Ancient Indian Temple and Civilization Wall Inscriptions

Introduction to Ancient Indian Temple and Civilization Inscriptions

Ancient Indian temple inscriptions, meticulously carved on temple walls, pillars, and
gateways, serve as vital historical, religious, and cultural documents. These inscriptions
represent an enduring legacy that illuminates the spiritual, political, and social fabric of
ancient Indian civilization. By preserving sacred texts, royal proclamations, donor
acknowledgments, and artistic dedications, these stone records provide a unique window into
the past.
Typically, temple inscriptions include:
• Religious texts: Verses from sacred scriptures like the Vedas, Puranas, and epics, as
well as hymns and prayers dedicated to deities worshipped in the temple.
• Royal decrees: Edicts issued by kings and rulers that often authorized temple
construction, land grants, or tax exemptions, reflecting political authority and
patronage.
• Artistic dedications: Descriptions of artistic and architectural works, including
sculptural embellishments, which highlight the cultural richness and craftsmanship of
the era.
These inscriptions are invaluable in understanding the evolution of temple architecture,
religious practices, language and script development, and regional variations over centuries.
They not only document sacred traditions but also reveal information about daily life,
governance, and socio-economic conditions in ancient India. As such, the preservation and
scholarly study of temple wall scriptures are essential for reconstructing the complex history
and cultural heritage of the Indian subcontinent.

Figure:1 Inscription on ancient Hindu Temple at south India

Historical Context of Ancient Indian Temples
The tradition of inscribing scriptures and important records on temple walls in ancient India
is closely tied to the flourishing of temple architecture during distinct historical periods.
These inscriptions not only embellish the sacred spaces but also encapsulate the socio-
political and religious milieu of their times. Among the major dynasties responsible for
extensive temple construction and the proliferation of inscriptions were the Mauryas, Guptas,
Pallavas, and Cholas.
The Maurya Empire (circa 321–185 BCE) marked one of the earliest phases of monumental
architecture and centralized administration. Though Mauryan temples were relatively modest,
their rock edicts and inscriptions laid the groundwork for recording royal decrees and
religious injunctions in public spaces. Emperor Ashoka’s inscriptions, exemplary of this
period, combined governance with Buddhist moral teachings and represent pioneering efforts
in epigraphy.
The Gupta period (circa 320–550 CE), often considered the "Golden Age" of India, witnessed
a significant expansion in temple building, particularly dedicated to Hindu deities such as
Vishnu and Shiva. The inscriptions from Gupta temples commonly include dynastic records,
grants, and detailed religious invocations, reflecting a harmonious blend of political
legitimacy and devotional expression.
Moving southwards, the Pallava dynasty (circa 275–897 CE) is renowned for its rock-cut and
structural temples, with inscriptions predominantly in Sanskrit and Tamil. These epitaphs
reveal rich information on religious practices, patronage by kings and local chieftains, and
artistic achievements, highlighting the Pallavas’ role in spreading temple culture across South
India.
Collectively, the inscriptions from these dynasties serve as enduring testaments to the
dynamic interplay between religion, politics, and society in ancient India, embedded within
the very stones of their sacred temples.

Figure 2: A Chola Era Temple Inscription on a Copper Plate

Materials and Techniques Used in Temple Wall Scriptures
The scriptures inscribed on ancient Indian temple walls were predominantly created using
durable and locally available materials, primarily stone and metal. Stone, especially granite,
sandstone, and basalt, was the most common medium because of its longevity and resistance
to environmental degradation. Temples built by the Pallavas, Cholas, and other dynasties
often featured extensive stone surfaces that lent themselves well to detailed inscription work.
The principal techniques employed for creating these inscriptions included carving,
engraving, and occasionally, painting. Carving involved chiseling into the stone surface with
iron tools to form letters and decorative motifs. Engraving was more refined, often used to
inscribe delicate scripts and fine details on both stone and metal plates such painted
inscriptions are rarer due to their susceptibility to fading.
To preserve these inscriptions from weathering and biological damage, temple architects and
artisans sometimes applied natural oils, lime washes, or other protective coatings. The
placement of inscriptions within sheltered parts of the temple, such as inner sanctums or
arches, also aided in their conservation. However, many inscriptions have suffered over time
due to exposure to rain, wind erosion, and human interference, including vandalism and
repurposing of temple stones in later constructions.
Continuous efforts by archaeologists and conservators involve detailed documentation,
cleaning, structural stabilization, and application of modern conservation materials to protect
these invaluable records. Despite these measures, the preservation of ancient temple
scriptures remains a challenge, necessitating ongoing attention to prevent further
deterioration and loss.

