TAM FINALS Ravinder, S.

(2019) expressed then that reading being a process

that involves recognizing words, it leads to the development of
CHAPTER 3: THE TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT IN READING comprehension.
The world now is beset with the massive advancement of science, On Reading Comprehension
technology, and communication. This fact has engendered various
opportunities in all sectors of society. Obviously, the utilization of After being exposed to the ideas of reading from the different
technologies, transactions may they be personal or work-related authorities, comprehension, the essence of reading is hereby
have become more facilitative compared to the times when people defined and explained by the other set of experts:
generally managed their activities manually/personally.
Collaborations worldwide have been made accessible. Virtual Snow, C. (2010) expressed that comprehension is the process of
cross-cultural interactions created a wider sphere of unity in the simultaneously constructing and extracting meaning through
midst of diversity. In other words, as information technology interaction and engagement with print. The success of a
becomes ubiquitous, engagements become fluid. As a result, many comprehension event depends on a good match of reader skills,
people tend to be dependent on these tools. text difficulty, and task definition. Moreover, comprehension
according to the Kto12 Reader Reading Instructional Resources is
This scenario despite its humungous advantages, has undeniably an intentional, active, interactive process that occurs before,
affected other facets of a person's integral life skill. Many people during, and after a person reads a particular piece of writing.
young and adults generally seem to simply take in the needed
information from the electronic devices without analyzing and Denchant (1991) states that reading comprehension refers to
evaluating information. The latter is a very important reading skill understanding what is read, so readers must be able to cognitively
that needs to be developed and enhanced in academic institutions. process the words by drawing meaning from their own experience
Since this reality has somehow sipped through the system of a and knowledge to understand the author's message.
technology-driven society, this has become the challenge of
Anderson (1994) expressed that comprehension is activating or
teachers especially prospective teachers like you. Taking a
constructing a schema that provides a coherent explanation of
proactive response to this nagging challenge, academic institutions
objects and events mentioned in the discourse.
can revitalize the value of reading, it being a life skill.
Abac, E et al. (2009) stated that reading comprehension is an
This Chapter of the book, therefore, encompasses the
active interchange of ideas and expression of thought. Being a life
essentialities of reading for various purposes. In the academe, it is
skill, reading involves creative and critical thinking skills of events
given premium as this serves as a tool in understanding and
through which the intended message and values are brought forth
actualizing 21 century skills. As a macro skill, reading which aims
to reality.
towards the development of critical and creative thinking skills is
primarily inculcated in the academic environment. Since this Conscious of the ultimate purpose of reading which is
involves a complex process, you who are prospective teachers comprehension and its value for successful functioning in our
need to be equipped with fundamental preparations which can society, Kendou, P (2015), noted that it is very essential that you
address the varying needs of students. Basic preparations among will have clearer and richer ideas about this macro skill.
others include the research-based learning plan, differentiated
learning tasks as well as assessment measurements. Understandably, you have been familiar with this life skill from the
time you started school. More so as prospective teachers of
LESSON 1: THE VALUE OF READING English where this skill has been built in as part of your academic
pursuit, you are expected to be adept with this real-life skill.
EXPOSE
On Purposes of Reading
Reading being a life skill has been inculcated in the school system
from the time the child enters school. To recapture how this skill is These aforementioned ideas of reading lead you to realize its value
given premium in teaching and learning, authorities have shared to any student's academic undertaking. According to Hammer
their varied but parallel ideas. (2009), reasons for reading include students career, language
acquisition, students' vocabulary knowledge. modeling English
On Reading:
writing, introducing topics, stimulating discussion.
Stanley, (2007). Reading is a process of reconstructing meaning
In addition, Charlton, E. (2019) expressed that reading could help
from written text. It is a complex skill requiring the coordination of
you live longer, you may absorb more from a physical book; you
interrelated sources of information.
may develop the skills for the future, it builds your vocabulary and it
Reading is defined as a cognitive process that involves decoding wards off brain deterioration.
symbols to arrive at meaning. (www.teachreading.info2013)
Seeing the value of reading as a tool subject, students need to
Denchant (1991) as cited by Macceca (2007), reading is a visual conscientiously learn reading and meaningfully assimilate value.
process that begins with one's ability to use one's vision to interpret Reading has to be well-taught to the students and teaching
graphic symbols. strategies need to be judiciously selected. With this in mind, as
prospective teachers, you need to be reminded of the important
Short, K and Harste, J,1996 added that it is an active process of principles in teaching reading so that academic engagement
constructing meanings of words. It is likewise a number of becomes relevant and sustainable.
interactive processes between the reader and the text, in which
readers use their knowledge to build, create, and construct LESSON 2: ONBOARDING TO READING INSTRUCTION
meaning. (https://www.tesol.org)
LAUNCH
Sheridan, E. (1991). The traditional skills model view of reading is
On Principles of Teaching Reading
a bottom-up or data-driven processing model. In this view of
reading, letters are perceived in a left to right sequence until a Any academic undertaking like reading instruction, must be
word is perceived as a whole; meaning is obtained and related to anchored on and measured against certain principles. The
other words in the sentence, thus activating the dominant schema following authorities share their thoughts about these:
and its particular concepts.
Graves, M, et al.(2007) offers the following instructional principles Cox, J. (2017) noted that in order for all of the students to be
in teaching reading: 1) building positive attitudes and perspectives; confident readers, teachers can provide students with a few
2) provide a balanced instructional framework; provide consistent effective teaching strategies for reading like utilizing graphic
instructional structure and use time effectively: 3) provide text that organizers; utilizing technology: activating prior knowledge. using a
students can read successfully; 4) provide time for word study; 5) word wall, and student choice.
encourage independent reading, 6) coordinate intervention
instruction and classroom instruction. Barber, S. (2016) stated that students need good reading skills not
just in English but in all classes. She shared some ways you can
Voinalovych, L. (1999) added the following principles of teaching help them develop those skills. These strategies help ensure that
reading: 1) encourage students to read as often and as much as texts appeal to the senses, teachers guide students in setting
possible. The more students read, the better; 2) students need to reading goals, vary text length; offer opportunities for reading
be engaged with what they are reading: 3) encourage students to choice then assess content and skill.
respond to the content of a text and explore their feelings about it,
not just concentrate on its construction; 4) prediction is a major Duke and Pearson (2002) recommend teachers for the ways
factor in reading. When we read texts in our language, we comprehension is embedded into daily literacy lessons. In his
frequently have a good idea of the content before we actually start article, a supportive classroom context to promote comprehension
reading: 5) match the task to the topic when using intensive must be developed. According to him, teachers need to ensure
reading texts, and good teachers exploit reading texts to the full. their students read engaging texts for significant amounts of time;
select texts for students which support authentic learning (i.e.
