Fundamentals of Networking

Definition of a Network

A network is a collection of interconnected devices (computers, servers, routers, switches, etc.)

that communicate and share resources (data, applications, printers, etc.) using standardized
communication protocols.

Key Network Terminologies

 Node: Any device connected to a network (e.g., computer, printer, smartphone).

 Protocol: Rules governing data communication (e.g., TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP).
 Bandwidth: Maximum data transfer rate over a network (measured in Mbps/Gbps).
 Latency: Time delay in data transmission.
 Router: A device that forwards data between networks.
 Switch: A device that connects devices within a LAN and directs data to the correct destination.
 IP Address: A unique identifier for devices on a network (e.g., 192.168.1.1).
 MAC Address: A hardware identifier for network interfaces (e.g., 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E).

Network Components

1. Hardware Components:

o Computers, servers, routers, switches, hubs, modems, cables (Ethernet, fiber optic).
2. Software Components:

o Operating systems (Windows, Linux), network protocols (TCP/IP), firewalls, and security
software.
3. Communication Media:

o Wired (Ethernet, fiber optic) and wireless (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth).

 Applications and Benefits of Networking

 Resource Sharing: Printers, files, and applications can be shared.

 Communication: Email, video conferencing, instant messaging.
 Data Backup & Recovery: Centralized storage ensures data safety.
 Cost Efficiency: Shared resources reduce expenses.
 Scalability: Networks can expand as needed.

2. Types of Networks

LAN (Local Area Network)

 Definition: A network covering a small geographic area (e.g., home, office, school).
 Characteristics: High speed, low latency, privately owned.
 Example: A Wi-Fi network in an office.

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

 Definition: Covers a city or large campus.

 Characteristics: Uses fiber optics or wireless links.
 Example: A university with multiple campuses connected.

WAN (Wide Area Network)

 Definition: Spans large distances (countries, continents).

 Characteristics: Uses leased lines, satellites, or undersea cables.
 Example: The Internet.

PAN (Personal Area Network)

 Definition: A small network for personal devices (within 10 meters).
 Characteristics: Uses Bluetooth, USB, or infrared.
 Example: Connecting a smartphone to a wireless headset.

3. Network Topologies

Star Topology

 Description: All devices connect to a central hub/switch.

 Advantages: Easy to manage, failure of one node doesn’t affect others.
 Disadvantages: Hub failure disrupts the entire network.
 Illustration:
Copy

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[PC1] [PC2]
\ /
[Hub]
/ \
[PC3] [PC4]

Ring Topology

 Description: Devices form a closed loop; data travels in one direction.

 Advantages: No data collisions.
 Disadvantages: A single node failure breaks the network.
 Illustration:
Copy
 Download

[PC1] → [PC2] → [PC3] → [PC4] → [PC1]

Mesh Topology

 Description: Every device connects to every other device.

 Advantages: Highly reliable, multiple paths for data.
 Disadvantages: Expensive, complex cabling.
 Illustration:
Copy

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[PC1] ↔ [PC2]
↕ ↕
[PC3] ↔ [PC4]

Bus Topology

 Description: All devices share a single communication line.

 Advantages: Simple, low cost.
 Disadvantages: A cable break disrupts the whole network.
 Illustration:
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[PC1]---[PC2]---[PC3]---[PC4] (Single backbone cable)

 4. Transmission Media

Wired Media

1. Twisted Pair Cable (Ethernet):

o Used in LANs, affordable, but prone to interference.

2. Coaxial Cable:

o Used in cable TV, better shielding than twisted pair.

3. Fiber Optic Cable:

o High-speed, long-distance, immune to interference.

Wireless Media

1. Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11):

o Used in homes/offices, limited range (~100m).

2. Bluetooth:

o Short-range (~10m), used for PANs.

3. Cellular (4G/5G):

o Wide coverage, used in mobile networks.

4. Satellite:

o Global coverage, high latency.

