DATA LINK LAYER Formatting Data for Transmission

Data Link Layer – Hardware & Software

Layers

Data Link Layer Services

- Allows the upper layers to access the media

using techniques such as framing.
- Controls how data is placed onto the media
and is received from the media using
techniques such as media access control and
error detection. Data Link Sublayers – LLC & MAC

Data Link Layer Protocols

Dara Link Layer – Protocols & Standards

Media Access Control

- It’s a technique used for getting the frame on

and off media.
- Data Link Layer is responsible for controlling
the transfer of frames across the media.

The Data-Link PDU – Frames

- the layer prepares a packet for transport

across the local media by encapsulating it
with a header and a trailer to create a More on Media Access Control
frame. - Regulating the placement of data frames onto
Data Link Layer frame Includes the media.

Data – The packet from the Network Layer.

Header – Contains control info, such as

addressing, and is located at the beginning of the
PDU.

Trailer – contains control information added to

the end of the PDU.
Controlled Access in a Shared Media THE TOPOLOGY OF A NETWORK
Environment
- The topology of a network is the
arrangement/relationship of the network
devices and the interconnections between
them

- Network topologies can be viewed at the

physical level and the logical level.

1. Physical Topology -the arrangement of the

Contention-Based Access in a Shared Media
nodes and the physical connections between
Environment
them.
- Allow any device to try to access the medium 2. Logical Topology - the way a network
whenever it has data to send. transfers frames from one node to the next.
- Use a Carrier Sense Multiple Access The logical signal paths defined by Data Link
(CSMA) process to first detect if the media is layer protocols. The logical topology
carrying a signal influences the type of network framing and
1. CSMA/Collision Detection media access control used.
(CSMA/CD) – the device monitors the
NOTE: The physical or cabled topology of a network
media for the presence of a data signal. If
will most likely not be the same as the logical
no signal is present, the device transmits
topology.
(could result in collisions with other
data). Logical Point-to-Point Topology
2. CSMA/Collision Avoidance
- A p2p topology connects two nodes directly
(CSMA/CA) - the device examines the
together
media for the presence of a data signal. If
- Can operate in either Half-Duplex or Full
the media is free, the device sends a
Duplex.
notification across the media of its intent
- The logical connection between nodes is
to use it. The device then sends the data.
sometimes referred to as a virtual circuit.
- AKA first come, first serve and non-
- Regardless of the number of physical devices
deterministic
within the network cloud, the two nodes act
Contention-Based Access in a Shared Media as if they are physically connected to each
Environment other.

Logical Multi-Access Topology

- a frame sent from source A to destination D
will be seen by all devices, including B,C,D
and E.
- Only D, the destination, will process the
frame.

Media Access Control for Non-Shared Media

- In point-to-point connections, the Data Link
layer has to determine whether the
communication is half-duplex or full-
duplex.
Logical Ring Topology
- Half Duplex – a station cannot transmit and
receive simultaneously - all nodes around the ring between the source
- Full Duplex – a station can transmit and and destination node examine the frame.
receive simultaneously - If the frame is not addressed to the node, the
node passes the frame to the next node.
- This allows a ring to use a media access
control technique called token passing.
 - In token passing, when there is no data being Layer 2 Protocols Covered in CCNA
transmitted, a signal (known as a token) may
be placed on the media and a node can only
place a data frame on the media when it
has the token.

Selecting a Layer 2 Protocol

- When Implementing a Layer 2 protocol in a

ADDRESSING AND FRAMING DATA network, the ff. factors should be considered.
- Geographic scope of the network
- The physical layer implementation
- The number of hosts to be connected

Note: Layer 2 protocols are independent of the upper

layer protocols used

Ethernet Protocol for LANs

Generic Frame Format

Typical Frame Header Fields

The Ethernet II Frame

The Role of the Frame Trailer – FCS

Point-to-Point Protocol for WANs

The Role of the Frame Trailer – Stop Frame

PPP Frame

Wireless Protocols for LANs

802.11 Wireless Frames Fields

802.11 Wireless Frame

VIRTUAL LANs

- VLANs logically segment switched networks

based on the functions, project teams, or
applications of the organization regardless of
the physical location or connections to the
network.
- All workstations and servers used by a
particular workgroup share the same VLAN,
regardless of the physical connection or
location.
- A workstation in a VLAN group is restricted
to communicating with file servers in the
- Layer 3 routing allows the router to send
same VLAN group.
packets to the three different broadcast
domains.