Putting in your consciousness the essence of these identified interest-based or topic bused texts); provide a range of texts
principles in teaching reading, it is likewise important for you to be (multimodal, print-based, images, animations, graphic
familiar with the theories of teaching reading as embedded in the representations, video, audio, diagrams/charts,
successful instructional delivery. newspapers/magazines, fiction, non-fiction) for students to read in
various genres (i.e. texts on different topics or different text types
Shahin, V. (2000) posits that just like teaching methodology, about the same topic); identify and discuss vocabulary from rich
reading theories (Traditional View, Cognitive View, and the texts with their students; provide time for students to talk to each
Metacognitive View) have had their shifts and transitions. Starting other about the texts they read and have listened to and provide
from the traditional view which focused on the printed form of a text time for students to write and reflect on their reading.
and moving to the cognitive view that enhanced the role of
background knowledge in addition to what appeared on the printed A lot of people think that reading as a tool subject is to learn
page, they ultimately culminated in the metacognitive view which is without knowing ity complexity, Remember that the ultimate goal
now in vogue. It is based on the control and manipulation that a on and apply comprehension. Fasy it might seem but it bears
reader can have on the act of comprehending a text. challenges in the process of letting the studentsanunderstand,
analyze or even evaluate reading materials. Besedring knowledge
Nunan, (2001) said that schema theory is based on the notion the and experience of teaching reading, the following
past experiences lead to the creation of mental frameworks that strategies/activities are found effective. Always remember that
help us make sense of new experiences. As noted, in activating making students learn and enjoy as they understand and apply the
and building the schemata the following are emphasized: Pre- reading skills to real life is an art. Therefore, it needs to be carefully
Reading (Predicting, Semantic Reconciled Reading); During planned and meaningfully facilitated.
Reading (Skimming, Scanning, Note-taking Guess, Analyze
Vocabulary) and Post-Reading (Questions, Mind-Mapping and 1) Be conscious of the skills to be developed among the students.
Summarizing). These are considered life skills, hence they should be given
premium in the teaching-learning engagement.
Anderson (1994) presents research showing that recall of
information in a ten is affected by the reader's schemata and a. Noting Details. Understanding the details will help you
explains that “a reader comprehends inmessage when he is able to understand the selection better. (Villamin, et al.) Furthermore,
bring to mind a scherna that gives account of the object, and details guide the readers to understand parts of the whole. Abao
events described in the message.” (2009)
The ones mentioned are just a few exemplars of the theories of b. Following Directions. This skill is putting adherence to what
teaching reading. To further enrich your understanding and is/are set for order and discipline. There are myriads of situations
exposure to these topics you che further access these through the in life where people can't just do things on their own, instead, they
wide array of information from different sources. must follow directions. In actual life experiences, people and
events turn out better if there is faithful adherence to this very
On the Teaching of Reading important skill. Warman, R (1992) said that the motivation of all
communication is the giving and following of instructions/directions.
With the aim to improve students comprehension and enable them
to effectively and responsibly function in society, teaching c. Sequencing Events. It is the arrangement or proper
strategies are highly paramount as these facilitate meaningful organization of things and events. If responsibilities are done in
learning. They have to be judiciously selected considering the proper sequence, things and people become organized and
students demographic profile to ensure that the comprehension systematic. In reading this is very essential as this guides the
skills considered as life skills will be well-assimilated so tha reader to organize and come up with a general understanding of
students can eventually apply them in a real-life situation. the written text or reading material.
The following authorities share views and ideas on strategies in the d. Distinguishing Fact from Opinion. A fact is an event situation
teaching of reading that ensure that these will help students that is proven and tested based on data while an opinion is a
develop their critical and creative thinking skills. personal belief about a person/event or a situation that still needs
to be proven. This skill guides the reader to ensure that as ideas
According to MacEwan, E (2007) to improve student's reading
are presented either through facts or opinions, he/she can weigh
comprehension, teachers should introduce the seven cognitive
situations before a decision is arrived at.
strategies of effective readers like Activating: Inferring, Monitoring-
Clarifying; Questioning; Searching-Selecting and Summarizing. e. Determining Cause and Effect Relationship. This denotes
that every action happens based on a cause and the result of the
action is the effect. Being so, words and actions need to be well-
thought of to engender peace and prosperity. As one reads, he/she structured as a series of statements with which the students can
needs to be responsible in his/her actions/reactions based on the choose to agree or disagree. Anticipation guides stimulate students
given premise/s. interest in a topic and set a purpose for reading. (Reading Rockets)
f. Predicting Outcomes. It is to foretell what future actions lie 3.2. During Reading. These are the reading strategies and
ahead based on the present situation. It is therefore important to activities during the reading proper.
learn to prepare for future events so as not to be caught in an
adverse situation. This is really given value in reading as one is led 3.2.1. Page Encounter. After reading each page of the reading
to well-thought-of real-life plans. material, students in pairs discuss/share an experience in pairs
about the part of the material read, After, they proceed reading and
g. Getting the Main Idea. It is identifying the gist of the text, thuy will do the same.
giving focus to the essentials. This skill is indeed useful as people
give credit to brevity and conciseness of ideas hased on the 3.2.2 Reading Interface. This strategy can be done when students
supporting ideas of the matter. read the material alternately in pairs or two big groups. Oral
reading proficiency is given importance in this activity. In the
h. Skimming and Scanning. These skills involve the act of process, they can take turns in asking questions.
reading the needs to be done fast to get the intended meaning of
the selection within a short period of time. 3.2.3. Visualizing Highlights. When the teacher/student reads the
selection, the other students illustrate the important events on
 Skimming is the act of quick reading from the start of the paper.
selection until the end in order to get its intended meaning.
This is actually a skill on getting the main idea, just simply 3.3. Post Reading. This stage of reading activity is done after a
done fast. story/selection is read. Since reading is basically comprehension,
 Scanning is the act of quick reading which is used to look for the following activities may help assess how much the students
specific information and that the eyes need to move quickly to understand the reading material.
the page seeking for specific answers.
3.3.1. Dimensional Questions. After reading and discussing the
 These roading skills are noted as life skills because they are
story and the realization of its competencies, the teacher assesses
not just applicable in written texts/situations but in real life as
how much the students have learned. It follows the following
well. It is in this context that as you teach, choose a reading
dimensions: literal (recognition of facts); inferential (reasons why
material that can be richly infused by these skills. It takes a
events happen), critical evaluation (justifying opinions and forming
skillful teacher to translate a reading skill to reality through
judgment), and integration (infusion of values called for by the story
meaningful learning experiences.
and its competencies).
2) Know your students. Your umple knowledge on the demographic
3.3.2. Graphic Organizers. These are illustrations that the
profile of your students will give you an idea on the kind of reading
students can use to capture their understanding of the
material to offer based on the set of competencies, learning
story/competencies. Thereafter, they explain the graphic organizer
activities, and scaffolds (differentiated if possible) and its
they have created.
attainability within a given time frame.
4.) Creative Writing. This activity elicits the students' holistic
3) Consider the following major stages as well as sample activities
understanding of the selection thru their individual creative written
in the teaching methodology.
activity. This may come in a form of scripts, short stories,
3.1. Pre-Reading. This is a lead-in stage that allows the readers to commentaries, and others. Top of Form
activate their prior knowledge and create a schema based on the
LESSON 3: THE ASSESSMENT OF READING PERFORMANCE
upcoming selection to be taken up. The following are the sample
suggested activities: Assessment plays a critical role in teaching and learning. These
are measures to ascertain how and how much of the instructional
3.1.1 Critical Vocabulary. These are the unfamiliar words found in
delivery is carried out. Simply take note that assessment is
the selection/reading material. To facilitate understanding of the
basically the alignment of the objectives/outcome to the activities
material, unlock them operationally using any of the following
being carried out. Well-thought-of learning outcomes if not
clues:
appraised within or after the teaching and learning engagement,
 Context Clues. These are cues that help the students become ineffective. Is teaching reading, there are assessment
understand the meaning of unfamiliar words. They are used in activities that are predominantly adopted towards the attainment of
meaningful situations as related to the text. They come in the comprehension skills.
form of definition, explanation, synonym, antonyms, and
EXPOSE
appositive.