5. Distributed Systems

Definition
 A distributed system consists of multiple independent computers that work together as a single
system, appearing as one coherent machine to users.

Applications

 Cloud computing (AWS, Google Cloud).

 Blockchain networks (Bitcoin, Ethereum).
 Content delivery networks (CDNs).

Types of Distributed Systems

1. Client-Server:

o Clients request services from centralized servers (e.g., web browsing).

2. Peer-to-Peer (P2P):

o All nodes act as both clients and servers (e.g., BitTorrent).

3. Cluster Computing:

o Multiple computers work as a single system (e.g., supercomputers).

4. Grid Computing:

o Resources from multiple locations collaborate (e.g., scientific research).

Distributed System Models

1. Architectural Models:

o How components are structured (e.g., layered, microservices).

2. Interaction Models:

o How components communicate (synchronous/asynchronous).

3. Fault Models:

o Handling failures (e.g., redundancy, replication).

 6. Specifying Network Requirements for a Site

 Type of Network: LAN (for offices), WAN (for multinationals).

 Topology: Star (for easy management), Mesh (for redundancy).
 Devices Needed:

o Routers (for internet access).

o Switches (for internal connections).
o Firewalls (for security).

7. Network Security

Definition

Network security involves policies and technologies to protect data from unauthorized access,
misuse, or attacks.

Types of Network Attacks

1. Active Attacks:

o Hacking, malware injection, denial-of-service (DoS).

2. Passive Attacks:

o Eavesdropping, traffic analysis.

Components of Network Security

1. Network Access Control (NAC):

o Restricts unauthorized devices.

2. Firewalls:
o Blocks malicious traffic.
3. Intrusion Prevention Systems (IPS):

o Detects and stops attacks in real-time.

4. Security Information and Event Management (SIEM):

o Logs and analyzes security events.

Wireless Security

 WPA3 Encryption: Latest Wi-Fi security protocol.

 MAC Filtering: Allows only trusted devices.
 VPNs: Encrypts wireless communications.

Conclusion

Understanding networking and distributed systems is crucial for IT professionals. From basic
topologies to advanced security measures, these concepts form the backbone of modern digital
communication.

🧠 Fundamentals of Networking

✅ Definition of a Network:

A network is a group of interconnected computers and devices that can share data and resources such
as files, internet, and printers.

✅ Network Terminologies:
  Node: Any device connected to the network (computer, printer, router).
 Host: A device that sends or receives data.
 IP Address: A unique address identifying each device on the network.
 MAC Address: Hardware address assigned to a network interface.
 Bandwidth: Maximum data transfer rate of a network.
 Protocol: A set of rules governing communication (e.g., TCP/IP).
 Router: Forwards data between networks.
 Switch: Connects devices in a LAN and filters traffic.

✅ Identified Network Components:

 Router – Directs data across networks.

 Switch – Connects multiple devices on the same network.
 Modem – Modulates and demodulates signals for internet access.
 Access Point – Extends wireless coverage.
 Network Interface Card (NIC) – Allows devices to connect to a network.
 Cables – Physical transmission medium.

✅ Application and Benefits of Networking:

 Resource Sharing: e.g., files, printers, and internet.

 Communication: Email, messaging, video calls.
 Data Management: Centralized databases and backups.
 Cost Efficiency: Shared resources reduce costs.

🌐 Types of Networks
 Network Type Description Range

LAN – Local Area Network Covers small area (office/home) Up to 1km

MAN – Metropolitan Area Network Covers a city or campus Up to 50km

WAN – Wide Area Network Covers large geographical areas (e.g., Internet) 50km+

PAN – Personal Area Network Close-range network (Bluetooth) Up to 10m

🌟 Network Topologies

⭐ Star Topology:

 All devices connect to a central hub.

 Pros: Easy to manage and troubleshoot.
 Cons: Central point of failure.

🔁 Ring Topology:

 Devices connected in a circular manner.