Figure:3 The 200 pound bundle of 31 copper plates Rai Bahadur V. Venkayya
discovered at the Vataranyesvara Temple in Thiruvalangadu village
Common Languages and Scripts Used in Inscriptions
The inscriptions on ancient Indian temple walls reflect a rich tapestry of languages and
scripts, shaped by regional diversity and historical evolution. Among the most prominent
languages used were Sanskrit, Tamil, and Prakrit, each serving distinct cultural and religious
functions.
Sanskrit was widely employed across northern and central India, especially in royal decrees,
religious hymns, and sacred texts. Its classical status and pan-Indian recognition made it a
preferred choice for inscriptions that aimed to convey religious authority and prestige. Scripts
commonly used to write Sanskrit inscriptions included Brahmi in earlier periods and later
Devanagari, although regional variants also appeared.
In the southern peninsula, Tamil predominated, especially during the Pallava and Chola
dynasties. Tamil inscriptions provide detailed records of temple endowments, rituals, and
local governance. The Grantha script was frequently used to write Sanskrit texts in Tamil-
speaking regions, preserving linguistic sanctity while accommodating regional scripts.
Prakrit languages, considered more vernacular forms, appear in inscriptions dating back to
the early centuries BCE and CE. Prakrit inscriptions often relate to Buddhist and Jain
contexts, employing scripts like Brahmi and its derivatives.
Other scripts observed include Kharosthi in the northwest during early historic periods, as
well as regional scripts such as Kannada and Telugu scripts emerging in medieval
inscriptions. The choice of script and language was heavily influenced by the dynasty’s
cultural milieu, the target audience, and the intended religious or administrative function of
the inscription.
Thus, the multiplicity of languages and scripts in temple inscriptions underscores the layered
historical and cultural dynamics that shaped ancient Indian temple epigraphy and reveals the
interconnectedness of language, religion, and regional identity.

Figure:4 (L) Gurumukhi inscriptions. (R) Devnagri inscriptions. Indian Hindu and
Sikh merchants travelled to Ateshgah Azerbaijan
Religious and Philosophical Themes in Temple Inscriptions
The scriptures inscribed on ancient Indian temple walls are rich repositories of diverse
religious and philosophical doctrines, reflecting the pluralistic spiritual heritage of the
subcontinent. These inscriptions span across Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, each
contributing unique theological perspectives and ritual prescriptions, yet often interacting
within the temple milieu.
Hindu inscriptions commonly feature references to mythological narratives derived from the
Ramayana, Mahabharata, and various Puranas. These texts glorify deities such as Vishnu,
Shiva, and Devi, recounting their divine exploits and cosmic roles. Beyond mythology, Hindu
inscriptions elucidate ritual practices such as puja (worship), yajnā (sacrificial rites), and
festivals. Philosophically, concepts rooted in Vedanta and the doctrines of Dharma and
Karma are often alluded to, emphasizing moral order and liberation (moksha).
Buddhist temple inscriptions emphasize teachings of the Buddha, incorporating verses from
canonical texts like the Tripitaka. These often highlight the path to enlightenment through the
Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, underlining impermanence, compassion, and
mindfulness. Additionally, Buddhist epigraphy frequently records donations and the
establishment of monasteries, underscoring the temples’ role as centers of monastic learning
and meditation.
Jain inscriptions similarly express devotional acts toward the Tirthankaras, the enlightened
spiritual teachers, with frequent references to ascetic ideals and ethical precepts such as
ahimsa (non-violence) and aparigraha (non-possessiveness). These texts document both ritual
observances and didactic messages aimed at spiritual purification and liberation from the
cycle of rebirth.
Collectively, these inscriptions illustrate how temples functioned not only as places of
worship but also as hubs of spiritual education, theological discourse, and cultural
transmission. They integrate mythology, ritual, and philosophy, revealing ancient temples as
vibrant centers where religion and everyday life converged in profound ways.