 Picture Clues. Images representing unfamiliar words can be On the Concept of Assessment
shown to give an idea of what the word means.
 Configuration Clues. These are figures represented by short Assessment in reading instruction allows the students to check
and long boxes that correspond to the size of the letters in the their own understanding and monitor progress in the attainment of
given word. learning objectives and the development of reading comprehension
skills Likewise, this prompts you, prospective teachers that every
3.1.2. Directed Reading Activity. It is a comprehension strategy academic engagement is within the realms of the intended learning
that guides students in asking questions about a text, making outcomes. This is the reason why many consider this as a critical
predictions, and then reading to confirm or refute their predictions. part of teaching-learning because as teachers, you need to ensure
The DRTA process encourages students to be active and that the assessment measures/activities capture what you intend
thoughtful readers, enhancing their comprehension. (Reading them to demonstrate within a time frame. More valuable
Rockets) ideas/concepts, as well as purposes, are herein shared by
renowned authorities and from research findings.
3.1.3. Anticipation Guide. It is a comprehension strategy that is
used to activate students' prior knowledge and build curiosity about Allen (2004) claims that assessment involves the use of empirical
a new topic. Before reading, students listen to or read several data on student learning to refine peagrares and improve student
statements. about key concepts presented in the text, they're often learning. Moreover, Hubu and Fred (2000) said that assessment is
the process of gathering and discussing information from multiple for you to reflect on your knowledge, skills, and attitude in teaching
and diverse sources to develop a deep understanding of what the said subject whether to improve or enhance teaching practices.
student know, understand, and can do with theit knowledge as a Through the rigorous analysis of instruction, you can clearly look
result of their educational experiences. The process culminates into the challenges and opportunities to support students' learning
when assessment results arz used to improve subsequent in a much more relevant and meaningful way.
learning.
On Types of Reading Assessment
Erwin (1991) expressed that assessment is the systematic basis
for making inferences about the learning and development of As prospective teachers, it is of great value that apart from
students. It is the process of defining, selecting, designing, understanding the concepts and purposes of assessment in
collecting, analyzing, interpreting, and using the information to reading, you need to be further exposed on the types of reading
increase students' learning and development. assessment as well. Herewith are some samples:

Palomba and Banta (1999) posil that assessment is the systematic In Teach Thought, it is noted that the sis types of assessment help
collection, review, and use of information about educational measure the understanding of whatever is the material at hand.
programs undertaken for the purpose of improving student learning These are: Diagnostic as pre-Assessment whereby students'
and development. Top of Form strengths, weaknesses, knowledge, and skills are being assessed.
Next is formative assessment where students performance is
On Purposes of Assessment in Reading monitored and checked during instruction, and usually occurs
regularly throughout the instruction process. Another type of
Assessments are essential tools teachers of reading teachers as assessment is the summative assessment. This measures
they navigate reading instruction. While overarching content and students' achievement at the end of instruction. The norm-
competencies can be taught to a group of children at the same referenced assessment is the comparison of students'
time, you need to look into the varying needs of students so that performance against other students in a much larger group. The
they can be appropriately addressed. One basic purpose of criterion-referenced assessment measures a student's
assessment in reading whether formal or informal is primarily to performance against a goal, specific objective, or standard. Lastly,
ascertain if the objectives/outcomes set for the day's lesson are according to Teach Thought, interim or benchmark assessment
successfully carried out. Moreover, it serves to diagnose their is done to evaluate a student's performance at periodic intervals,
strengths and weaknesses especially in the development as well frequently at the end of a grading period. A benchmark assessment
as the enrichment of the reading comprehension skills. The is a type of interim assessment so it could be useful for
following authorities as well as from research findings share their communicating important facts and data to stakeholders for future
ideas as well on the purposes of assessment. actions.
According to Ghaicha, (2016) Assessment results, along with other In the teaching of reading, the primary focus of assessment is on
measurement data (such as those obtained through periodic the development of the reading skills that eventually guide the
surveys), are valuable tools for educational institutions. They assist students to become critical and creative thinkers. Word recognition
in evaluating the effectiveness of institutional practices by tracking for early graders and critical vocabulary development for the
the functioning of different components of the assessment system. advanced graders are given importance as well as these obviously
lead to the understanding of the written texts. Once these
Bachman (2004) stressed that assessment is the process by which
assumptions are well-placed, teaching and learning activities in
a quantified value, usually numerical, is assigned to the attributes
reading become purposeful and effective.
or dimensions related to students' performance while measuring
ability or aptitude in such a way that the student's quality of Another tone of reading assessment is the Informal Reading
performance is preserved. Inventory (IRIL This is an assessment tool that serves to diagnose,
develop and renmediate phonological knowledge, vocabulary as
Gallagher (1998) says that measurement/assessment is the
well as reading skills te need to be Birther developed reinforced by
process of quantifying the degree to which someone or something
the students. It contains graduated activities by which students
possesses a characteristic. quality, or feature. It can be done by
from the different grade levels can achieve according 10 the level
counting how many correct responses a student gives in relation to
of difficulty. According to Scott, (2021) IRI is a primary assessment
the total, or by assigning a percentage, or assigning a student a
tool for teachers to create lesson plans for individual students in
numerical score.
order to evaluate language usage and determine what students
Marion, R. (2007) noted that assessment crestes dynamic have not been exposed to in the classroom at the beginning of the
purposes in instruction. According to him, assessinent drives school year.
instruction in the sense that informs instructors what shadents
Obviously, these reading assessment tools are highly essential in
know and do not know at the oubiet as set in the direction of a
ensuring that the activities provided are primarily geared towards
course. Assesament drives Icarming. This means that assessment
the attainment of the reading skills as these students are guided
determines what and how students learn depending on how they
that these skills are not only for academic purposes but for the
think they will be assessed. He further expressed that assessment
actualization of real-life experiences.
informs students of their progress as this provides the students
feedback so they become aware of their strengths and challenges In addition to the aforementioned, the following reading
with respect to course learning outcomes. Apart from this, assessment activities are herein offered:
according to him, assessment informs teaching. It is explained that
student accomplishments offer instructors insights on the A. Phonological Awareness
effectiveness of their teaching strategies.
It is a basic reading skill that focuses on the understanding that
The aforementioned denotes thar students' performance is then a spoken words comprise the individual sounds of the spoken
manifestation of their degree of attainment of the desired learning language. This means to say that if sounds of individual letters art
outcomes given at the onset of the lesson. Once students are appropriately and correctly produced, ideas become
made aware on the value and purposes of assessing their comprehensible. If this is consciously practiced, there is an ease of
comprehension skills, especially on the attainment of critical, utterances. In the English language on which reading instruction is
creative thinking skills as well as emotional management, they too, anchored, clear production of sounds, clarity of the voice, and
become conscious of how well they can manage their own correct mouth formation are the requisites to the comprehensibility
learning. In the teaching of reading, this is likewise a good avenue of spoken words.