 Pros: Predictable data paths.
 Cons: Failure of one device can affect the whole network.

🔗 Mesh Topology:

 Every device connects to every other.

 Pros: High fault tolerance.
 Cons: Expensive and complex to install.

📦 Bus Topology:

 All devices share a single backbone cable.

 Pros: Simple and cheap.
  Cons: Hard to troubleshoot; not scalable.

🔌 Transmission Media

Wired Media:

 Twisted Pair Cable – Common in LANs, affordable.

 Coaxial Cable – Used for cable TV and broadband.
 Fiber Optic Cable – High-speed, long-distance, uses light signals.

Wireless Media:

 Wi-Fi – Wireless LAN access.

 Bluetooth – Short-distance device pairing.
 Infrared – Line-of-sight communication (remote controls).
 Satellite and Microwave – Long-range wireless transmission.

🔄 Distributed Systems

✅ Definition:

A distributed system is a network of independent computers that appear to users as a single coherent
system.

✅ Applications:

 Cloud storage (e.g., Google Drive)

 Online banking systems
  E-commerce platforms (e.g., Amazon)
 IoT (Smart homes)

✅ Types of Distributed Computing:

1. Information Systems – Handle storage and processing of data.

2. Pervasive Systems – Embedded in everyday environments (IoT).
3. Client-Server – Central server provides services to multiple clients.
4. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) – Devices (peers) act as both clients and servers.

✅ Distributed System Models:

 Architectural Models:
o Client-server: Centralized services.
o Peer-to-peer: Decentralized control.
 Interaction Models:
o Synchronous: Clients wait for response.
o Asynchronous: Clients do not wait.
 Fault Models:
o Design to handle partial failures without full system failure.

📋 Specifying Network Requirements for a Site

1. Type of Network: LAN for small, WAN for large geographic needs.
2. Type of Topology: Choose based on scale, fault tolerance, and cost.
3. Devices Needed: Switches, routers, NICs, modems, access points.
🛡️Network Security

✅ Definition:

Protection of networks and data from breaches, misuse, and attacks.

✅ Types of Network Attacks:

 Active Attacks: Modify data or disrupt services (e.g., DoS, Man-in-the-Middle).

 Passive Attacks: Monitor or eavesdrop on communication (e.g., packet sniffing).

✅ Components of Network Security:

 Network Access Control (NAC): Limits who can access the network.
 Firewall: Filters incoming and outgoing traffic.
 Intrusion Prevention System (IPS): Detects and blocks threats in real-time.
 Security Information and Event Management (SIEM): Monitors and analyzes security events
and logs.

✅ Wireless Security:

 Use WPA3 encryption (or at least WPA2).

 Hide SSID broadcasting.
 MAC address filtering.
 Regularly update firmware.
 Elaborate Notes on Topic 1:
Understanding Networking and
Distributed Systems
1. Fundamentals of Networking
Definition of a Network

A network is a collection of interconnected devices (such as computers, servers, routers,

switches, and printers) that communicate and share resources using standardized protocols.
Networks enable data exchange, resource sharing, and remote access.

Key Network Terminologies

 Node: Any device connected to a network (e.g., computer, printer, router).

 Protocol: A set of rules governing data communication (e.g., TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP).

 Bandwidth: The maximum data transfer rate of a network (measured in Mbps/Gbps).

 Latency: The delay in data transmission over a network.

 Packet: A unit of data transmitted over a network.

 Router: A device that forwards data packets between networks.

 Switch: A device that connects multiple devices within a LAN and forwards data based on MAC
addresses.

 Firewall: A security system that monitors and controls incoming/outgoing network traffic.

Network Components
 Hardware: Routers, switches, hubs, modems, cables, NICs (Network Interface Cards).

 Software: Operating systems, network protocols, firewalls, VPN clients.

 Transmission Media: Wired (Ethernet, fiber optic) or wireless (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth).