Figure:5 Ancient Sanskrit Inscription About Hindu God, Lord Shiva

Architectural Insights from Wall Scriptures
Inscriptions engraved on ancient Indian temple walls are invaluable sources that shed light on
the architectural practices and artisanship behind temple construction. These scriptures often
document the names of architects and master craftsmen, the materials employed, and the
building techniques used, providing direct evidence about ancient construction expertise and
design philosophies.
For instance, certain Chola-period inscriptions explicitly mention the chief architect or
sthapati responsible for planning and overseeing temple erection, along with the royal
patronage that funded these monumental projects. Such details allow historians to trace the
lineage and influence of specific guilds of artisans and their evolving craftsmanship over
centuries.
Detailed descriptions in inscriptions sometimes include information about the foundation
rituals, sculptural motifs, and the symbolic layout of temple complexes, which reflect
theological as well as aesthetic considerations. Variations in temple layouts documented
through inscriptions have enabled scholars to understand regional architectural styles, such as
the Dravidian style in the south and the Nagara style in the north of India.
Notably, inscriptions on the walls of the Kailasanatha temple in Kanchipuram provide
evidence of phased construction, revealing modifications and additions made by later rulers
that changed the temple’s spatial organization. Similarly, the Brihadeeswarar Temple
inscriptions include records of innovative techniques like using interlocking stone blocks
without mortar, highlighting advanced engineering knowledge.
Furthermore, artistic styles such as iconography, decorative pillars, and relief sculpture are
often described or praised in inscriptions, linking them to particular dynastic periods and
cultural milieus. Through these scriptures, historians can reconstruct the chronological
development of temple architecture, tracing how aesthetic preferences and construction
technology evolved in response to religious and socio-political contexts.

Figure:6 Mandir Design Elements Exploring Garbhagriha, Shikhara & Sacred

Architecture in Hindu Temples
Notable Examples of Temple Wall Inscriptions
Among the numerous ancient Indian temples with remarkable inscriptions, a few stand out
due to their historical significance, artistic merit, and the richness of the information they
preserve. These inscriptions not only illuminate the religious and cultural activities of their
era but also reflect the political narratives and artistic achievements of the dynasties behind
them.

Brihadeeswarar Temple, Thanjavur

Constructed during the reign of Raja Raja Chola I in the early 11th century CE, the
Brihadeeswarar Temple is renowned for its extensive and detailed Tamil inscriptions. These
inscriptions meticulously document royal endowments, temple rituals, and administrative
arrangements. They provide critical data on the Chola dynasty’s sophisticated temple
management system, including lists of priests, dancers, and artisans supported by the temple.
The inscriptions also highlight technological innovations such as the creation of massive
monolithic sculptures and the use of advanced stone masonry techniques. Beyond
administration, these texts celebrate the temple’s devotional aspects, glorifying Lord Shiva
and linking the king’s authority to divine sanction.

Figure:7 Brihadeeswarar Temple: Timeless Majesty | Incredible India

Ellora Caves
The Ellora rock-cut complex, dating from the 6th to 10th centuries CE, hosts inscriptions
carved on cave walls and pillars that exemplify the coexistence of Hinduism, Buddhism, and
Jainism. The inscriptions at Ellora are multilingual, featuring Sanskrit, Prakrit, and others,
and frequently record donors’ names, including kings, merchants, and monastic communities.
These texts reveal the patronage extended by various rulers and provide insights into the
religious pluralism of the period. Artistically, the inscriptions accompany magnificent
sculptural panels and monumental reliefs that embody diverse iconographic traditions, thus
enriching our understanding of syncretic religious art.

Ajanta Caves
The Ajanta Caves, primarily Buddhist monastic complexes from the 2nd century BCE to 480
CE, contain inscriptions that are crucial for reconstructing Buddhist monastic life and
devotional practices. Written mostly in Prakrit and Sanskrit, the inscriptions document gifts,
endowments, and the names of donors, which include traders and local rulers. These wall
scriptures are often found alongside exquisite mural paintings and sculptures representing
Jataka tales and Buddha’s life episodes. The Ajanta inscriptions serve not only as historical
records but as integral components enhancing the caves’ narrative and spiritual ambiance.
Together, these temple site inscriptions provide invaluable windows into ancient India's
religious diversity, social hierarchy, artistic excellence, and political structures. They support
a deeper comprehension of India’s spiritual and cultural history through their enduring
legacies carved in stone.