Phonemic awareness performance (Put Reading First, 1998), is a highlight of the issue is and, in a race, they find an appropriate
strong predictor of long-term reading and spelling success. term from the thesaarus to describe it. The first one to offer
Blachman (2000) added that students with strong phonological the most appropriate term is considered a winner.
awareness are likely to become good readers, bur students with  Story Transformation. Undeniably children's books contain
weak phonological skills will likely become poor readers. It is simple words that fit in to the ability of the children to
estimated that the vast majority-more than 90 percent of students understand. Here, the students are instructed to transform the
with significant reading problems have a core deficit in their ability children's story that may be appropriate for adult reading
to process phonological information (Blachman. 1995) Gillon using the same plo plot. Obviously, terms here vary between
(2004) posited that phonemic awareness performance can predict children's and adults understanding.
literacy performance more accurately than variables such as
intelligence, vocabulary knowledge, and socioeconomic status. B. Comprehension

Having identified the value of phonemic awareness towards Comprehension is the understanding and interpretation of what is
reading performance, it is therefore your strategy that matters to read. To be able to accurately understand written material, children
have this carried out in class activities. need to be able to (1) decode what they read; (2) make
connections between what they read and what they already know;
The following are some practical activities that help develop and and (3) think deeply about what they have read. (Reading Rockets)
reinforce phonemic awareness and are herein suggested:
According to Tierney (1982) comprehension or extracting meaning
1. Exercising the Vocal Cords. You guide the students to open from what you read is the ultimate goal of reading. The process of
their mouth inhale, exhale, and thrust a vibrating sound out coming comprehension is both interactive and strategic. Rather than
from the diaphragm. This can be done in 3-5 minutes. passively reading text, readers must analyze it, internalize it and
make it their own. To read with comprehension, developing readers
2. Letter-Word Recognition and Articulation. You draw a paper must be able to read with some proficiency and then receive
with an identified letter on it. As you present the drawn letter to the explicit instruction in reading comprehension strategies.
students, you call them at random and let them name anything that
starts with the letter presented. As the student says the word, you This being the ultimate aim of reading, comprehension skills need
pay particular attention to the proper articulation of the word. Then to be deep-seated in the academic experiences of the students.
the activity continues for 5 minutes.
Here are some reading assessment activities that can help
3. Name Identification. You call on any student to approach a reinforce the students reading comprehension skills:
classmate whom he/she considers exciting to know about. The
student uners the name of his/her classmate with correct 1. Caricature Analysis. The students interpret the meaning of the
articulation and shares what he she is excited about him/her. caricature while relating its essence to their own experiences.

4. Spoken Expressions. You provide the students with varied 2. Interpreting Graphs. Look for any relevant data presented in
activities that consciously focus on the correct production of graphs. Then interpret objectively the facts and provide proactive
sounds of letters and words. Examples of these are individual and measures for a way forward.
team presentations of song rendition, role play, dialogue, and
3. Problern-Solution Rote. In a pair, the first student poses a
others.
problem; the other one offers a relevant solution. After, this is done
5. Building Acronym. Students use their family names or most in vice-versa. They may present this to the class if time permits.
cherished virtue as an acronym. Then they read their output with
4. Symbol Translation. You present the flags of the different
well-articulated word utterances.
countries in the world. Students are given the freedom to choose
6. Vocabulary Development. This refers to the words that people the flag that attracts them or that signifies meaning to them. They
know and appropriately use in certain conditions. This is a process are called individually to explain or give interpretation to the
of acquiring words. The choice of words matters a lot in the way symbols of the chosen flag. To check the veracity of the
ideas are expressed. It builds or destroys meaning as well as interpretation, students are instructed to refer to the official source
relationships. This, therefore, necessitates a well-thought-of choice of information.
of words.
5. News Item Analysis. Students read news articles from different
Seeing the value of vocabulary development to reading, a basic sources: print or non-print. They pick one issue that interests them
requisite towards its acquisition is to read every day. Rich exposure and they identify the cause (what might have caused the issue)
to written materials is a keystone to curb vocabulary deficiencies. and the effect (probable result).

Here are some activities on vocabulary development that can be C. Fluency

employed in a reading class:
This is a reading skill that gives credence to the smooth transition
 Word Rally. A big idea is presented on the board/screen. The of words thus creating a comprehensible idea. With this in mind,
students are called to write/type other words similar to the one practice in oral communication is very essential.
presented. This can be done in 2-3 minutes. After, any student
Fluency is defined as the ability to read with speed, accuracy, and
is identified to use any of the words in meaningful contexts.
proper expression. To understand what they read, children must be
 Emoji Interpretation. A newspaper caricature or an emoji is
able to read fluently whether they are reading aloud or silently.
presented and students describe it by choosing the
When reading aloud, fluent readers read in phrases and add
appropriate word. You provide a number of terms to serve as
intonation appropriately. Their reading is smooth and has
a basis for the student's choice. After the identification of the
expression. (Reading Rockets)
right term, any student can use it in meaningful contexts.
 Story Development. You present a topic like globalization, Nieporent (2012) noted that reading fluency is the ability to read
collaboration, environmental issues, etc. Students write terms accurately, smoothly, and with expression. Fluency is important
to describe any of the topics given. Use the terms in forming because it bridges word recognition and comprehension. It allows
into a short story, an ad, a commentary, etc. students time to focus on what the text is saying. They can make
 Word Hunt. Any student presents the assigned latest issue of connections berwoen what they are reading and their own
the country/local community. Other students guess what the background knowledge.
From the Big Ideas in Beginning Reading, fluency (automaticity) is communication skills, is done in stages or procedural steps. For
reading words with no noticeable cognitive or mental effort. It is instance, a language learner has to choose a topic and considers
having mastered word recognition skills to the point of some factors in doing so. whether the communication task is
overlearning. Fundamental skills are so "automatic" that they do listening, speaking, reading or writing. The thought processes
not require conscious attention. involved in these steps form part of the language learning
experience.
The following are suggested activities that can help develop or
reinforce students' fluency skills. c. Learning Style. Our understanding of Gardner's Multiple
Intelligences theory would tell us that students differ in the way
1. The Last Word is Mine. The students are grouped into 4. Then they learn. Some may learn better when engaged in receptive
you present a pressing issue or a title of a story to each group communication activities like listening and reading, while others
alternately In a span of 10 seconds, each student in the group says learn better when engaged in production activities like speaking
something about the topic/story. After 10 seconds the student and writing. Some may be quiet in the discussion but are
stops. His/her last word becomes the first word of the next passionately expressive when asked to write.
student/speaker. This process. continues until the last student of
the group is able to say something and close the topic/story. d. Writing as a skill. It has to be taught for its being. Writing as a
skill cannot be acquired or mastered overnight.