Applications and Benefits of Networking

 Resource Sharing: Printers, files, and applications can be shared among users.

 Communication: Email, video conferencing, instant messaging.

 Data Centralization: Storing data on servers for easy access and backup.

 Cost Efficiency: Reduced hardware costs through shared resources.

 Scalability: Networks can expand to accommodate more users/devices.

2. Types of Networks
Local Area Network (LAN)

 Definition: A network covering a small geographical area (e.g., home, office, school).

 Characteristics: High speed, low latency, privately owned.

 Example: Ethernet LAN, Wi-Fi network.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

 Definition: A network covering a city or large campus.

 Characteristics: Faster than WAN, owned by ISPs or organizations.

 Example: City-wide broadband networks.

 Wide Area Network (WAN)

 Definition: A network spanning large distances (e.g., countries, continents).

 Characteristics: Uses leased lines, satellites, or fiber optics.

 Example: The Internet, corporate WANs connecting multiple offices.

Personal Area Network (PAN)

 Definition: A small network for personal devices (e.g., Bluetooth, USB connections).

 Characteristics: Short-range (up to 10 meters).

 Example: Connecting a smartphone to a wireless headset.

3. Network Topologies
Star Topology

 Structure: All devices connect to a central hub/switch.

 Advantages: Easy to manage, failure of one node doesn’t affect others.

 Disadvantages: Hub failure disrupts the entire network.

Ring Topology

 Structure: Devices form a closed loop; data travels in one direction.

 Advantages: No data collisions, predictable performance.

 Disadvantages: A single node failure can break the network.

Mesh Topology
 Structure: Every device connects to every other device.

 Advantages: High redundancy, fault-tolerant.

 Disadvantages: Expensive, complex cabling.

Bus Topology

 Structure: All devices share a single communication line.

 Advantages: Simple, low-cost.

 Disadvantages: Performance degrades with heavy traffic, a single break disrupts the network.

4. Transmission Media
Wired Media

 Twisted Pair (Ethernet):

Twisted Pair cables (ethernet cables) are a common type of copper cable used for data
transmission in networking. They consist of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together,
hence the name "twisted pair."

o Types:

Unshielded (UTP)

 These are a pair of two insulated copper wires twisted together without any other
insulation.

 They reduce the external interference due to the presence of insulation.

 They are arranged in pairs so that we can add a new connection whenever required. The
DSL or telephone lines in our houses have one extra pair in them.
  When UTP are arranged in pairs, each pair is coded with a different color as defined by
the 25-pair color code.

 The Electronic Industries Association divides UTP into 7 categories based on some
standards. Categories are based upon cable quality where 1 is the highest quality and 7 is
the lowest quality. Each cable in a category is put to a different use as needed.

Advantages:

 These cables are cost-effective and easy to install owing to their compact size.

 They are generally used for short-distance transmission of both voice and data.

 It is less costly as compared to other types of cables.

Disadvantages:

 The connection established using UTP is not secure.

 They are efficient only for a distance up to 100 meters and have to be installed in pieces
of up to 100 meters.

 These cables have limited bandwidth.

Shielded (STP).

 These types of cables have extra insulation or protective covering over the conductors in
the form of a copper braid covering.

 This covering provides strength to the overall structure of the cable. It also reduces noise
and signal interference in the cable.
  The shielding ensures that the induced signal can be returned to the source via ground
and only circulate around the shield without affecting the main propagating signal. The
STP cables are also color-coded like the UTP cables as different color pairs are required
for analog and digital transmission.

Advantages:

 They are generally used for long-distance communication and transmission and are
installed underground.

 The protective shield prevents external electromagnetic noise penetration into the cable.

 They have a higher bandwidth as compared to UTP.

Disadvantages:

 These cables are very expensive.

 They require a lot of maintenance which increases the cost more.

 These can be installed underground only.