Figure:8 Ellora and Ajanta Caves

Decipherment and Interpretation of Ancient Scriptures

The process of deciphering and interpreting inscriptions on ancient Indian temple walls
entails a multidisciplinary approach combining paleography, epigraphy, linguistics, and
historical analysis. Scholars begin by meticulously examining the script style, letter forms,
and carving techniques through paleography, the study of ancient writing systems, which
helps date the inscriptions and identify regional script variants such as Brahmi, Grantha, or
early Tamil scripts.
Epigraphy, the science of recording and interpreting inscriptions, is central to understanding
the content and context. Epigraphists document inscription layouts, measure letter spacing,
and compare recurring formulaic expressions to reconstruct fragmented or eroded texts.
Accurate readings require familiarity with historical linguistic changes and script evolution,
as variations often occur across dynasties and locations.
Linguistic studies provide tools to analyze the grammar, vocabulary, and syntax of ancient
languages like Sanskrit, Tamil, and Prakrit. This linguistic expertise enables scholars to
interpret idiomatic expressions, religious terminology, and political references embedded
within the scriptures. Contextual knowledge of contemporary religious, cultural, and political
history further assists in attaching meaning to the inscriptions.
Over time, landmark milestones in decipherment have marked progress, such as James
Prinsep’s 19th-century breakthrough in reading Brahmi script, which unlocked access to
Ashokan edicts and related texts. Similarly, decipherment of Grantha and medieval Tamil
scripts opened new vistas into southern temple inscriptions. These efforts allowed historians
to cross-reference data across sites and eras, enriching the understanding of ancient Indian
civilization.
However, scholars frequently confront significant challenges. Physical damage through
weathering or human activity often obscures portions of the inscriptions. Ambiguities arise
from abbreviations, rare local scripts, or archaic linguistic forms whose meanings are
uncertain. Additionally, overlapping inscriptions or multiple languages written side by side
complicate interpretation. To mitigate these obstacles, modern techniques such as high-
resolution digital imaging, 3D scanning, and spectral analysis have been employed to
enhance legibility without causing further harm.
Thus, the decipherment and interpretation of ancient temple scriptures remain a dynamic field
that integrates traditional scholarship with advancing technological tools, continually refining
our comprehension of India’s rich epigraphic heritage.

Figure:9 Inscriptions of the Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, and Dholavira Civilizations.

Preservation and Conservation of Temple Scriptures
The preservation of ancient temple inscriptions is crucial for safeguarding India’s cultural and
religious heritage. These inscriptions face persistent threats from natural weathering,
environmental pollution, urban expansion, and the impacts of mass tourism. Exposure to rain,
wind, humidity, and biological agents such as lichens and fungi gradually erodes the stone
surfaces, while air pollutants accelerate chemical deterioration. Urbanization and unregulated
tourist footfall contribute to physical abrasion and accidental damage, further endangering
these invaluable texts.
Contemporary conservation efforts employ a multifaceted approach aimed at both protecting
and documenting inscriptions. Documentation involves high-resolution photography,
rubbings, and detailed epigraphic surveys, which create comprehensive records of
inscriptions before they worsen. Increasingly, digital archiving techniques such as 3D
scanning and multispectral imaging enable non-invasive capture of text details, even those
invisible to the naked eye.
Chemical treatments are carefully applied to stabilize stone surfaces and inhibit biological
growth. These include consolidants that strengthen weakened stone and biocides that prevent
moss and algae proliferation. Such interventions are executed under strict guidelines to avoid
altering the inscription’s appearance or causing long-term harm.
Additionally, conservation management includes physical measures such as protective
shelters, restricting visitor access in sensitive areas, and using natural or artificial barriers to
reduce direct contact. Controlled restoration practices prioritize minimal intervention and
reversible techniques to respect the original fabric of the temple.
Collaboration between archaeologists, conservation scientists, historians, and local authorities
is essential to develop sustainable preservation strategies. Raising public awareness and
integrating heritage management with community involvement further aid in protecting these
remarkable windows into India’s ancient spiritual and cultural life.