2. Free Talk. Given a photo image of their interest, the students
are tasked to say something about it without obstruction. You may On a similar note, Graham, MacArthur, and Fitzgerald (2007) have
note the students' correctness and miscues along the way. offered four principles in writing instruction. They reminded us that
"writing is essential." and as such, we are challenged to "do a
3. Compensatory Strategies. These are mechanisms that aid better job in teaching it: we need to know "what skilled writing looks
students in making their oral communication comprehensible like" and must have a collection of "effective writing procedures for
without distracting meaning. These are cues that are consciously teaching writing."
employed but not very noticeable to the receiver. The use of
common expressions like actually, let me see, ahm; okay, etc; and a. The essence of writing. Writing, according to Graham et al.
certain gestures convey a message that the speaker is still looking (2007), is an effective and versatile means of communication. It
for the right terms. If done unnoticeably this is fine. Much better still allows us to persuade our audience or explain to them ideas as
if the students/speakers are provided with rich opportunities to simple as cooking your favorite food or following a diet regimen. It
communicate orally to attain smoothness of delivery of idess. also offers a venue for self-expression, whether in a creative or
critical form of writing. As language teachers, it is one of the most
4. Mini-Debate. The class is divided into 2 groups. A debatable commonly used tools for assessing language proficiency and
proposition is presented. You assign group 1 to present the academic performance. As they aptly said: "The power of writing
affirmative side of the topic and group 2 to present the negative resides in the many ways it can be used. It is essential to school
side. With facts on hand, the rebuttal starts. You give close success and has increasingly become a central component of daily
attention to the oral communication skills delivered by the students. life in industrialized societies." (Graham et al.2007:3)
5. Phone/Messenger Conversation. A scenario is provided to b. The need for effective writing instruction. Having pointed out
both parties: the caller and the receiver. The caller starts with the essence of writing, Graham et al. also emphasized the need for
his/her concern and this shall be replied to appropriately by the writing instruction that is grounded on research. They stressed that
receiver. The conversation is observed by the teacher and the rest "Our instructional efforts in this area need to be informed by what
of the students and they give comments after. is known about the factors that foster writing development and
proven methods for promoting such development(p.3)." In our
CHAPTER 4: WRITING
context, we are aware that we have fared poorly in national and
LESSON 1: THE NATURE AND PROCESS OF WRITING international language assessments. Among the recent researches
regarding our learners writing skills is the one done by Saavedra
EXPOSE (2020:) which abstract revealed the following:
Writing can be considered the most effective means of Based on their experiences and observations while teaching
communication because it could promote and perpetuate an idea. writing to the pupils, the following was recorded: 1) lack of
We may recall how the ancient forms of writing like the cuneiform, vocabulary in the target language; 2) difficulty in conveying and
the hieroglyphs, and the baybayin give us a glimpse of the world in organizing ideas; 3) pupils' perception that writing is a hard task; 4)
the past. We also document important events by putting them into lack of motivation and interest in writing, and 5) the difficulty in
writing. Indigenous knowledge, skills, and traditions are preserved spelling. grammar and sentence construction are the reasons why
and perpetuated by codifying or writing them. As important as it is, many elementary pupils have poor writing skills in English and
writing is a skill that needs to be taught effectively. Filipino. These factors can be attributed to the first languages of
the pupila (Chabacano, Bahasa Sug, and Cebuano), where
Purposes of Teaching Writing English and Filipino are considered as L2 only. Despite the effort of
teachers, they acknowledged that elementary pupils' writing skills
Writing is often taken as a task integrated with other
still did not meet the standard in writing.
communication skills like reading. Harmer (1998:79) offered four
purposes of teaching writing, namely: “reinforcement, language As future language teachers, these pieces of information would
development, learning style and as a skill of its own.” serve our compass in designing our learning plans, our syllabus, or
even the curriculum itself.
a. Reinforcement. Writing is considered as one of the ways of
helping language learners remember and even improve their c. Knowledge of effective writing. As earlier established, our own
fluency in the target language. Your lessons in the principles of knowledge and skills are the limits to the things we can teach to
teaching may remind you that learning best happens when more our students. It is imperative, therefore, that we equip ourselves
senses are used. So, writing the linguistic codes may help one to with the content and procedural knowledge in teaching writing.
nuance sound-spelling similarities and differences or commit to Graham et al contend that "If students are to become good writers,
memory important concepts they have read or listened to. we need to help them become strategic, knowledgeable, and
motivated writers who are not hampered by inefficient or faulty
b. Language Development. Harmet (1998) asserts that learning a
transcription and sentence construction skills." (p.5)
language is a process. He recognized that writing, like the other
d. Effective writing procedures for teaching writing. We are biographical writing, letter writing, expository, narrative, descriptive,
also challenged to research beyond the context and reality of our poetry, and persuasive writing.
learners' writing skills. We must equip ourselves with the different
perspectives on the nature of writing and the pedagogies of writing Zakime (2018) finds the product approach in teaching writing time-
instruction. efficient because its primary aim is accuracy; therefore, the teacher
has a focus skill to correct. Teacher who uses this approach
Perspectives on the Nature of Writing and Writing Instruction usually asks learners to read model texts for analysis and
templates. for writing Zakime provided the following key items,
Writing as a means of communication has the potential to change which she attributed to her CELTA mentor Mellissa Lamb, as a
not only one's worldview but the world itself. Famous works like guide for analysis: Content, Lexis, Organization, Grammar, and
Noli Me Tangere (1887) of Jose Rizal, An Inconvenient Truth Style (CLOGS). This is followed by controlled writing activities that
(2006) by Al Gore and Greta Thunberg's social media posts on would lead them to think of their own topic to develop using the
climate change can just be a few of the examples of the power of pattern they saw from the model text. After student writers have
writing. thought of their topic, they will organize their ideas and write the
final output. Because of its focus on fluency, this perspective in
Yagelski (2018:8) purports the four ways of understanding writing.
writing instruction is most useful as a reinforcement or language
He said that: "Writing is a powerful means of communication;
development activity.
Writing is a way to participation; Writing is a unique way of thinking
that helps us learn, and Writing is a way to understand ourselves b. Writing as a Process. This view takes into account the differem
and the world around us." stages of writing as a way of developing writing skills. Writing as a
proces, according to Langan (2014:41), involves five basic steps,
Our view on the nature of writing influences the way we approach
namely: pre-writing, organizing ideas or outlining the paper.
the teaching-learning process in our classroom. We may view it as
drafting, revising, and editing
something personal so that some writers indulge their
idiosyncrasies when they write. For example, others would want Pre-writing. This step involves choosing the topic and the
everything quiet and clean in their writing space before producing a generation of ideas for writing. Choosing topic is crucial especially
writing output. Others want to engage in stimulating activities or get if the writing activity is done within the given class time, As
exposed to some scenery or ambiance to produce brilliant writing teachers, we need to guide students in deciding on topics that they
ideas. However, it is nothing but a myth to believe that you need are knowledgeable of and interested in. They also have to be
inspiration in order to write effectively. As a skill, it can be reminded that the topic they have chosen is narrow enough to
developed through constant and correct practice. done within the given time frame.
There are two major schools of thought in viewing writing Langan further offers four pre-writing activities, which include:
instruction: writing as cognitive ability vs. writing as a sociological freewriting or writing without restrictions, listing, brainstorming and
phenomenon and writing as a product vs. writing as a process. clustering.