 The length of the segment is similar to UTP for these cables.

o Use: LAN connections (Cat5e, Cat6 cables).

 Coaxial Cable:

Coaxial Cable is a type of guided media made of Plastics, and copper wires which transmit the
signal in electrical form rather than light form. Coaxial cable is also known as coax. The core
copper conductor is used for the transmission of signals and the insulator is used to provide
insulation to the copper conductor the insulator is surrounded by a braided metal conductor
which helps to prevent the interference of electrical signals and prevent cross talk. This entire
setup is again covered with a protective plastic layer to provide extra safety to the cable.

Coaxial cable is typically used by cable operators, telephone companies, and internet providers
to transmit data, video, and voice communications to customers. Its installation and
implementation are easy but it is less efficient than optical fiber also it provides moderately low
bandwidth in comparison to optical fiber.

o Use: Cable TV, older Ethernet networks.

Uses of Coaxial Cable

 Television: Coaxial cable used for television would be 75 Ohm and RG-6 coaxial cable.

 Internet: Coaxial cables are also used for carrying internet signals, RG-6 cables are used
for this.

 CCTV: The coaxial cables are also used in CCTV systems and both RG-59 AND RG-6
cables can be used.
  Video: The coaxial cables are also used in video Transmission the RG-6 is used for better
digital signals and RG-59 for lossless transmission of video signals.

 HDTV: The HDTV uses RG-11 as it provides more space for signals to transfer.

Advantages of Coaxial Cable

 Coaxial cables support high bandwidth.

 It is easy to install coaxial cables.

 Coaxial cables have better cut-through resistance so they are more reliable and durable.

 Less affected by noise or cross-talk or electromagnetic inference.

 Coaxial cables support multiple channels

Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable

 Coaxial cables are expensive.

 The coaxial cable must be grounded in order to prevent any crosstalk.

 As a Coaxial cable has multiple layers it is very bulky.

 There is a chance of breaking the coaxial cable and attaching a "t-joint" by hackers, this
compromises the security of the data.

Types of Coaxial cables

 Hardline coaxial cable: Hardline coaxial cable's center conductor is made of copper,
silver and has a larger diameter when compared to other coaxial cables.
  Flexible coaxial cable: The flexible coaxial cables are very flexible and the inner
conductor is surrounded by a flexible polymer.

 Semi-rigid coaxial cable: Semi-rigid coaxial cable uses a solid copper outer sheath with
a dielectric of Polytetrafluoroethylene.

 Formable coaxial cable: It is an alternative to semi-rigid cable, instead of a rigid copper

outer sheath a flexible metal sheath is utilized.

 Twinaxial cable: It has two central conductors in the core and a single outer core and
dielectric. these cables are best for low-frequency digital and video transmission.

 Triaxial cable: It is also known as Triax. It is very much similar to a coaxial cable but
with an additional copper braid added to it, the braid works as a shield and protects from
noise. Triaxial cables offer more bandwidth.

 Rigid coaxial cable: Rigid coaxial cable is made up of two copper tubes supported at
cable ends and fixed intervals across the length of the cable using PTFE supports or disk
insulators. The rigid coaxial cable cannot be bent. It is mainly used in TV and FM
broadcasting systems.

 Fiber Optic:
 Fiber Optics or Optical Fiber is a technology that transmits data as a light pulse along a glass or
plastic fiber. An Optical Fiber is a cylindrical fiber of glass that is hair-thin in size or any
transparent dielectric medium. The fiber which is used for optical communication is waveguides
made of transparent dielectrics. In this article, we will discuss Optical Fiber/Fiber Optics in
detail.
o Use: High-speed, long-distance communication (immune to EMI).

