Module-2, 3, 4

Course Name- Communication Systems

Course Code- ECE 3160

DSB-SC modulation and demodulation: Product Modulator and Demodulator

Product Modulator Product Demodulator

In Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) modulation, a product modulator is used to generate
the modulated signal, and a product demodulator (or synchronous detector) is used to recover the
original message. The product modulator multiplies the message signal with the carrier signal,
effectively suppressing the carrier component. The demodulator then multiplies the received DSB-SC
signal with a local carrier (matching the original carrier's frequency and phase) and uses a low-pass
filter to recover the baseband message signal.

Modulation:

• A DSB-SC signal is created by multiplying the message signal (m(t)) with the carrier signal (c(t))
using a product modulator.

• The balanced modulator, which uses two AM modulators, is a common type of product
modulator for DSB-SC generation.

• The carrier frequency is suppressed in the modulated signal, hence the "suppressed carrier"
designation.

Demodulation:

• The received DSB-SC signal is multiplied with a local carrier, which is a replica of the original
carrier.

• This multiplication produces two signals: a baseband signal (the message) and a signal at twice
the carrier frequency.

• A low-pass filter is used to extract the baseband signal, which is the recovered message.

• This demodulation process is also known as coherent detection or synchronous detection, as

it relies on precise synchronization between the received and local carriers.

In essence:

Modulation involves multiplying the message with the carrier, and demodulation involves multiplying
the modulated signal with a local carrier (which must match the original carrier's frequency and phase)
to recover the message, often using a low-pass filter.
Non-linear square-law modulator for generation of AM

A square-law modulator generates Amplitude Modulation (AM) by using a non-linear device (like a
diode or transistor) to square the sum of the carrier and modulating signals. The resulting signal is then
passed through a band-pass filter to extract the desired sidebands

How it works:

1. Adding Signals:

The modulating signal (message) and the carrier signal are added together, creating a combined signal.

2. Non-linear Device:

This combined signal is then passed through a non-linear device, which squares the input. This
squaring process produces terms at the carrier frequency, the modulating frequency, and their sum
and difference (the sidebands).

3. Band-pass Filter:

Finally, the output of the non-linear device is filtered using a band-pass filter. This filter extracts the
desired sidebands, which represent the AM signal.

4. Resultant AM Signal:

The resulting signal is the modulated carrier wave, containing the information from the modulating
signal.

Mathematical Representation:

If the carrier signal is c(t) = Ac cos(2πfct) and the modulating signal is m(t) = Am cos(2πfmt), the output
of the square-law modulator can be represented as:

• o(t) = [c(t) + m(t)]2

• o(t) = [Ac cos(2πfct) + Am cos(2πfmt)]2

• o(t) = Ac2 cos2(2πfct) + 2AcAm cos(2πfct)cos(2πfmt) + Am2 cos2(2πfmt)

Using trigonometric identities, this equation can be simplified to show that the output contains terms
at the carrier frequency, the modulating frequency, and their sum and difference, which are the
sidebands of the AM signal.
Current-voltage relationship of a semiconductor diode. Note- diode current do not obey Ohms law.

Basic working of envelope detector for general AM (DSB-WC) demodulation

The envelope demodulator is a simple and very efficient device which is suitable for the
detection of a narrowband AM signal.

A narrowband AM wave is the one in which the carrier frequency is much higher as compared
to the bandwidth of the modulating signal.

An envelope demodulator produces an output signal that follows the envelope of the input
AM signal exactly. It is used in all the commercial AM radio receivers.

The envelope demodulator consists of a diode and RC filter.

The standard AM wave is applied at the input of the demodulator .

In every positive half cycle of the input, the demodulator diode is forward biased and charge
the filter capacitor C connected across the load resistance R to almost the peak value of the
input voltage.

As soon as the capacitor charges to the peak value, the diode stop conducting .

The capacitor will now discharge through R between the positive peaks as shown. The
discharging process continues until the next positive half cycle .

When the input signal becomes greater than the capacitor voltage, the diode conducts again
and the process repeats itself.
The above figure shows the charging discharging of the filter capacitor and the approximate output
voltage. It may be observed from this waveform that -the envelope of the AM wave is being recovered
successfully .

Here we have assumed that the diode is ideal and the AM wave applied to the input of the
demodulator is supplied by a source having internal resistance Rs .