Cultural and Educational Importance of Temple Scriptures

The scriptures inscribed on ancient Indian temple walls continue to exert profound influence
on modern culture, education, and religious practices, serving as living conduits to India’s
rich spiritual heritage. These inscriptions not only preserve sacred texts but also embody the
philosophical, ethical, and artistic traditions of past civilizations, fostering ongoing cultural
pride and identity.
In contemporary religious practices, temple inscriptions play a vital role by informing rituals,
hymnody, and festival observances that are deeply rooted in ancient scriptures. Devotees and
priests often refer to these classical texts, maintaining continuity in worship and reinforcing
the theological foundations of temple traditions. Such engagement nurtures a dynamic
connection between the past and present, enriching devotional experiences.
Educationally, temple scriptures serve as primary sources for scholars, students, and
researchers of Indology, archaeology, and South Asian history. These epigraphic records
provide authentic materials for linguistic studies, art history, and religious philosophy,
making them invaluable in academic curricula and heritage studies. Many universities and
cultural institutions incorporate studies of these inscriptions to illuminate India’s
civilizational development and literary achievements.
Beyond scholarship, temple inscriptions significantly enhance Indian heritage tourism by
attracting visitors interested in history, architecture, and spirituality. Renowned sites featuring
these scriptures contribute to cultural tourism, supporting local economies and encouraging
preservation efforts. Interpretive guides and exhibitions contextualize the inscriptions,
making ancient knowledge accessible to a broad audience.
Collectively, these scriptures help foster public awareness and pride in India’s ancient past.
They stand as enduring symbols of the harmonious blend of religion, art, and education that
defined temple culture, inspiring contemporary society to value and conserve this
irreplaceable legacy.

Challenges in Research and Future Directions

Research on ancient Indian temple wall inscriptions faces several significant challenges that
hinder comprehensive understanding and preservation of these invaluable texts. One major
issue is the incomplete or eroded nature of many inscriptions due to centuries of exposure to
natural elements such as rain, wind, and biological growth, as well as human-induced damage
like vandalism or repurposing of stones. Fragmentation and weathering often obscure
portions of the text, making accurate decipherment difficult.
Another challenge involves limited interdisciplinary collaboration. Though epigraphy,
archaeology, linguistics, and art history all contribute essential perspectives, coordination
between these fields is sometimes insufficient, leading to fragmented or partial
interpretations. Additionally, the complexity of multiple languages and scripts within a single
site requires specialists with deep expertise, which are often scarce.
To overcome these obstacles, future research directions increasingly emphasize the
integration of advanced technologies:
• 3D scanning: High-resolution three-dimensional imaging can capture minute
inscription details, revealing eroded or hidden marks invisible to the naked eye and
creating precise digital replicas for study and preservation.
• Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning: AI-driven pattern recognition and
natural language processing tools can assist in script identification, automated
transcription, and reconstruction of damaged texts by analyzing vast epigraphic
datasets.
• Multispectral and hyperspectral imaging: These techniques enhance faded inscriptions
by detecting pigment residues or contrasts beyond visible light, aiding in reading
otherwise illegible scripts.
• Interdisciplinary frameworks: Promoting collaborative projects among epigraphists,
historians, material scientists, and digital technologists will foster holistic
interpretations that contextualize inscriptions within broader cultural and historical
landscapes.
Embracing these innovative methodologies promises not only to preserve ancient temple
inscriptions more effectively but also to unlock deeper insights into India’s religious, social,
and political history as recorded on temple walls.
Conclusion
The inscriptions on ancient Indian temple walls stand as multifaceted treasures that intricately
weave together history, art, religion, and culture. Throughout this report, their importance as
enduring records has been emphasized—not only do they preserve sacred scriptures and ritual
instructions, but they also reveal insights into political authority, social structures, and
architectural innovation.
These inscriptions document diverse religious traditions, blending mythology and
philosophy, while showcasing the regional linguistic and scriptural diversity that enriched
ancient Indian civilization. Furthermore, their role in recording donor contributions, civic
amenities, and royal decrees highlights temples as vibrant centers of socio-political life.
The preservation and scholarly interpretation of these wall scriptures are vital for maintaining
India’s ancient heritage and spiritual legacy. They continue to inform modern religious
practice, cultural identity, and academic scholarship, underscoring their timeless significance
as keys to understanding India’s complex past through the eloquent stone narratives left
behind.
References
• Irwin, John. Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings and Their Successors. Clarendon
Press, 1957. A foundational work examining Gupta-period temple inscriptions and
their historical significance.
• Heitzman, James. The Art of South India: The Srinivasan Collection. Asian Art
Museum, 1999. This source explores artistic and epigraphic elements of South Indian
temples, including Pallava and Chola inscriptions.
• Sircar, D.C. Indian Epigraphy. Motilal Banarsidass, 1965. A comprehensive guide to
deciphering and interpreting ancient Indian scripts and inscriptions.
• Harle, J.C. The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent. Penguin Books,
1986. Offers contextual analysis of temple architecture alongside inscriptions across
various dynasties.
• Edelmann, Ferdinand. “Epigraphical Insights into Early Tamil Temple Culture,”
Journal of South Asian Studies, vol. 42, no. 3, 2019. Investigates Tamil inscriptions
and their socio-religious aspects.