Introduction

Air pollution may be defined as any atmospheric condition in which certain substances are present in such

concentrations that they can produce undesirable effects on man and his environment. These substances include

gases, particulate matter, radioactive materials and many others.

 Emission Sources

Classification according to source types

• Natural sources include wind blown dust, pollen, sea salt nuclei, volcanic ash and
gases, smoke and trace gasis from forest fires, and terpenes from forests

• Anthropogenic sources covers a wide spectrum of types - products of combustion –

SOx, Nox, CO and particulate matter such as fly ash.

• Indoor Sources
Sources of Air Pollution
Natural Sources of air pollution
Volcanic Eruption
• Emits gases SO2, H2S,HF, CO2, CH4
and Ash
• Eruption may harm the environment
at a considerable distance and time
Natural sources of air pollution
Forest Fire

• Uncontrolled forest fire emits CO, CO2, hydrocarbons, ash and oxides of nitrogen

• Around 37,059 fires were detected in the year 2018 using MODIS( Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectro
Radiometer) sensor data:
✓ 54.40% of forest area exposed to occasional fires
✓ 7.49% to moderately frequent fires
✓ 2.4% to high incidence levels while
✓ 35.71% of forest not yet been exposed to fires
Natural Sources of Air Pollution

Dust Storm

• Entrains large amount of particulate matter in air

• Visibility reduction during major dust storms is

frequently the cause of severe highway accidents.
It also affects the air travel

• Dust storm at new south Wales and over parts of

Victoria to arrive in Melbourne , Australia on
January,2020
• The air became orange and visibility dropped
significantly. It became almost impossible to drive
 Natural sources of air pollution

Oceans

• Emits aerosols to atmosphere, in the form of salt particles

• The corrosive properties of these aerosols are harmful at coastal locations

• Marine aerosols :

Types of marine aerosols

✓ Sea salt
✓ Sulfate aerosol
✓ Nitrate aerosol
✓ Mineral dust
Corrosion due to marine aerosol
Corrosion due to marine aerosol
Natural sources of air pollution

Pollen grain

• The pollens which cause respiratory distress and allergic reactions in humans
Pollen allergy in Europe

• Over 150 million European citizens suffered from chronic allergies during the year 2016

• By 2025 more than 50% of all Europeans will suffer from allergy, with no age, social or
geographical distinction

Pollen allergy in Bangalore

• From May 2017 to April 2019, a study was conducted on sensitization among patients with allergic
rhinitis and/ or bronchial asthma at an Allergy clinic of a tertiary care center, Bangalore
• A total of 400 patients were included in this study
• The test was performed with 21 aeroallergen extracts which included nine species of pollen, seven
species of fungi and three species of house dust mite
Anthropogenic sources of air pollution:

Industrial Stack Emissions

• Industrial units are associated with manufacturing

products, which involves combustion of different kind
of fuel such as diesel, LPG, Kerosene, wood, coal,
natural gas etc

• The major air pollutant released from stacks/chimneys

of the industrial units is particulate matter followed by
gaseous pollutants like SO2, CO,Nox etc
Anthropogenic sources of air pollution:

Power Plant Chimneys

• In India approximately 70% of power generation is obtained via

coal based thermal power plants

• Large amount of Sox, Nox,CO2,CFCs & suspended particulate

Matter are released into air, which is also responsible for
deterioration of the environment
Anthropogenic sources of air pollution:

Automobiles

• Automotive vehicles emit several pollutants depending upon the type of quality of the fuel comsumed by
them

• Various pollutants are released from vehicular sources include:

• Exhaust emissions – CO2, CO,HC,NOX,PM

• Non exhaust emissions – PM, heavy metals

• Evaporative emissions – HC, VOCs

Anthropogenic sources of air pollution:
Waste Burning

• Open burning of any type of wastes viz Agricultural wastes, garden wastes,
Municipal wastes or residential wastes releases harmful pollutants due to
incomplete combustion.