o Uses of Fiber Optics

o Fiber Optics can be used in Computer Broadcasting and Networking
o Fiber Optics are used on the Internet. They are also used in Television Cable.
o Fiber Optics are widely used in Military Activities. They are also used in Medical Purposes like
for precise illumination.
o They can also be used in Underwater environments as they don't require to be replaced
frequently.
o Advantages of Fiber Optics
o Fiber Optics supports bandwidth with higher capacities.
o Electromagnetic Interference is very little with Fiber Optics.
o Fiber Optics are stronger and lighter than copper cables.
o Very little Maintenance is required in Optical Fiber.
o Disadvantages of Fiber Optics
o Fiber Optics is more costly than Copper Wire.
o Huge manual work is required to install new cables.
o Some optical fibers like glass fiber require more protection.
o Fiber Optics are more fragile i.e., can be easily broken, or signals can be lost easily.

Wireless Media

 Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11): Wireless LAN technology.

 Bluetooth: Short-range device connectivity.

 Cellular (4G/5G): Mobile internet access.

5. Distributed Systems
Definition

A distributed system is a collection of independent computers that appear as a single coherent

system. It enables parallel processing, fault tolerance, and scalability.

Applications

Cloud Computing (AWS, Google Cloud).

 Definition: Cloud computing delivers computing services (servers, storage, databases,

networking, software) over the internet ("the cloud").
 Service Models:

o IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service): Virtualized computing resources (e.g., AWS

EC2, Google Compute Engine).
o PaaS (Platform as a Service): Development platforms (e.g., AWS Elastic
Beanstalk, Google App Engine).
o SaaS (Software as a Service): Ready-to-use applications (e.g., Google Workspace,
AWS Chime).
 Deployment Models: Public, Private, Hybrid, and Multi-cloud.
 Advantages: Scalability, Cost-efficiency, Reliability, Flexibility.
 AWS vs. Google Cloud: Compare services like AWS Lambda (serverless) vs. Google Cloud
Functions.
 Case Study: How Netflix uses AWS for scalability.
 Security Concerns: Shared responsibility model (provider vs. user).
 Activity:

 Hands-on Lab: Deploy a simple web app on AWS EC2 or Google Cloud Run.

 Debate: Public vs. Private cloud—which is better for enterprises?

Peer-to-Peer Networks (BitTorrent, Blockchain).

 Definition: P2P networks distribute tasks/workloads among peers (no central server).
 Characteristics:
o Decentralization.
o Resilience (no single point of failure).
o Scalability (more peers improve performance).
 Use Cases:
o File Sharing: BitTorrent (distributed file distribution).
o Blockchain: Decentralized ledger (Bitcoin, Ethereum).

Examples & Discussion Points:

 BitTorrent: How file chunks are distributed among peers.

 Blockchain:
o Consensus mechanisms (Proof of Work vs. Proof of Stake).

o Smart contracts (Ethereum).

 Advantages: Censorship resistance, fault tolerance.

 Challenges: Security risks (51% attack), energy consumption (Bitcoin mining).

Activity:

 Simulation: Use a P2P simulator (e.g., PeerSim) to model a small network.

 Discussion: Is blockchain overhyped? Where is it most useful?

3. Distributed Databases (Cassandra, MongoDB).

Key Concepts:
  Definition: Databases spread across multiple nodes/locations for scalability & fault
tolerance.
 Types:
o NoSQL (MongoDB): Document-based, flexible schema.
o Wide-column (Cassandra): Optimized for high write throughput.
 CAP Theorem: Consistency, Availability, Partition Tolerance (pick two).
 Sharding & Replication: Horizontal scaling vs. data redundancy.

Examples & Discussion Points:

 MongoDB: JSON-like documents, flexible queries.

 Cassandra: Linear scalability, used by Netflix and Uber.
 Trade-offs: Strong consistency (PostgreSQL) vs. eventual consistency (Cassandra).
 Use Case: Why does Instagram use Cassandra for messaging?

Activity:

 Hands-on Lab: Set up a MongoDB replica set or Cassandra cluster (locally

or on cloud).

 Case Study: Compare database choices for a social media app.

