VELAMMAL VIDHYASHRAM

GUDUVANCHERY

SENIOR SECONDARY CERTIFICATE EXAMINATION

PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY PROJECT REPORT ON
TO STUDY THE APPLICATION OF JUNCTION DIODE
AS A RECTIFIER
2025– 2026

Made by:
Name : Eshwar V
Roll No : 12B106
Group: Computer Maths

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 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this PHYSICS Investigatory Project on the

topic “To study the application of junction diode as a
rectifier”,has been successfully completed by Eshwar.V of
class XII-B1(PHYSICS), Roll.no..12B106…….at Velammal
Vidhyashram, Guduvanchery for the partial fulfilment of this
project as a part of Senior School Certificate Examination-
CBSE, New Delhi for the academic Year 2025– 2026.

Date: ........................
Signatureof Principal

Signature ofthe Guide

Submitted for SSCE 2025-2026, PHYSICS Practical examination on
......................

Signature of the External Examiner:

Signature ofthe Internal Examiner:

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The success of any project depends largely on people

associated with it. I would like to take this opportunity to
acknowledge the enthusiasm of all these personalities. I
hereby express my heartfelt thanks to our Principal for
having given this opportunity to dothe project in the Physics
laboratory and for his constant encouragement. I extend my
sincere gratitude to my Physics teacher for the valuable
guidance offered to me. Her wholehearted encouragement
and constant stimulant inspiration and advice enabled me to
complete the project successfully. I am also thankful to all
our Teaching Staff andNon-Teaching Staff or their help
during my course of study. I take this opportunity to express
my sincere thanks to my parents for their encouragement
and support. Last but not the least I am thankful to the
almighty.

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 INDEX

S.No Topic P.No

1 Abstract 5
2 Objective 6
3 Introduction to junction diode 7
4 Working principle of a junction diode as rectifier 8
5 Rectification ~ Half wave and Full wave 9
6 Circuit diagram and explanation 10
7 Rectified output wave form 12
8 Construction and function of each component 13
9 Apparatus required 14
10 Experimental setup 15
11 Procedure 17
12 Observation table 18
13 Calculations 20
14 Result 21
15 Applications of junction diode as a rectifier 22
16 Advantages of using junction diode as a rectifier 23
17 Sources of error 24
18 Precautions 25
19 Conclusion 26
20 Bibliography 27

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 ABSTRACT

• This project aims to study the application of a

junction diode as a rectifier, which is an
important device used to convert alternating
current (AC) into direct current (DC). A
junction diode allows electric current to pass
in only one direction, which makes it useful for
rectification.

• In this experiment, both half-wave and full-

wave rectification circuits are set up using p-
n junction diodes. The output voltages are
observed and analyzed to understand how the
diode converts AC input into a pulsating DC
output. The behavior of the diode in forward
and reverse bias is also studied.

• The results show that junction diodes can

effectively convert AC to DC, making them
essential in many electronic devices like
chargers, power supplies, and radios. This
project helps in understanding the practical
use of diodes in electrical circuits and their
importance in electronics.

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 OBJECTIVE

• The main objective of this project is to explore

the application of a junction diode as a
rectifier, which is a crucial component in
converting alternating current (AC) into direct
current (DC). Rectifiers are widely used in
electronic devices where DC power is required,
and the p-n junction diode plays a vital role in
making this conversion possible due to its
ability to allow current in only one direction.

• Through this project, we aim to understand the

working of a junction diode under forward
and reverse bias conditions. We will
construct circuits for both half-wave and full-
wave rectification, observe the output
voltages, and compare them to the input AC
signals. This will help us see how effectively the
diode can convert AC into DC in different
configurations.

• Additionally, the project seeks to demonstrate

the practical uses of diodes in various
electronic and power supply systems. By
performing the experiment and analyzing the
results, we will gain a deeper understanding of
how rectifiers are used in real-life situations,
such as in mobile chargers, radios, and other
electronic appliances that require DC input.

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INTRODUCTION TO JUNCTION DIODE

• A junction diode is a basic semiconductor device

formed by joining a p-type and an n-type material,
creating a p-n junction. This junction allows electric
current to flow easily in one direction (forward bias)
but blocks it in the opposite direction (reverse bias).
Because of this property, diodes are widely used in
electronic circuits, especially for converting
alternating current (AC) into direct current
(DC)—a process known as rectification.

• When an AC signal is applied to a diode, it only

allows the positive (or negative) half of the waveform
to pass through, depending on the direction of the
diode. This creates a pulsating DC output. If one
diode is used, it forms a half-wave rectifier. If two or
more diodes are used along with a transformer, a
full-wave rectifier can be built, which allows both
halves of the AC signal to be used more efficiently.