Selection of the RC time Constants

The capacitor charges through D and Rs when the diode i on and it discharges through R when the
diode is off.

The charging time constant RsC should be short compared to the carrier period 1/fc.

Thus, RsC << 1 /fc

On the other hand, the discharging time constant RC should be long enough so that the capacitor
discharges slowly through the load resistance R . But this time constant should not be too long which
will not allow the capacitor voltage to discharge at the maximum rate of change of the envelope.

Therefore, 1/fc <<RC<< 1/W

where, W = Maximum modulating frequency.

Basics of FM and Angle Modulation

Angle Modulation is a modulation process in which the angle of the carrier wave or signal is changed
with respect to the message signal or baseband signal. The angle of the signal is a combination of
phase and frequency therefore Angle Modulation is a process in which the frequency or phase of the
carrier wave is changed with respect to the message signal while keeping the amplitude constant.
Angle modulation occurs due to the Time-varying phase or Time-varying Frequency.

Mathematical Representation of Angle Modulation

Unmodulated carrier signal c(t) is expressed as

c(t)=Acosϕ...(i)

ϕ=ωc t + θ0 ....(ii)

differentiating both side with respect to t

ωc = dϕ/dt ....(iii)

Here A = Amplitude of carrier , ωc = Carrier Frequency , θ0 = phase angle , ϕ = total angle

From eq - (iii) dϕ/dt is constant for unmodulated carrier , but it may change with time . Therefore,
angular velocity will also change with respect with time and this time-dependent angular velocity is
called Instantaneous Angular velocity denoted by ωωi and equation (iii) become

dϕ/dt=ωdϕ/dt=ωi ....(iv)

ϕ=∫ωϕ=∫ωi dt ....(v)

equation (v) represent Angle Modulation of ϕ is changed according to instantaneous angular

frequency of message signal.
Types of Angle Modulation

Angle consist of Phase and Frequency so Angle Modulation is divided into

• Frequency Modulation
• Phase Modulation

Frequency Modulation is process in which frequency of carrier signal is varied with respect to
amplitude of message signal. In this amplitude and phase of carrier signal do not change they remain
constant . It is process in which instantaneous frequency change with respect to message signal . As
the amplitude of baseband or message signal increase frequency of modulated signal also increases
and as amplitude of baseband signal or message signal decreases frequency of modulated signal also
decreases.

Mathematical Representation of Frequency Modulation

Frequency modulated signal is expressed as

s(t)=A cos ϕi(t) ...(vi)

here s(t) = standard frequency modulated signal ; ϕi = instantaneous phase angle of modulated signal

The instantaneous angular velocity or frequency is represented as

ωi = ωc + kf m(t) ....(vii)

here kf = frequency sensitivity ; m(t) = message signal ; ωc = carrier frequency or velocity

based on equation (v) we can write

ϕi = ∫ωi dt ...(viii)

substituting value of ωi from equation (vii) in equation (viii)

ϕi =∫[ωc + kf m(t) ] dt = ωc t + kf ∫ m(t) dt ...(ix)

substituting value of ϕϕi from equation (ix) to s(t) in equation (vi)

s(t) =A cos [ωct + kf ∫ m(t) dt] ....(x)

Equation (x) is expression of Frequency Modulated wave or signal.

Types of Frequency Modulation

Frequency Modulation is classified as following two types

• Narrow Band Frequency Modulation (NBFM)

 • Wide Band Frequency Modulation(WBFM)
Narrow Band Frequency Modulation (NBFM)

Frequency Modulation having modulation index (β) less than one is called Narrowband FM. It have
small bandwidth and occupies only small part of frequency modulation . Spectrum of Narrowband FM
consist of carrier , upper sideband and lower sideband. It is mostly used in mobile communication .

Wide Band Frequency Modulation (WBFM)

Frequency Modulation in which value of modulation index (β) greater than one is called Wideband FM
. It have infinite bandwidth . It use wide band of frequencies and occupies large part in frequency
modulation . Spectrum of this FM consist of carrier and infinite number of sideband .It is mostly used
in broadcasting of signal .

Phase Modulation

Phase Modulation can be defined as the process in which phase of carrier signal is changed with
respect to amplitude of baseband signal or message signal .In this modulation frequency and
amplitude of carrier signal do not change they remain constant .The phase angle of carrier signal
change according to amplitude of message signal when amplitude is positive phase angle is in one
direction and phase angle is in opposite direction when amplitude is negative.