- VLANs function by logically segmenting the

network into different broadcast domains so
that packets are only switched between ports
that are designated for the same VLAN.
- Routers in VLAN topologies provide
broadcast filtering, security, and traffic flow
management.

VLAN Operation

- Each switch port could be assigned to a

different VLAN.
- Ports assigned to the same VLAN share
broadcasts.
- Ports that do not belong to that VLAN do not
share these broadcasts.
- VLANs address scalability, security, and
network management.
- Switches may not bridge any traffic between
VLANs, as this would violate the integrity of
the VLAN broadcast domain.
- Traffic should only be routed between
VLANs.

Broadcast Domains with VLANs and Routers

- A VLAN is a broadcast domain created by
one or more switches.
 VLAN types

Membership by Port

Membership by MAC-Address

Benefits of VLANs

- The key benefit of VLANs is that they permit

the network administrator to organize the
LAN logically instead of physically.

VLAN Types

- The number of VLANs in a switch vary

depending on several factors:
1. Traffic patterns
2. Types of applications
3. Network management needs
4. Group commonality
- An important consideration in defining the
size of the switch and the number of VLANs
is the IP addressing scheme.
- Because a one-to-one correspondence
between VLANs and IP subnets is strongly
recommended, there can be no more than 254
devices in any one VLAN.
- It is further recommended that VLANs
should not extend outside of the Layer 2
domain of the distribution switch.
- There are two major methods of frame
tagging, Inter-Switch Link (ISL) and 802.1Q.
- ISL used to be the most common, but is now
being replaced by 802.1Q frame tagging.
WIRED LANS: ETHERNET Ethernet Frame

IEEE Standards

Ethernet Address

802.3 MAC frame Ethernet Address for Desktop PC ethernet card

IEEE Ethernet

Note:

- The least significant bit of the first byte

defines the type of address. If the bit is 0, the
address is unicast; otherwise, it is multicast.
- The broadcast destination address is a special
case of the multicast address in which all bits
are 1s.
IEEE Standards for LANs Unicast and Multicast Addresses

Example 13.1
Example 13.2 10Base5 Implementation

Connection of Stations to the Medium using

10Base2

Minimum and Maximum Lengths

Note:

Frame length:

- Minimum: 64 bytes (512 bits) 10BaseT

- Maximum: 1518 bytes (12,144 bits)
- Uses twisted pair Cat3 cable
Ethernet Evolution Through Four Generations - Star-wire topology
- A hub functions as a repeater with additional
functions
- Fewer cable problems, easier to troubleshoot
than coax
- Cable length at most 100 meters

Categories of Traditional Ethernet

10BaseT Implementation

IEEE 802.3 Cable Types

10Base-F Implementation
Fast Ethernet Switched Ethernet

Gigabit Ethernet

Fast Ethernet Topology

Fast Ethernet Implementations

Note:

- In the full-duplex mode of Gigabit Ethernet,

there is no collision; the maximum length of
the cable is determined by the signal
attenuation in the cable.

Topologies of Gigabit Ethernet

Full Duplex Operation

Full-duplex Switched Ethernet

Gigabit Ethernet Implementations

10 Gbps Ethernet

- Maximum link distances cover 300 m to 40

km
- Full-duplex mode only
- No CSMA/CD
- Uses optical fiber only
9.1 TRANSPORT LAYER PROTOCOLS - Considered reliable which ensures that all of
the data arrives at the destination.
Role of the Transport Layer
- Additional fields needed in header which
- Responsible for establishing temporary increases size and delay.
communication session between two
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
applications and delivering data between
them. - Does not provide for reliability.
- Link between the application layer and the - Fewer fields and is faster than TCP.
lower layers that are responsible for network
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
transmission.
- TCP transport is similar to sending tracked
packages. If a shipping order is broken up
into several packages, a customer can check
online to see the order of the delivery.
- TCP Three Responsibilities:
 Numbering and tracking data segments
 Acknowledging received data
 Retransmitting any unacknowledged data
Transport Layer Responsibilities after a certain period of time.
 Tracking the Conversation - Tracks each User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
individual conversation flowing between a source
and a destination application. - Use UDP for less overhead and to reduce
possible delays.
 Segmentation - Divides the data into segments  Best-effort delivery (unreliable)
that are easier to manage and transport. Header used  No acknowledgment
for reassembly is used for tracking.  Similar to a non-registered letter
 Identifying the Application - Ensures that even The Right Transport Layer Protocol for the Right
with multiple applications running on a device, all Application
applications receive the correct data via port
numbers. TCP - databases, web browsers, and email clients
require that all data that is sent arrives at the
destination in its original condition.