Types of Distributed Systems

1. Computing Systems (e.g., grid computing).

2. Information Systems (e.g., distributed databases).

3. Pervasive Systems (e.g., IoT devices).

4. Client-Server Systems (e.g., web servers and browsers).

5. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Systems (e.g., file-sharing networks).

Computing Systems (e.g., Grid Computing)

Definition:

Computing systems involve distributed computing resources working together to perform large-scale
computations.
Example: Grid Computing

 A distributed architecture where resources from multiple locations are connected to achieve a
common goal.
 Often used in scientific research, simulations, and data-intensive tasks.

Key Features:

 Resource Sharing: Uses idle computing resources from different locations.

 Scalability: Easily scales with more nodes.
 Heterogeneity: Mix of different hardware and software.
 Decentralization: No single point of control.

Advantages:

 Cost-effective.
 High performance for intensive tasks.
 Improved resource utilization.

Examples:

 SETI@home
 CERN’s Large Hadron Collider (LHC) Computing Grid

2. Information Systems (e.g., Distributed Databases)

Definition:

Information systems collect, process, store, and distribute information to support decision-making and
control in an organization.

Example: Distributed Databases

 A database that is spread across different physical locations but appears as a single database to
users.

Key Features:

 Data Distribution: Data is stored in multiple locations.

 Transparency: Users don’t see the complexity of distribution.
 Replication: Data can be copied for reliability.
 Concurrency Control: Manages simultaneous access.
Advantages:

 Faster access to data.

 Improved reliability and fault tolerance.
 Local autonomy.

Examples:

 Google Spanner
 Apache Cassandra

3. Pervasive Systems (e.g., IoT Devices)

Definition:

Pervasive or ubiquitous systems embed computing into everyday objects to enhance functionality and
connectivity.

Example: Internet of Things (IoT)

 Devices equipped with sensors and software that collect and exchange data over the Internet.

Key Features:

 Context Awareness: Responds to user needs based on environment.

 Connectivity: Constant internet or network connection.
 Automation: Devices can operate with minimal human input.
 Real-time Processing: Immediate data collection and feedback.

Advantages:

 Improves quality of life and productivity.

 Enables smart homes, cities, healthcare, etc.
 Efficient monitoring and control.

Examples:

 Smart thermostats
 Wearable fitness trackers
 Connected cars
4. Client-Server Systems (e.g., Web Servers and Browsers)
Definition:

A network architecture where a client requests services and a server provides them.

Example: Web Browsers and Servers

 The browser (client) sends HTTP requests to a web server, which returns web pages.

Key Features:

 Centralized control: Server manages services and data.

 Resource Sharing: Multiple clients can access shared resources.
 Security: Easier to manage with centralized servers.
 Scalability: Can be scaled with load balancers and more servers.

Advantages:

 Centralized maintenance.
 Efficient resource management.
 Better control over data and access.

Examples:

 Email systems (e.g., Outlook with Exchange)

 Online banking platforms

5. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Systems (e.g., File-Sharing Networks)

Definition:

In P2P systems, each node (peer) acts both as a client and a server.

Example: File Sharing Networks

 Users share files directly with each other without a central server.

Key Features:

 Decentralized: No central authority.

 Scalability: Easily scales as more peers join.
  Fault Tolerance: System continues even if some peers leave.
 Self-Organization: Nodes manage themselves.

Advantages:

 Efficient use of bandwidth.

 Lower infrastructure costs.
 Resistant to single point of failure.

Examples:

 BitTorrent
 Gnutella
 Blockchain networks

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Distributed System Models

 Architectural Model: Defines system components and interactions.

 Interaction Model: Handles timing and communication.

 Fault Model: Addresses error handling and recovery.

Teaching Notes: Distributed System Models

1. Architectural Model
Key Concepts:

 Defines the structure of a distributed system, including components and their interactions.