• Pollutants includes PM, CO,PAH ,SOx, NOx, VOC

Classification of anthropogenic air pollution sources
Estimated global emissions of major air pollutants
Indoor air pollution

• In contrast to outdoor air pollution, the

indoor air pollution is source dominated

• Pollutants generated in the home are not

rapidly dispersed by the wind

• Allergens and irritants can pose

significant residential problems,
especially for sensitive people
Types of Air pollutants
A. Primary Pollutant: The primary pollutants are those that are emitted directly from the sources. Typical
pollutants included under this category are particulate matter such as ash, smoke, dust, fumes, mist and spray
Inorganic gases such as sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, nitric oxide, ammonia, carbon monoxide, and
hydrogen fluoride; olefinic and aromatic hydrocarbons; and radioactive compounds. Five major types – particulate
matter,
B. Secondary pollutants : Secondary pollutants are those that are formed in the atmosphere by chemical
interactions among primary pollutants and normal atmospheric constituents. Pollutants such as sulphur trioxide,
nitrogen dioxide, PAN, ozone, aldehydes, ketones and various sulphate and nitrate salts are included in this
category.
Primary Air pollutant : Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Primary Air pollutant : Sulphur Di oxide (SO2)
Primary Air pollutant : Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)
Primary Air pollutant : Ammonia (NH3)
Primary Air pollutant : Particulate Matter
Aerodynamic Diameter
PM and Human Respiratory System
Relative Size of Particles
Secondary Air Pollutant: Ozone (O3)
Secondary Air Pollutant: Photochemical Smog
Criteria Air Pollutant
Hazardous Air Pollutants
List of Hazardous Air Pollutants
Greenhouse Gases
Greenhouse Gases
Greenhouse Gas Emission Trends
Electrostatic Precipitators
Electrostatic Precipitators

• Electrostatic precipitators are used in many

industries for the high efficiency collection of

particulate matter

• It removes particles from a dust emission by

using electrical energy to charge particles

either positively or negatively

Principle:

The charged particulate particles are attracted to collector plates carrying the opposite charge.

The speed at which the migration of the particles takes place is known as the migration or drift velocity which depends
on the electrical force as well as the drag force developed.
P = dielectric constant for the particles, lies between (1.50 -2.40)
Ec = charging field strength (V/m)
Ep = collecting field strength (V/m)
dp=particle diameter (μm)
Kc = Cunningham correction factor
µg = gas velocity (kg/m-s)
• The drift velocity is used to determine the collection efficiency using the Deutch
Anderson equation:

• The particle size play very important role in the determination of the drift velocity.
Hence the modified Deutch Anderson equation is required for calculation
The Modified Deutch Anderson Eq.
Corona Power and Efficiency
 Collection Efficiency
𝑘 ′ 𝑃𝑐
(− )
𝛈=1 −𝑒 𝑄

For collection efficiency above 98.5% , the

required corona power increases rapidly for
an increase in collection efficiency
Working
• The gas stream is passed between two electrodes, across which is high potential
difference is maintained
• One is a discharging electrode and the other a collecting electrode. Potential as high
as 100 kV are used
• Because of the high potential difference and the discharge system,a powerful ionizing
field is formed
• Ionization creates an active glow zone called the corona or corona glow
• As the particulates in the carrier gas pass through the field , they get charged and
migrate to the oppositely charged collecting electrode, gets deposited and lose their
charge
• They are either removed mechanically by rapping vibration or washing
Important Aspect

• The charged particulate are attracted to collector plates carrying the opposite charge

• The collected particles may be removed from the collector plates as dry material or they
may be washed from the plates with water
• ESPs are capable of collection efficiency greater than 99%
• Design parameter effecting efficiency of ESP:

• Relating to the carrier gas:

✓ Volumetric flow rate
✓ Composition
✓ Temperature
✓ Dew point
Relating to the dust particle

• Concentration, size distribution, resistivity, bulk density , composition,

hygroscopicity, and tendency to agglomerate

• Other factor affecting the efficiency of the ESP are velocity distribution at the
entrance of the precipitator, design of ductwork, collection electrode area, ionization
potential etc.
Types of ESP

• ESP can be either single stage or two stage in design

• In a single stage precipitator, gas ionization and particulate collection are

combined in single step

• In a two stage precipitator , particles are ionized in the first chamber and
collected in the second chamber

• Almost all industrial precipitators are of the single stage design

• Two stage is used for lightly loaded gases and the single stage is for heavily
loaded gas
Applications:
Advantage
Disadvantage
The exhaust rate of the gas being processed is given as 1,000,000 ft3 /min.
The inlet dust concentration in the gas as it enters the ESP is 8 gr/ft3. If the
emission regulations state that the outlet dust concentration must be less
than 0.04 gr/ft3 , how much collection area is required to meet the
regulations? Use the Deutsch-Anderson equation for this calculation and
assume the migration velocity is 0.3 ft/sec.