• This project focuses on studying how junction diodes

are used in rectifier circuits, analyzing their
performance, and understanding their role in
everyday electronics. By constructing and testing
half-wave and full-wave rectifier setups, we aim to
learn how such a simple device plays an important
part in powering most of our modern electronic
gadgets.

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WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A JUCTION
DIODE AS RECTIFIER

• A junction diode allows electric current to flow only in

one direction. It conducts when it is forward biased (P-
side connected to positive terminal) and blocks current
when it is reverse biased. This unidirectional behavior
makes the diode suitable for rectification, which is the
process of converting alternating current (AC) into
direct current (DC).

• In a half-wave rectifier, a single diode is used to pass

only the positive half-cycles of AC through the load.
The negative half is blocked. This gives a pulsating DC
output. The DC voltage output of a half-wave rectifier is
given by:
VDC=Vm/π

• In a full-wave rectifier, both half-cycles of the AC

input are used with the help of two or four diodes.
The direction of current through the load remains
the same in both cycles, giving a more efficient and
smoother DC output. The DC voltage output of a
full-wave rectifier is:
VDC=2Vm/π
• These basic formulas help in calculating the average DC
output produced by rectifier circuits. The junction
diode, therefore, plays a crucial role in powering DC
electronic devices from AC sources.

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RECTIFICATION ~ HALF WAVE AND
FULL WAVE
• Rectification is the process of converting alternating
current (AC) into direct current (DC) using
electronic devices such as junction diodes. Since AC
changes direction periodically, it cannot be directly
used in devices that require steady DC voltage. A
diode is used in rectifier circuits because it allows
current to pass only in one direction — this is the key
principle behind rectification.

• In a half-wave rectifier, only one diode is used. It

conducts during the positive half-cycle of the AC
input and blocks the negative half-cycle, allowing
current to flow only during one half of the cycle. This
results in a pulsating DC output with a large gap
between pulses. Though simple, it is less efficient and
not suitable for high-power applications.

• A full-wave rectifier, on the other hand, uses two

diodes with a center-tap transformer or four
diodes in a bridge arrangement. It converts both
halves of the AC input into pulsating DC by directing
current through the load in the same direction during
both positive and negative cycles. This method gives
higher output voltage, better efficiency, and less
ripple, making it more effective for real-world
applications such as battery chargers, adapters, and
power supplies.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM AND EXLANATION

• A rectifier circuit consists of a junction diode, an

AC input source, and a load resistor
(R_L). The diode plays the key role by
allowing current to pass in only one direction,
making it possible to convert AC to DC.

• In a half-wave rectifier circuit, a single diode is

connected in series with the AC source and the load
resistor. During the positive half-cycle of AC, the
diode is forward-biased and conducts, allowing
current to pass through the load. During the
negative half-cycle, the diode is reverse-biased and
blocks current, resulting in zero output. The output
voltage is a pulsating DC that exists only during the
positive half.

• In a full-wave bridge rectifier, four diodes are

arranged in a diamond shape. During the positive
half-cycle of AC, two of the diodes conduct, and
during the negative half-cycle, the other two
conduct. This ensures that current always flows
through the load in the same direction, resulting in
a more continuous and efficient DC output. The
full-wave rectifier gives twice the output
frequency compared to the half-wave rectifier.

• These rectifier circuits are widely used in power

supply units to provide the required DC voltage for
electronic devices.

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11
RECTIFIED OUTPUT WAVEFORM

• The output waveform of a rectifier shows how the

input AC signal is converted into a pulsating DC
signal. There is a clear difference between the
waveforms of a half-wave rectifier and a full-wave
rectifier.

• In a half-wave rectifier, only the positive half-cycles

of the AC input are allowed to pass through the
diode. The negative half-cycles are blocked,
resulting in gaps between pulses. The output is
discontinuous and has a large ripple, meaning the
DC is not smooth.

• In a full-wave rectifier, both half-cycles of the AC

input are used. The diode arrangement (bridge or
center-tap) allows current to flow through the load
in the same direction during both the positive and
negative cycles. This produces a more continuous
and smoother pulsating DC output, with twice the
frequency compared to the half-wave.

• These waveforms clearly show how full-wave

rectification is more efficient and produces a better
quality DC output than half-wave rectification.

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13
CONSTRUCTION AND FUNCTION OF
EACH COMPONENT
The rectifier circuit is constructed using a few essential
components, each with a specific role in converting AC to DC.
Below is a description of the construction and function of
each part:

1. P-N Junction Diode:

•Construction: A diode is made by joining a p-type
semiconductor with an n-type semiconductor, forming a p-n
junction.
•Function: It allows current to flow only in one direction
(forward bias) and blocks it in the other (reverse bias),
enabling rectification.