 Key Components:
o Clients & Servers: Traditional request-response model (e.g., web servers).

o Peer-to-Peer (P2P): Decentralized, nodes act as both clients and servers (e.g., BitTorrent,
blockchain).

o Microservices: Small, independent services communicating via APIs (e.g., Netflix, Uber).

o Layered Architecture: Abstraction layers (e.g., OSI model).

Examples & Discussion Points:

 Client-Server vs. P2P: When is each better? (Centralized control vs. scalability).

 Microservices: Why do companies like Amazon use them? (Independent scaling, fault
isolation).

 Hybrid Models: Cloud-based systems combining multiple architectures.

Activity:

 Case Study: Compare the architecture of Google Search (centralized) vs. Bitcoin (P2P).

 Diagramming Exercise: Sketch the architecture of a social media app (client-server +

databases).
 2. Interaction Model
Key Concepts:

 Governs communication and timing between distributed components.

 Key Aspects:
o Synchronous vs. Asynchronous Communication:
 Synchronous: Blocking calls (e.g., HTTP requests with timeouts).

 Asynchronous: Non-blocking (e.g., message queues like RabbitMQ).

o Eventual Consistency: Data may not be immediately synced but will converge (e.g., DNS
updates).

o Timing Assumptions:
 Synchronous Systems: Bounded delays (e.g., real-time systems).

 Asynchronous Systems: No timing guarantees (e.g., most web apps).

Examples & Discussion Points:

 WhatsApp: Uses async messaging (offline delivery).

 Stock Trading Systems: Require synchronous consistency for real-time data.

 Challenges: Network latency, clock skew (NTP synchronization).

Activity:

 Role-Playing Game: Simulate sync vs. async communication in a classroom setting.

 Discussion: Would a banking app use sync or async transactions? Why?

 3. Fault Model
Key Concepts:

 Defines how systems handle failures and recover.

 Types of Faults:
o Crash Faults: A node stops working (e.g., server crash).

o Omission Faults: Messages lost/dropped (e.g., network failure).

o Byzantine Faults: Malicious/arbitrary behavior (e.g., hacked node).

 Fault Tolerance Techniques:

o Redundancy: Replication (e.g., databases with multiple copies).

o Checkpointing: Save state periodically for recovery.

o Consensus Algorithms: Paxos, Raft (used in distributed databases).

Examples & Discussion Points:

 Bitcoin’s Byzantine Fault Tolerance: How miners prevent double-spending.

 Netflix Chaos Monkey: Randomly kills servers to test resilience.

 Trade-offs: High fault tolerance vs. performance overhead.

Activity:

 Failure Simulation: Use a tool like kill -9 on a Docker container to see system recovery.

 Debate: Is 100% fault tolerance possible? (CAP theorem trade-offs).

 Assessment Ideas
1. Quiz:
o What’s the difference between client-server and P2P?

o When would you use async communication?

o Name two fault tolerance techniques.

2. Project:
o Design a fault-tolerant microservice (e.g., a payment system with retries).

3. Case Study Analysis:

o How does Amazon DynamoDB handle faults?

These notes provide a clear, structured breakdown of the three models. Let me know if you'd
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 6. Network Security
Types of Network Attacks

 Active Attacks: Interruption, modification, or fabrication of data (e.g., DDoS, MITM).

 Passive Attacks: Unauthorized monitoring (e.g., eavesdropping).

Components of Network Security

 Firewalls: Block unauthorized access.

 Intrusion Prevention Systems (IPS): Detect and block threats.

 Network Access Control (NAC): Restricts device access based on policies.

 Encryption: Secures data in transit (e.g., SSL/TLS).

Wireless Security

 WPA3: Latest Wi-Fi security protocol.

 MAC Filtering: Restricts access based on device MAC addresses.

Conclusion
This topic provides a foundation for understanding networking and distributed systems, covering
essential concepts, architectures, and security measures. Mastery of these principles is crucial for
designing, implementing, and troubleshooting modern networks.

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