1. Writing as cognitive ability vs. writing as a sociological Organizing ideas. In this stage, we assist our students in planning
phenomenon. or outlining the ideas they have generated during the pre writing
stage.
a. Cognitive ability. To view writing as a cognitive ability means
taking into account both the writing ability and the linguistic Writing the draft. This refers to the development of the key ideas
proficiency of the learner (Weigic, 2014). In this case, writing ability outlined in the previous stage.
refers to the learners' knowledge and skills of the writing process,
which includes choosing a topic, generating and organizing ideas Revising. Effective writers re-read their work to revise conten and
with consideration of the context and audience, and polishing structure. This stage asks the writers to check the substance of
structure and style of presentation of writing outputs, among their claims and the smooth flow of the development of their ideas.
others. Language proficiency refers to one's knowledge of the
linguistic codes, he it in LI or L2. For some students, this may Editing. This stage in writing prepares the writing output fr final
demand knowledge of vocabulary, grammar, and syntax, among submission. This requires polishing of grammar, mechanics, and
others. style. This also asks students to revisit the writing format required
by their teacher.
b. Sociological Phenomenon. This view on writing, according to
Weigle (2014:224), recognizes that writing is "done for a purpose, With these processes in mind, we need to remind our students that
is directed at a specific audience, and is part of a broader set of effective writing considers subject, audience, and purpose a order
literacy practices shaped by a particular culture and setting." As to put the message across (Langan, 2008).
writing teachers, we need to inculcate among our learners that
Subject. This is the idea that we want to talk or write about. We
"written texts do not exist in isolation" and that they have to be a
cannot produce anything, if our knowledge is limited. We neol to
"member of a discourse community. A discourse community
have a considerable collection of ideas in order to carry out
defines the rules of writing or sets of expectations for a written
discussion intellectually. To enrich our content knowledge, we neel
output. For instance, we are now aware of technical writing.
to read, observe and listen. A person who is an effective reader, 1
creative writing, professional writing, business writing, and many
keen observer, and a sensitive listener never runs out of ideas to
more.
write.
2. Writing as a product vs. writing as a process
Purpose. Influential writers purposely utilize their extensive
a. Writing as a Product. If we take this view in teaching writing, collection of ideas. They may inform their readers about the latest
we are more concerned about the students' output. Also called facts, convince or persuade them to embrace a new concept of
genre writing approach, this perspective in teaching writing pays technology, or humor them with entertaining stories. Our writing
attention to the correctness of the students grammar or their purpose guides us in organizing our leas and choosing the
structure. Dirgeyasa (2016, citing Thoreau, 2006) defines genre- language to use in writing. It also helps us decide the length of our
based writing as a kind of writing which "has a typical style, discussion and the style of presentation.
particular target of readers, and a specific purpose." As classified
Audience. A writer always has an audience in mind. In the school
by Tompkins (2008), writing genres include Journal writing,
set up, the audience can be the teacher who reads and grades the
writing output or fellow students who share the same passion on graphic character represents real-world meaning. The sound-
the chosen subject. Just as your purpose determines your based system, like the English language, uses the alphabet where
language and style of presentation, the audience plays a crucial the symbol represents sound. It is also crucial to know the writing
role in shaping your writing style and organization. Age, profession, system directions that affect the way we learn writing. Some
cultural background, and gender, among others, contribute a lot in languages are written in columns, like the Chinese and Japanese
deciding your topic, our method of presentation, and language to or from right to left, like Arabic, or from left to right like Filipino and
use in writing. English.
In the academic setting, our subject or topic is most often pre- EXPOSE
defined by the teacher or by the discipline we are taking up. Our
purpose most oflen revolves around informing, arguing, or Teaching writing requires careful planning. Whether we use the
persuading. Our primary audience is your teacher. We also remind product or process approach, or a combination of these
our students that the writing process is recursive, and as such, it approaches, we need to design our writing instruction judiciously.
can go back and forth between the student and the teacher for Kroll, as cited in Weigle (2014:229), lists the essential tasks of a
feedbacking and revising. Prichand and Honeycutn (2007: 33) writing teacher. These are "designing or implementing a syllabus,
have this to say about the process approach. planning the individual class session, providing opportunities for
writing and responding to that writing."
Teachers must demystify the writing process for students by
teaching them that regardless of how skilled they become, all In designing the writing syllabus, we need to consider the following
writers will perform just like professional writers: they will utilize a factors.
process, adapted to their needs, to develop their manuscripts; they
will go through several stages of revision; they will seek the
responses of others, they will edit for errors at the manuscript level, a. A feasible scope of the writing task. This requires us to think
and they will eventually realize that writing is never perfect and through the writing tasks by looking at the needs of our learners
always open to revision. and their background. We must give them writing tasks that they
can manage in terms of breadth and depth.
Writing as a product or as a process has drawn debates among
practitioners While others agree that genre-based or product b. A writing task that promotes academic integrity. In this age
approach is purpose-driven and is helpful in achieving fluency, of copy and-paste, we need to prepare writing prompts or
some others also assert that it is not student-friendly and assignments that deter the students from plagiarizing written
sometimes can result in mechanical writing. Tompkins (2008) offers outputs. In most cases, we do this by making the consequences
a way of compromise on this issue by balancing the teaching of clear to them and equipping them with paraphrasing and
writing as product and process or even mixing the two approaches. summarizing skills.
The Mechanics of Writing c. The suitable scaffold for the given tasks. Wilfong (2015:xiii)
said that a teacher should not "assign writing without previous work
Writing in the second language begins in understanding the writing
on the genre, have students write without exposing them to
system and the mechanics of writing. For our learners who may
readings from the genre, nor have writing be an isolated, individual
have to negotiate between their mother tongue, which is not
activity in yout classroom."
necessarily Filipino, and English as their L2, this requisite in
learning to write can be daunting. Olshtain (2014) lists the following d. A specified topic, genre, and purpose. We may negotiate the
mechanics of writing: topic with our learners, but to avoid frustration upon checking their
outputs, we need to be clear in the genre and purpose that we
a. Letter recognition is the ability to distinguish a letter from the
want our students to write about.
other letters in the alphabet and is a foundation in learning to read
and write the language. For example, a Filipino learner who has e. A clear rubric of evaluation. A well-defined rubric guides the
memorized the alphabet song may not necessarily know the leamers in accomplishing their writing tasks.
symbol of each letter when it is removed from its regular sequence.
f. A reasonable set of deadlines. Just as we need to give them
b. Letter discrimination is the ability to distinguish similar-looking feasible scope, we also have to set realistic deadlines. We can set
letters like b and d or letters like t and f. deadlines in stages to provide immediate feedback on their outputs
and avoid severe errors in content and organization
c. Sound-to-letter correspondence. This mechanics in writing
refers to the matching of the sound with the letters or symbol. Another part in the planning and implementation of the writing
English phonetics can be a challenge to Filipino learners because syllabus in the articulation of learning outcomes or learning
they have sounds or phonemes that do not correspond with their objectives. We have learned the value of behavioral objectives
sound, ie. the /f/ sound being spelled as 'gh' in the word laugh, the and, even the acronym SMART for specific, measurable,
voiced and voiceless 'th' in though and thought. achievable, relevant, and time-bound objectives. These concepts
are important in articulating learning outcomes or objectives for
d. Word recognition. The complex sound-to-letter
writing instructions because they do not only specify the context,
correspondence often results in the learner's problem in word
the way of teaching it, and the way of monitoring and evaluating
recognition, which is the ability to quickly identify and read the
performance
written word.