2. Transformer:
•Construction: A step-down transformer with primary and
secondary windings.
•Function: It reduces the high AC mains voltage to a safer
low voltage suitable for the circuit.

3. Load Resistor (R_L):

•Construction: A standard resistor connected across the
output terminals.
•Function: It provides a path for current and helps
measure the voltage output from the rectifier.

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 APPARATUS REQUIRED

1. P-N Junction Diodes (1 for half-wave, 4 for full-

wave bridge)

2. Step-down Transformer (230V to 6V AC)

3. Load Resistor (R_L)

4. Breadboard or Small Circuit Board

5. Connecting Wires

6. AC Power Supply (Lab Source)

7. Multimeter or Voltmeter (to measure DC

output voltage)

8. Capacitor (optional – for smoothing the output)

9. Crocodile Clips / Jockey

10. Switch or Key

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 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
• The experimental setup is prepared to demonstrate
how a junction diode acts as a rectifier by converting
alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC). Two
separate circuits are arranged — one for the half-wave
rectifier and one for the full-wave bridge rectifier.

• In the half-wave rectifier setup, a step-down

transformer is connected to an AC power supply. The
secondary coil of the transformer is connected to a
single P-N junction diode, which is in series with a
load resistor (R_L). The output is taken
across this resistor using a multimeter or voltmeter.
The diode allows current only during the positive half-
cycle of AC, blocking the negative half, thus producing a
pulsating DC output.

• In the full-wave rectifier setup, the AC power supply

is again connected to a step-down transformer. The
secondary output of the transformer is connected to a
bridge made of four diodes. The arrangement allows
current to pass through the load resistor in the same
direction during both half-cycles of AC. The output
taken across the load resistor is a smoother,
continuous pulsating DC. A capacitor may also be
connected parallel to the resistor to filter the output
further.

• Both setups are built carefully using a breadboard or

circuit board, and all components are connected with
proper insulated wires and checked before powering
on.

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17
 PROCEDURE

 Half-Wave Rectifier:

• Connect the step-down transformer to the AC power

supply.
• Connect the output of the transformer to the P-N
junction diode.
• Connect a resistor (R_L) after the diode in
series.
• Connect a voltmeter across the resistor to check the
output.
• (Optional) Connect a capacitor in parallel with the
resistor to make the output smoother.
• Switch ON the power supply.
• Note the voltage reading on the voltmeter.

 Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier:

• Connect the step-down transformer to the AC power

supply.
• Connect the output of the transformer to two corners
of the diode bridge (made with four diodes).
• Connect a resistor (R_L) to the other two
corners of the bridge.
• Connect a voltmeter across the resistor to measure the
output.
• (Optional) Place a capacitor across the resistor to filter
the output.
• Switch ON the power supply.
• Note the output voltage on the voltmeter.

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 OBSERVATION TABLE

 Half-Wave Rectifier:

With/W
AC R<sub> DC Nature
ithout
S.No Input L</sub Output of
Capacit
Voltage > (Ω) Voltage Output
or

Pulsatin
1 6V 1k 1.8V Without
g DC

Smooth
er
2 6V 1k 2.5V With
Pulsatin
g DC

Pulsatin
3 9V 1k 3.0V Without
g DC

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 Full-Wave Rectifier:

With/W
R_{DC Nature
AC Input ithout
S.No L} Output of
Voltage Capacito
(Ω) Voltage Output
r

Continu
ous
1 6V 1k 3.4V Without
Pulsatin
g DC

Smooth
2 6V 1k 4.8V With
er DC

Continu
ous
3 9V 1k 6.0V Without
Pulsatin
g DC

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 CALCULATIONS

1. For Half-Wave Rectifier:

Formula:
V_DC = Vm / π
Where:
•V_DC = Average DC output voltage
•Vm = Peak input voltage
•π = 3.14
Example:
If Vm = 6V,
then
V_DC = 6 / 3.14 ≈ 1.91 V

2. For Full-Wave Rectifier:

Formula:
V_DC = (2 × Vm) / π
Where:
•V_DC = Average DC output voltage
•Vm = Peak input voltage
•π = 3.14
Example:
If Vm = 6V, then
V_DC = (2 × 6) / 3.14 ≈ 3.82 V

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 RESULT

1) In the half-wave rectifier, only the positive half-

cycles of the AC supply were allowed to pass
through the P-N junction diode. The diode
became forward-biased during the positive half
and reverse-biased during the negative half,
blocking the current. As a result, the output was a
pulsating DC voltage with gaps between each
pulse. The output voltage was measured across
the load resistor (R_L) using a
voltmeter.