A = 294,358 ft2
An ESP has a collection area of 750,000 ft2 and filters fly ash from flue gas
flowing at 1,500,000 ft3/min. The migration velocity of the dust is 0.25
ft/sec. Estimate the collection efficiency of the ESP using the Deutsch-
Anderson equation.

Ans: 0.9994
 Gravitational settling cambers

Gravitational settling cambers Gravitational force may be employed to remove particulate

1) Used to remove of coarse particles larger than 50 μm from gas streams,
2) Since most of particles in the gas stream are much smaller sizes than 50 µm, these devices are used as a
primarily prior to passing the gas stream through high efficiency devices.
3) They offer low pressure drop and required simple maintenance.

The efficiency of equipment depends on the residence time of the gas in the settling chamber which is related to
the velocity of the gas flow and the chamber volume. The simplest form of gravity settling camber is shown in fig
Settling chamber design (gravity settling)

Terminal settling velocity A gravity settler is simply a long chamber through which the contaminated gas passes
slowly, allowing time for particles to settle by gravity to the bottom. The important parameter is the terminal or
settling velocity of the particle, Vt the terminal velocity is defined as the constant downward speed that a particle
attains in a direction parallel to the Earth's gravity field.

If the particle is settling in a fluid at its terminal velocity, three forces acting on it: drag, buoyancy, gravity force.The
terminal settling velocity of the particles is found from forces balance as:
Eq.8 is the general equation for the terminal settling velocity where CD is the drag coefficient which is related to the
particles Reynolds number,
The general drag coefficient for spherical particles may be represented by three relationships.
In Stocks law region, laminar flow around the particle

In transition region, ( 0.1< Re < 1000 ) this region between the Stokes law region and turbulent region

In the turbulent region, (Rep< 1000), the drag force becomes almost constant with the value of 0.45,
The drag coefficient can be calculating within the required range of Reynolds number and then substituted in the
Eq(8) to determine the terminal velocity as:

1. Substituting Eqs.9 and 10 into Eq,8, we can calculate the terminal settling velocity in the Stokes region:

2. Substituting Eqs.9 and 11 into Eq.8 we can calculate the terminal settling velocity
In the transition region.

3. Substituting Eqs.9 and 12 into Eq.8 , we can calculate the terminal settling velocity in the turbulent region:
It is difficult to estimate Reynolds number and then to estimate which CD correlation used to calculate terminal
velocity, Vt, because Vt is presented in Reynolds number and CD equations. Therefore the following equation is used
to provide a convenient correlation using K, as

If the size of particles is known, K value can be calculated from Eq.8:

If K < 3.3 then Stokes region applied to estimate Vt, Eq.13.

If 3.3 ≤ K ≤ 43.6 then transition region applied to estimate Vt, Eq.14.
If K value > 43.6 then turbulent region applied to estimate Vt, Eq.15
Three different fly ash particles settled through air, their sizes are 0.4, 40, 400 µm. calculate the terminal
settling velocity for each particle assume the particle are spherical. Data required given below: Tair = 114.5
C, Pair = 1 atm, µair = 0.021 cp, sp.gr. of fly ash = 2.31 Note: Use K-value as a guide for the region.

the gas is air. The density of gas

Gas constant, R = 0.082 atm.m3/kgmol.K ,Tair = 114.5 + 273 = 387.5K , then the air density
K < 3.3 then use stocks region for calculating the settling velocity Eq.13
For the other particle diameter (40 and 400 µm) are illustrated in the following table