Designing the Lessons for Writing
e. Basic rules of spelling. An effective writer demonstrates
fluency in spelling, but to some of our learners, this could be a 1. Writing Instruction for Beginners.
tedious task, especially if they have not mastered the first four of
these mechanics. Teaching 1.2 writing for beginners requires understanding the
context of the learner. For instance, we need to know if they
Aside from understanding the complex mechanics of writing our already have the skills sets like producing the linguistic codes,
target language, we also need to learn the writing system itself, writing conventions, and writing mechanics. We may also consider
which according to Olshtain (2014), can be classified as either if and when we teach spelling and handwriting. Aside from deciding
meaning-based or sound-based Meaning-based system can be on the learning objectives, content scope and sequence, we must
exemplified by the Chinese and the Japanese Kanji where the also plan the teaching strategies and techniques ahead of time.
For learners who are beginners in L2 writing, teachers must offer 2. Writing Instruction for Intermediate and Advanced Learners
plenty of instructions for accuracy, but they should also engage the
learners in the different stages of the writing process. Pressley, Writing teachers of intermediate and advanced learners must help
Mohan, Fingeret, Raffitt & Raphael-Bogaert (2007) offer the students understand the relevance of writing not only in fluency in
following characteristics of an effective elementary literacy the target language but also in learning successful other subjects.
classroom. Knowing that writing is both a "social act" and a "developmental
cognitive task," teachers can raise the students' awareness of the
a. Engaging activities. Writing as a skill can be developed different writing tasks they have to hurdle in an academic setting.
through constant and correct practice, and we might also agree Newell, Koukis, & Boster (2007) asserted the importance of writing
that learning happens best when more senses are involved. So we as a tool of learning so that teachers have to engage the learners
can engage our learners in writing activities that do not necessarily in the writing tasks commonly required in other disciplines. These
confine them on their desks with their pencil and pen. Beginners include:
who have to learn letter recognition and letter discrimination can
trace letters, write on the air, or use their body movements to a. Note-taking: a skill in extracting and recording relevant
describe a letter or spell a word. In teaching spelling, Schlagal information from different types of texts for future use.
(2007) asserted that spelling is not just a rote memory process. It is
b. Reporting: an ability to recount and write the events that
best taught along with vocabulary activities where the teacher
transpired, for instance, in a laboratory experiment, field trip, or
carefully chooses words that are preferably context-based and
group activity.
clustered as to their difficulty levels.
c. Summarizing: a skill in "looking for patterns across a range of
The study of Pressley et al. (2007) revealed that effective writing
events and ideas" and presenting the information most concisely.
classes involve motivating activities like posting learners outputs
on the wall, making students react on their classmates outputs. d. Analyzing: an ability to break down ideas, note details, and
Tompkins (2008) described how a teacher encouraged young determine relationships and causality.
children to write by hanging images hinged on a theme like
weather or familiar event. Students are encouraged to write e. Journal writing: often a means for self-expression and
something about the image by inserting in packets words that reflection.
describe the image.
f. Creative writing: "literary writing, such as short stories and
b. Developmental Instruction. It maybe tempting to teach writing poetry, that provides personal and imaginative ways of exploring
at an early stage using the product approach because it is easier to ideas and experiences."
check and time efficient, However, experts (Tompkins, 2008;
Pressely et al. 2007; Wilfong, 2015) have strongly recommended Echoing this idea of contextual and meaningful writing tasks for the
the use of process approach even at the carliest stage in the learners, Wilfong (2015) narrowed these tasks into three writing
teaching of writing. They have proven that the draft-revise-final genres that a teacher can use as a guide in organizing writing
output is less effective compared to the plan draft-revise-re-write lessons. These genres are narrative (recounts factual events or
process of writing. The recursive pattern of the process approach tells a fictional story), informative (involves factual information), and
helps the learners to develop not only the habit of planning and argumentative (appeals to reason or emotion).
organizing but also the ability to monitor their own writing skill,
Whether the writing instruction is task or genre-based, we need to
similar to the metacognition skill in reading.
motivate our learners to write and help them write effectively. We
c. Conducive environment. Experts consider it a serious offense could use the following instructional tips.
to require learners to write on topics without proper context. As
a. Reading-Writing Connection. Reading can help provide
teachers of writing, it is best to incite students to write by providing
context and content for writing. We can encourage our learners to
not only the motivation but also the scaffolds to write effectively.
write effectively by providing, model texts to read and emulate or
This could be done by providing plenty of varied reading materials
reading materials that they can analyze, react or reflect on.
of that could serve as their source or model for content and
opportunities for authentic writing, ie. a greetings or dedication b. Strategy Instruction. Strategy, as defined by Graham et al.
corner where students can write messages for each other. (2007), refers to the "course of action for accomplishing a specific
objective," This requires one to have a clear purpose or goal, the
Balancing writing as a process and as a product, Tompkins (2008,
procedural knowledge in accomplishing the task, and the "will to
22) has the following summarized strategies for teaching writing in
embark on the designated course of action and the effort to see it
the elementary years.
through." Teaching students strategies in each stage of the writing
process would allow learners to reflect on their writing habits and
idiosyncrasies as writers to employ the processes involved in
writing independently. Scaffolds, like model texts and writing
templates, help a lot in teaching students strategies in writing.
Some scaffolds and templates that prove to be helpful in writing for
learning include the RAFT or Role, Audience, Format, Topic model
of Holston and Santa (1985 as cited in Jacobson, Johnson and
Lapp, 2011) the 5-paragraph Essay (Langan, 2008; Wilfong, 2015;
Tompkins, 2008) and CREW or Claim, Reason, Evidence, Warrant
for argumentative writings (Wilfong, 2015). The templates and
scaffolds for creative writing include cinquain, acrostics, list poems,
big book projects, and others. You can see these templates further
explained at the end of this lesson.
c. Peer or Collaborative Writing. Yagelski (2018) asserted that
writing is a "social activity" because writers often have an audience
in mind and other readers who respond to or assess their written
outputs. As teachers, we can develop this awareness of the
audience-readers among our students by engaging them in peer or
collaborative writing activities, We may assign them a peer editing Freewriting is writing without restrictions, writing down everything
partner or group them in a writing activity that requires investigation that comes to mind or feelings about the topic and about the act of
or research with assigned roles like a lead rescarcher, assistant writing itself.
researcher, and documenter. We can also engage them in a writing
workshop.
d. Utilization of Technology Support. We cannot overemphasize
the value of technology in teaching writing. Our learners now are
exposeć to multi-modal texts, and they sometimes find the physical
act of traditional writing difficult or tiring. Teachers can allow
students to use word processors to deal with illegible handwriting
of their learners. Sandolo (2010, citing Karchmer-Kelin, 2007)
claimed that "Internet writing practices support required curriculum
standards. encourage students to think about the social implication
of their work, help students learn the literacy skills necessary to be
successful in the 21" century. "The editing features of word
processors are beneficial for both students and teachers in
monitoring linguistic accuracy. Social networks can be an Questioning is similar to brainstorming and is one of the easiest
opportunity for learners to have authentic readers and write ways to generate ideas for writing because it is like talking to
interactively. oneself or finding answers to your questions. For instance, you can
3. Scaffolds in Teaching Writing ask them to write about their reasons for taking up their course,
using the 5Ws and H as their guide in planning their essay.