UDP - if one or two segments of a live video stream

fail to arrive, if disruption in the stream, may not be
noticeable to the user.

Conversation Multiplexing

- Segmenting the data into smaller chunks

TCP Features
enables many different communications to be
multiplexed on the same network.  Establishing a Session
• Connection-oriented protocol

• Ensures the application is ready to receive the data

• Negotiate the amount of traffic that can be

Transport Layer Reliability forwarded at a given time

TCP/IP provides two transport layer protocols:  Reliable Delivery

• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) • Ensuring that each segment that the source sends
arrives at the destination
 Same-Order Delivery
• Numbering & sequencing the segments guarantees
reassembly into the proper order

 Flow Control
• Regulate the amount of data the source transmits Multiple Separate Communications
TCP Header - Users expect to simultaneously receive and send
 Source and Destination Port used to identify email, view websites and make a VoIP phone call
application - TCP and UDP manage multiple conversations by
 Sequence number used for data reassembly using unique identifiers called port numbers

Port Numbers
 Acknowledgement number indicates data has
been received and ready for next byte from source  Source Port
 Header length – length of TCP segment header • Originating application port that is dynamically
generated by sending device
 Control bits – purpose and function of TCP
segment • Example: Each separate HTTP conversation is
tracked based on the source ports.
 Window size – number of bytes that can be
accepted at one time  Destination Port

 Checksum – Used for error checking of segment • Tell the destination what service is being requested
header and data.
• Example: Port 80 web services are being requested
20 bytes total

Socket Pairs

 Source and destination port placed in segment.

 Segments encapsulated in IP packet.

UDP Features
 IP and port number = socket.

 Example: 192.168.1.7:80

 Sockets enable multiple processes to be

distinguished.

 Source port acts as a return address.

UPD Header

- UDP is a stateless protocol – no tracking

- Reliability handled by application\
Port Number Groups

 Well-known Ports (Numbers 0 to 1023) - These

numbers are reserved for services and applications.

 Registered Ports (Numbers 1024 to 49151) -

These port numbers are assigned by IANA to a
requesting entity to use with specific processes or
applications.

 Dynamic or Private Ports (Numbers 49152 to

TCP Connection Establishment
65535) - Usually assigned dynamically by the
client’s OS and used to identify the client application
during communication.

The netstat Command

 Network utility that can be used to verify

connections

 By default, will attempt to resolve IP addresses to TCP Three-way Handshake Analysis

domain names and port numbers to well known
applications

-n option used to display IPs and ports in numerical

form

TCP Reliability – Ordered Delivery

9.2 TCP and UDP

TCP Server Process

TCP Flow Control – Window Size and

Acknowledgments
TCP Flow Control – Congestion Avoidance

UDP Low Overhead versus Reliability Applications that use UDP

UDP Datagram Reassembly

UDP Server Processes and Requests

UDP Client Processes

Applications that use TCP

CHAPTER 10: APPLICATION LAYER Hypertext Transfer Protocol and Hypertext
Markup Language
10.1 Application Layer Protocols

TCP/IP Application Layer Protocols HTTP and HTTPS

Email Protocols

Client-Server Model

SMTP Operation

Peer-to-Peer Networks

Peer-to-Peer Applications POP Operation

Common P2P Applications IMAP Operation

10.2 Well-Known Application Layer Protocols

and Services
Domain Name Service

DNS Message Format

File Transfer Protocol

DNS Hierarchy

Server Message Block

The nslookup Command

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

DHCP Operation