Retention time, τ

Additional parameter in design of settling chamber hydrodynamic is retention time, τ, where

Chamber efficiency, η

For most air pollution applications, Stock's law Eq.13 is appropriate substituting in Eq.10 as

With 100% efficiency (η =1), Eq.19 becomes

Eq.20 & 21 is to determine the minimum particle size

dp,mincan removed with 100% efficiency (completely
removed).
Design of settling chamber

To design a settling chamber the following equations seems to be useful as a guide:

 Design a gravity settler to remove all the iron particles from a dust laden stream.
The particles diameter dp = 35 µm. Use the following data: Gas is air at ambient
condition with characteristics:

The gas density can be neglected compare to the particle density

The minimum vertical height required for cleaning purpose (H = 1 m = 3.3 ft)
Fabric Filter
FELT CLOTH
Fabric filter systems

Fabric filter typically consists of a tubular

bag or an envelope, suspended or mounted
in such a manner that the collected particles
fall into a hopper when dislodged from the
fabric. The structure in which the bags hang
is known as a bag house.
• In fabric filters, the open spaces in woven fabrics are usually many times the size of the
individual particle. Because of this, the collection efficiency in the initial stages is rather
poor.
• After a short period of operation, the captured particles from a bridge across the cloth
openings and a particle layer forms which improves the collection efficiency greatly.
• Fabric filters usually provide collection efficiencies exceeding 99% and even efficiencies
of 99.99% are not uncommon. When dust collected on the filter accumulates and
becomes the primary medium for removing the particles.
• Careful maintenance is necessary to prevent a deterioration of efficiency. Periodic
mechanical cleaning is needed and this usually does not remove all of the interstitial
layer so that collection efficiencies remain high throughout the useful life of the filter.
Fabric and fibre Characteristics
• Fabric filters may be classified according to the filtering media: woven fabric or felt cloth
• Woven fabrics have a definite long range repeating pattern and have considerable porosity in the direction of gas
flow. These open spaces must be bridged by impaction and interception to form a true filtering surface. Felted cloth
consists of randomly oriented fibres, compressed into a mat and needled to some loosely woven backing material
to improve mechanical strength. Each one of the randomly oriented fibres acts as target for impaction and
interception.
• This type of filter usually requires substantially lesser cloth area for a given loading than a woven type fabric filter.
Felted filters are more expensive than the woven type filters and they can not be used in high humidity service ,
especially if the particles are hygroscopic because of the high tendency for clogging.
• The choice if fabric fibre is based primarily on operating temperature and the corrosiveness or abrasiveness of the
particles. Cotton is the least expensive fibre and is preferably used in low temperature dust collection service
where no special problems are anticipated. Silicon coated glass fibre cloth is commonly employed in high
temperature applications. The glass fibres must be lubricated to prevent abrasion. All fibres may be applied to the
manufacture of woven and felt type fabrics.
Advantages
1. Very high efficiency
2. Retention of finest particles
3. Collection of particulates in dry form
4. Relatively low pressure drop

Disadvantage
1. Their large size
2. High construction costs
3. Their application only to process temperature generally below 285 0C
Scrubbers
• Scrubbers are most often used as an air pollution control device to remove particulate

matters and chemicals from waste gas streams of stationary point source.

• They are also applied where the slurry is used in other parts of the process or where the

mixture is in a slurry form.

• In some scrubbers are applied so that chemical reaction will be generated within the

