.
(iv) Fourth Generation
The microprocessor (CPU) brought the fourth generation of computers, as
thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the
first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. As
these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to
form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth
generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld
devices.

(v) Fifth Generation (1980 - present)

Till fourth generation computers, the main stress was on hardware technology.
Fourth generation computers are faster, more accurate, reliable, smaller in size and
very cheap, still they lack thinking power. Fifth generation computing devices are
based on artificial intelligence. Artificial intelligence will give computers thinking
power and capability to make decisions like human beings. They are still in
development though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that
are being used today.
b) Classification by Size
Computers can be classified into five categories, on the basis of their size and
capabilities. The size of the computer may refer to multiple factors like, size of the
memory, number of terminals that can be connected to the computer, storage
capacity of the hard disk and the type of processor used in the computer. These
categories are supercomputers, mainframe computers, minicomputers and
microcomputers.
(i) Microcomputers
Microcomputers are the smallest category of computers that range in size from
servers to handheld devices. They are the type of computers meant for public use.
They are designed to be used by one person at a time. Microcomputers, also called
personal computers (PC), can be further classified into desktop computers, laptop
computers. Tablet PCs and personal digital assistants (PDAs).

(ii) Minicomputers
Minicomputers are larger and faster than microcomputers and are designed to
support more than one user at a time. They are generally used for processing large
volumes of data in an organization. Minicomputers are also used as servers in a
local area network. Another name for minicomputers is “mid-range computers.”
Two classic examples of minicomputers were the Digital Equipment Corporation
VAX and the IBM AS/400.
(iii) Mainframe Computers
Mainframes are powerful multi-user computers capable of supporting up to
hundreds of users simultaneously. They operate at very high speed and have very
large storage capacities. They are used by large organizations like meteorological
surveys and statistical institutes for performing bulk mathematical computations.

(iv) Supercomputers
Supercomputers are the fastest and most expensive type of computers. They can
perform hundreds of millions of computations per second and are employed for
specialized applications that require immense amounts of mathematical
calculations. Weather forecasting, scientific simulations, nuclear energy
research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data all require
supercomputers. Examples of supercomputers are Fujitsu K computer, IBM Blue
Gene, Cray Jaguar and NEC Earth Simulator.

c) Classification by Purpose

What a computer is intended to can define the type of computer. Computers are
designed to for different purposes. On the bases of purpose, the following
categories of computers exist:
• General Purpose Computer: This is a type of computer designed to
perform different tasks depending on the programs installed on the computer. It
can perform any task as long as the required hardware and software are provided.
Most PCs we find around are general purpose computers.
• Special Purpose Computer: This is a computer designed to perform a
specific task. The hardware and software of such a computer is usually designed
to suit only the purpose for which it is meant. An example of a special purpose
computer is the X-Ray machine, the Biometric Election Registration Kit for
ELECAM etc.
• Embedded Computer: A computer which is embodied in another system
that is not necessarily a computer can be referred to as an embedded computer or
embedded system. E.g. the computer embedded into a domestic refrigerator, the
computer embedded into an aircraft control system etc.
d) Classification of computers by Mode of Data
Based on data mode, computer can receive input in the form of analogue or
digital signal.
An analog signal is one in which information is represented as a continuous
variation of some physical property or quantity. Analog signals are continuous
waves that information by varying the frequency or amplitude of the wave.
A digital signal is one in which information is represented as a sequence of binary
values 0 and 1. These two values represent two conditions, on or off,
corresponding to two known levels of voltage or current.
Hybrid Computers are those that combine the characteristics of analog and
digital computers.
Therefore, in theory computers can be classified by data mode into analog or
digital computers. However, in practice today, computers process only digital
signals.