2) In the full-wave bridge rectifier, four diodes

were arranged in a bridge configuration. This
circuit allowed both the positive and negative
half-cycles of the AC input to be converted into
DC. The output was more continuous and had
fewer gaps, resulting in a higher and more
efficient DC voltage across the load resistor. This
proved that full-wave rectification is more
effective than half-wave rectification.

3) When a capacitor was added in parallel with the

load resistor in both circuits, the output waveform
became smoother. The capacitor acted as a filter,
reducing the ripple and bringing the output closer
to pure DC. This is important in real-life
applications where a stable DC voltage is
required.

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APPLICATIONS OF JUNCTION DIODE
AS A RECTIFIER

1.Conversion of AC to DC:
A junction diode is used to convert alternating current (AC)
into direct current (DC) in rectifier circuits. This is the
primary and most common application.

2.Mobile Chargers:
Junction diodes are used in chargers to convert AC supply
into DC, which is required to charge batteries safely.

3.Electronic Power Supplies:

Almost all electronic appliances like televisions, radios, and
computers use junction diodes in their power supply units
to provide DC from an AC source.

4.Battery Charging Circuits:

Diodes act as rectifiers in battery chargers for devices like
emergency lights, inverters, and automotive batteries.

5.Signal Demodulation:
In communication systems, junction diodes are used in the
detection and demodulation of AM signals by rectifying the
carrier wave.

6.DC Motor Drives:

Diodes help convert AC input into DC needed for the
operation of DC motors in tools and small machines.

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ADVANTAGES OF USING A JUNCTION
DIODE AS A RECTIFIER

1.Simple Design:
The circuit using a junction diode as a rectifier is easy to
construct and understand, making it ideal for both learning
and practical use.

2.Low Cost:
Junction diodes are inexpensive and easily available, which
makes them cost-effective for use in many electrical and
electronic applications.

3.Efficient Conversion:
A diode effectively allows current in only one direction,
making it useful for converting AC into DC with minimal
energy loss.

4.Small Size:
Diodes are compact in size, which makes them suitable for
use in small electronic devices like chargers, adapters, and
radios.

5.Reliable Operation:
Once properly connected, junction diodes can work reliably
for a long time without needing maintenance.

6.Fast Switching:
Diodes can switch between conducting and non-conducting
states very quickly, which is helpful in high-speed
applications.

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 SOURCES OF ERROR

1.Loose Connections:
Improper or loose wire connections in the circuit
may cause incorrect readings or failure in
rectification.

2.Faulty Components:
A damaged diode, transformer, or resistor can affect
the performance of the circuit and lead to wrong
output.

3.Inaccurate Measuring Instruments:

The voltmeter or multimeter used may not give exact
readings if it is not properly calibrated.

4.Voltage Fluctuations:
Variations in the AC input supply can affect the DC
output voltage, making the readings inconsistent.

5.Capacitor Issues (if used):

If the filtering capacitor is of poor quality or not
connected properly, it may fail to smooth the output
correctly.

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 PRECAUTIONS

1.Use Proper Polarity:

Connect the diode with correct polarity — anode to
positive and cathode to negative — to avoid reverse
bias.

2.Check Connections Carefully:

All wires and components should be connected firmly
and correctly to prevent loose contact or short
circuits.

3.Use a Suitable Transformer:

Always use a step-down transformer with proper
voltage rating (e.g., 6V or 12V) to avoid damaging
components.

4.Avoid Overheating:
Diodes may heat up during operation. Do not allow
the circuit to run too long without breaks.

5.Handle Components Gently:

Do not bend diode terminals forcefully or
connect/disconnect power while the circuit is on.

6.Use Proper Instruments:

Make sure the multimeter or voltmeter is functioning
correctly and set to the right measurement range.

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 CONCLUSION
 From this experiment, it is concluded that a
junction diode can effectively be used as a
rectifier to convert alternating current (AC)
into direct current (DC).

 The half-wave rectifier allows only one half of

the AC signal (positive half) to pass through,
resulting in a pulsating DC output. The full-
wave rectifier, especially in a bridge
configuration, uses both halves of the AC signal,
giving a more efficient and smoother output.

 The output from both circuits was successfully

observed and measured. By adding a filter
capacitor, the DC output became more stable,
showing the practical use of junction diodes in
real-life electronic devices.

 Thus, the project clearly demonstrates the

importance and application of junction
diodes in converting AC to DC, which is
essential for powering electronic equipment.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

https://www.chatgpt.com

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectifier

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P–n
junction

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