scrubbing action.
 Orifice scrubbers
In an orifice scrubber also known as an impaction scrubber, the gas stream flows
over the surface of a pool of scrubbing liquid. As the air impinges on the water
surface, it entrains droplets of the liquid. The waste gas stream then flows
upward and enters an orifice with a narrower opening than the duct. The orifice
brings turbulence in the flow which atomizes the entrained droplets. The
atomized droplets capture the particulate matters in the air stream. Air velocity in
the orifice scrubbers can be controlled by using adjustable orifices.
The main advantage of this type of scrubber is that it does not need the
recirculation pump for the scrubbing liquid, which is the major contributor to
operating costs for most of the scrubbers.
The disadvantage is difficulty in removing the sludge generated during the
scrubbing process. In most scrubber design waste continuously drains from the
bottom. Orifice scrubber consists of a static pool for scrubbing liquids, so waste
generated is removed with a sludge ejector, which operates like a conveyor belt.
 Venturi scrubber
A venturi is a rectangular or circular flow channel which converges to a
narrow throat section and diverges back to its original cross section area. The
narrow throat causes acceleration of the velocity of the gas to a high level in
the venturi section. Fig. shows a vertical downward venturi with throat
injection. A bank of nozzles on either side of throat injects water into high
velocity gas stream. The high velocity gas assist in atomizing the liquid
injected into the gas. The drops collide with dust particles in the gas to form
dust-water agglomerates. The gas-liquid mixture is then directed to a
separation device such as cyclone separator where the droplets carrying the
particulates are separated from the gas stream. Venturi scrubbers offer high
performance collection of fine particles usually smaller than 2 to 3 µm. They
are suitable when the particulate matter is sticky, flammable or highly
corrosive.
 Jet scrubber

In this scrubber, water flow is used in jet ejector to aspirate

dusty air and to provide droplets for collecting particulates.
Jet scrubber is used when it is not economical to used fan for
a dust collection system Also, it can be used as a gas
absorber.
Dynamic scrubber
• This type of scrubber is similar to spray towers, but only difference is
that the dynamic scrubber uses power driven rotor that breaks the
scrubbing liquids into finely dispersed droplets. Dynamic scrubbers
are also known as mechanically –aided scrubbers or disintegrator.
• Liquid is sprayed into the suction of a fan and the wetted impeller and
casing captures dust particles. Most dynamic scrubber systems
humidify the waste air upstream of the rotor to reduce evaporation
and particle deposition in the rotor area. This type of scrubber
efficiently removes fine particulate matter, but the use of rotar in the
system increases the maintenance cost.
• Pretreatment device, such as cyclone often used before dynamic
scrubbers to remove the large particulate matter from the waste air
stream. Collection efficiencies for dynamic scrubbers are similar to
those for cyclonic spray towers.
 SELECTION OF A PARTICULATE COLLECTOR

• The selection of a suitable control device for specific application requires consideration of particle size , its
concentration , desired efficiency of collection, costs, space available, and maintenance factors.
• Below figure gives the efficiencies of various gas cleaning devices for three broad particulate size categories:
coarse, fine and super fine dusts
• This can be used for preliminary selection of devices.
• After preliminary selection, a comparative cost analysis must be conducted including the operating and the
maintenance costs.
• After general selection of equipment is made to meet specific emission limitations, the exact costs are
determined, and the actual operating efficiency and pressure drop are obtained on the installed system.
 Abatement of gaseous pollutants
• Gaseous pollutants may be removed from the effluent stream by trapping, by chemical change, or by a change in the
process that produces them.
• The wet scrubbers can remove pollutants by dissolving them in the scrubber solution. SO2 and NO2 in power plant off-
gases are often controlled in this way.
• Packed scrubbers , spray towers packed with glass platelets or glass frit--carry out such solution processes more
efficiently than ordinary wet scrubbers; an example is the removal of fluoride from aluminum smelter exhaust gases.
Adsorption, or chemisorption, is the removal of organic compounds with an adsorbent like activated charcoal.
Incineration or flaring, is used when an organic pollutant can be oxidized to CO2 and water, or in oxidizing H2S to SO2.
Catalytic combustion is a variant of incineration in which the reaction is facilitated energetically and carried out at a
lower temperature by surface catalysis.
Control of Sulfur Dioxide
• Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is ubiquitous and a serious pollution hazard. Its largest single source in the United States, and
probably in the industrialized world, is generation of electricity by burning oil or coal, both of which contain sulfur.
• Increasingly strict standards for control have prompted the development of a number of options and techniques for
reducing SO2 emissions. Among these options are
• Change to low-sulfur fuel. Natural gas is exceedingly low in sulfur, while oil burned for industrial heat and electric
power generation contains between 0.5 % and 3 % sulfur; coal, between 0.3 % and 4%. Low-sulfur fuel, however, is
expensive and the supply is uncertain.
• Desulfurization. Sulfur may be removed from heavy industrial oil by a number of chemical methods similar to those
used to lower the H2S content of crude oil. In coal, sulfur may be either inorganically bound, as pyrite (FeS2), or
organically bound. Pyrite can be removed by pulverizing the coal and washing with a detergent solution. Organically
bound sulfur can be removed by washing with concentrated acid. Preferred methods are coal gasification, which
produces pipeline-quality gas, or solvent extraction, which produces low-sulfur liquid fuel.
• Tall stacks: Although a tall stack does reduce ground-level concentration of gaseous pollutants, it is not an
appropriate pollution control measure.