The following templates and suggested strategies can be useful for
an engaging writing classroom.
a. Teaching writing mechanics
Tracing Letters, Words and Sentences

Clustering. This means collecting or grouping together ideas

related to our chosen topic. We guide our students in putting their
chosen topic at the center and then drawing a circle or box for
every related idea and connecting these ideas with a line, like the
one shown in the following Figure.

Making a list. This technique can help learners in chonsing the

topic and narrowing the focus by simply listing all relevant ideas
without worring about the order of importance. An example is
Letter Recognition shown below:
 Computers can help me in my research assignment
 Legitimate sites
 On-line journals for the scholarly written articles
 I can access them even in the middle of the night.
 Be careful with those plagiarized articles.
 Check the legitimacy of sites and sources.
 Easy storage of information
 Write as you research.
b. Teaching Planning in Writing  Citation of sources is easy.
We can help our learners have a pleasant experience. They need b.2. Other Planning Strategies
assistance in choosing the topic, saying something about the topic
they have chosen, finding focus and support to the claims they 1.) RAFT – The RAFT Model by Holston and Santa (1985 as cited
make, and making their voice visible in their writing. But among in Jacobson, Johnson and Lapp, 2011) is a versatile model or
these stages, it is important to motivate learners to write through template that helps students produce an audience-centered and
the scaffolds that we provide. purpose-driven writing output. R stands for the student-writer's
assumed Role, A refers to the target audience, F for the
b.1 Prewriting Activities help learner generate ideas. These prescribed. or suitable format/genre in writing and T for the topic
include freewriting, questioning, clustering, and listing. that needs to be developed or discussed. For instance, when we
ask a learner to write a narrative paragraph or essay on their most In applying CREW, Wilfong suggests in start with an poll that
significant summer experience, they can plan their writing as encourages learners to take sides on a dehatable issue an opinion
follows: Then they will be provided with model texts where they can
annotate using the CREW strategy. They can be guided by the
following template in cxtracting information from the model text or
producing argurants for their own argumentative piece of writing.

One thing we may remind our learners is that the role may not
necessarily be themselves as the writer. They can assume a role of
an expert, a detached observer or an ordinary layperson. The role
and the audience definition affect the kind of language they use
and the depth of the discussion of the topic.
2.) W-W-W +2 WHAT + 2 HOW – This planning strategy offered by
Graham and Harris (2007) is useful for writing short stories. The
letters stand for the following:
Who is the main character, who else is in the story?
When does the story take place?
Where does the story take place?
What does the main character want to do; what do other
characters want to do?
What happent when the main character tries to do it, whw happens
with the other characters?
How does the story end?
How does the main character feel; how do other characters feel?
In helping the writing teachers, Graham and Harris offered the 4.) STOP & DARE – This planning model by De La Paz and
following template: Ciraham (as cited in Graham and Harris, 2007) is useful for
persuasive and argumentative writing. The acronym/mnemonic
stands for:
Suspend judgment. Suspending judgment develops in the leamer
reflective writing to avoid sweeping generalizations or claims that
have no clear grounding.
Take a ride. Students need to take a clear stand on an issue so
that they can produce a unified and coherent argument. This is one
way of making their voice visible in their written output.
Organize ideas. Carefully structured claims supported by cohesive
and coherent evidences result in effective and persuasive
arguments.
Plan more as you write. Writing is a recursive process so ther
planning happens not only in the beginning but in the entire writing
activity.
Develop a topic sentence or a thesis statement. The topic
sentence of a paragraph or the thesis statement of an essay is one
of the unifying elements of writing. It helps the writer stay focused
in the topic.
Add supporting ideas. Supporting ideas strengthen the positiona
writer takes. Learners need to understand that supporting iden
bring their propositions or claims to life.

3.) CREW – This model is patterned after Toulmin's model of Reject arguments from the other side. In taking a position on at
argument which emphasized the articulation of a writer's claim issue, a writer should be aware of the opposing arguments so that
position. This was later expanded into Claim, Reason, Evidenct, they can rightfully refute these.
and Warrant by Warren (2020 us cited in Wilfong, 2015) Useful in
helping students write effective arguments, a claim is the writer's End with a conclusion. Clear and emphatic closing or conclusion
position on the topic, usually a "debatable and defensible persuades the readers to think and feel or embrace the positior of
statement" (Wilfong, 2015). The reason is the general support to the writer.
the claim, followed by the details or pieces of evidence and 5.) The five-paragraph essay. This strategy is useful in teaching
concluden with a warrant to tie everything together. genre writing or writing for learning. The template includes the
introductory paragraph, which introduces the topic and the thesis 6.) Cinquain. Sometimes called a diamond poen, a cinquain is a
statement. The second, third, and fourth paragraphs develop the poetic genre created by Adelaide Crapsey. The didactic cinquain
key ideas articulated in the thesis statement. The 5 or concluding form's variation has become a creative strategy for writing poems
paragraph clinches the discussion either by summarizing with the following formula for poetry writing.
reiterating the thesis statement. A sample of this can be seen as
follows: Variation 1
 The first line is one word which is the title of the poem.
 The second line contains two words which are adjectives that
describe the title.
 The third line has three words, usually gerunds, that tell the
reader more about the subject of the poem or show action.
 The fourth line has four individual words or a four-word phrase
that show ernotion about the subject of the poem.
 The fifth line is a one-word synonym or very similar word to
the title
Example:
Castle
By William Swink

“Castle
Strong, beautiful
Imposing, protecting, watching
Symbolizes wealth and power
Fortress”
Variation 2
 one-word title of the poem.
 two adjectives that describe the first word,
 three other modifiers of the first word, all ending in ing
 a complete sentence with four or more words
 one word
Examples (both from anonymous writers)
“Star
Hot, radiant
Shining, burning, exploding.
It gives life to everything.
Sun”
Five-Paragraph Essay Template
“Acrobats
Flexible, amusing
Flipping, twirling, jumping
They make me laugh.
Performers”
7.) List Poems. This creative writing activity asks learners to list
down an inventory of persons, places, objects, or ideas. It incites
students to write strong or funny descriptions of the things they are
passionate about.
Example:
What's in the box under my bed?
eight marbles and a shoestring
a shiny bubblegum ring
two valuable baseball cards
some chocolate candy bars
a letter my friend wrote
Suggested Prompt:
Pick an interesting topic and and choose an attractive title for your
ful list that reveals something about your audience. Create a
thoughtfisl title. Revise the wording of your list items to make them
more vivid or memorable.
4. Writing Prompts
Along with the strategies, the teachers can also motivate the
learners to write by giving clear writing prompts. A prompt is
anything that moves the stadent to write. It can be an incomplete
statement as a story starter or a question like "What are the
benefits like "I never thought I'd survive of urban Irving?" or
thought-provoking triggers like images, quotes, or songs, Wilfong
(2015) offered two types of writing prompts, infinite which can be
answered in multiple ways, and finite, which requires a direct or
straightforward response. Infinite prompts can be confusing to
some students but would be useful for every day or non-graded
writing activities. Finite prompts are less daunting for the students
because the goal and expectations are clear. Finite prompts are
useful for formative and summative assessments, especially if you
want to check their understanding of the concepts and application
of specific writing competencies.