• Flue gas desulfurization: The off-gases from combustion or other SO2- producing processes are called flue
gases. SO2 may be cleaned from flue gas by chemical processes. The reaction of SO2 to form sulfuric acid or
other sulfates is the most frequently used flue-gas desulfurization method. It has two limitations: The flue gas
must be cleaned of particulate matter before entering an acid producing plant, and acid formation is
energetically favorable only for a fairly concentrated gas stream (about 3%--30,000 ppm--SO2). The reactions
for acid formation are

SO2 + 1/202 = SO3

SO 3 + H20 = H2SO4
• A double-contact acid plant can produce industrial-grade 98% sulfuric acid. The nonferrous smelting and refining
industry has made the most use of this control method. Analogous reactions can be carried out to produce
(NH4)2SO4, a fertilizer, and gypsum, CaSO4.
• The SO2 in flue gas from fossil fuel combustion is too dilute to permit trapping as acid or commercial fertilizer or
gypsum. Coal combustion off-gases are also too dirty.
• A typical method is single-alkali scrubbing, for which the reactions are

SO 2 + Na2SO3 + H20 = 2NaHSO3

2NaHSO3 = Na2SO3 + H20 + SO2
• The concentrated SO2 that is recovered from this process can be used industrially in pulp and paper manufacture
and in sulfuric acid manufacture.

• Figure is a diagram for single alkali scrubbing. SO2 may also be removed from flue gas by dissolution in an
aqueous solution of sodium citrate by the reaction
• SO2(g) + H20(I) = HSO3- + H

• Citrate does not itself enter into the reaction but buffers the solution at about pH 4.5. The citrate buffer is readily
regenerated. Removal efficiency of the citrate process is between 80% and 99%mmuch better than the 75%
achievable by alkali scrubbing.
Control of Nitrogen Oxides

• Wet scrubbers absorb NO2 as well as SO2, but are usually not installed primarily for
NO2 control. An effective method for controlling nitrogen oxides, often used on
fossil fuel burning power plants, is off-stoichiometric burning.
• This method controls NO2 formation by limiting the amount of air (or oxygen) in
the combustion process to just a bit more than is needed to burn the hydrocarbon
fuel in question.
• For example, the reaction for burning natural gas,
CH4 + 02 --> 2H2 +CO2

• competes favorably with the high-temperature combination of nitrogen in the air

with oxygen in the air to form NO (eventually oxidized to NO2):
N2 + 02 -- 2NO
• The stoichiometric ratio of oxygen needed in natural gas combustion is 32 g of
02:16 g of CH 4
• A slight excess of oxygen in the combustion air will cause virtually all of the
oxygen to combine with fuel rather than with nitrogen' In practice, off-
stoichiometric combustion is achieved by adjusting the air flow to the combustion
chamber until any visible plume disappears.
 Control of Volatile Organic Compounds and Odors

❑ Volatile organic compounds and odors are controlled by thorough oxidation either incineration or catalytic
combustion since they are only slightly soluble in aqueous scrubbing media.

❑ Mobile sources pose special pollution control problems, and one, the automobile, has received particular
attention. Pollution control for other mobile sources, such as light-duty trucks, heavy trucks, and diesel engine
vehicles, requires controls similar to those for automobile emissions. The important pollution control points in
an automobile and are
• Evaporation of hydrocarbons (HC) from the fuel tank
• Evaporation of HC from the carburetor
• Emission of unburned gasoline and partly oxidized HC from the crankcase
• CO, HC, and NO/NO2 from the exhaust