Mathematical Representation of Phase Modulation

We have unmodulated carrier signal represented by c(t) as in equation (i)

Ignoring θ0 in equation (ii) we get

ϕ=ωϕ=ωct ...(xi)

Now as in phase modulation phase (ϕ) of carrier signal is changed according to message signal m(t)

now let ϕi be instantaneous phase angle which can be given as

ϕi = ωct + kp m(t) ...(xii)

here kp is phase sensitivity and m(t) is message signal

Phase modulated signal is expressed as

s(t)=A cos ϕi(t) ...(xiii)

putting value of ϕi from equation (xii) to equation (xiii)

s(t) = Acos⁡[ [ωct + kp m(t)] ...(xiv)

Equation (xiv) is expression of Phase Modulated Signal.

Relationship Between Frequency Modulation (FM) and Phase Modulation (PM)

Angle of carrier signal is combination of phase and frequency . A change in phase results in a change
in the phase of the signal, and a change in phase results in a frequency change of the modulated signal.
There is a nonlinear relationship between the phase and frequency of the signal.

Phase Modulation of m(t) = Frequency Modulation of d/dt m(t)

Frequency Modulation of m(t) = Phase Modulation of ∫ m(t)dt

In frequency Modulation of signal , modulating signal m(t) is passed through integrator and then phase
modulation is done in signal .

In phase Modulation of signal , Modulating signal m(t) is passed through differentiator and then
frequency modulation of signal is done.

Advantages of Frequency Modulation

• Signal Quality is enhanced .

• Signal to Noise Ratio is large .
• For transmission of signal, it does not require any extra component like amplifier , repeater .
• Less noise susceptible .
• Good transmission rate of signal .
Advantages of Phase Modulation

• Less energy consumption .

• Fastest Modulation Technique .
• It is also appropriate for digital Modulation .
• Less signal Fading .
• Easy to convert into Frequency Modulation .
Disadvantages of Frequency Modulation

• Transmitter and Receiver should be in same channel .

• Not suitable for large distance coverage .
• Require wide range of frequency .
• It is costly .
Disadvantages of Phase Modulation

• Low noise immunity .

• Require extra equipment for transmission .
• Low signal to noise Ratio .
Applications of Frequency Modulation

• Used in Radio .
• used in Magnetic Tape storage .
• Used in broadcasting of signal in TV .
 • Used in Satellite .
• Used in video cassette recorder .
Applications of Phase Modulation

• Used in Radar system .

• Used in GPS system .
• Used in sound synthesis.
• Used in Optical Communication .
Conclusion

Modulation plays a important role in communication engineering . Modulation can be either

Amplitude Modulation or Angle Modulation . In Angle Modulation angle of carrier signal is changed
.Signal angle is composition of phase and frequency so Phase Modulation and Frequency Modulation
leads to Angle Modulation . Angle Modulation plays a important role in communication system its main
advantage is that it provide large signal to noise ration and is less susceptible to noise . From above
article we got to know about what is Angle Modulation , Frequency Modulation and Phase Modulation
along with its mathematical representation , advantages , disadvantages and their applications .

Carson's Rule for Bandwidth Calculation

FM creates modulation sidebands that in theory extend to infinite bandwidth. These sidebands consist
of Bessel Functions of any order. However, practically the band occupancy of an FM-modulated carrier
solely needs to count the Bessel Function sidebands of necessary amplitude. Carson's Rule is used to
calculate this bandwidth.

Carson's Rule states that the bandwidth (B) required for an amplitude-modulated signal can be
approximated by doubling the sum of the highest modulating frequency (fm) and the maximum
frequency deviation (fd), then according to Carson's rule:

B=2( fd + fm) (1)

where,

B is Bandwidth

fm is the highest modulating frequency

fd is the maximum frequency deviation

This rule follows the experimental conclusion that established that there is a finite number of side
bands around the carrier frequency, of which about 98% contain the total power of an FM signal, Rest
of the Side Bands in the frequency spectrum contain about 2%. Thus, 2% of the total power can be
sacrificed to reduce the bandwidth of an FM system to a practically feasible limit. The 2% power loss
is acceptable in exchange for the received enhancement. Infinite bandwidth is required for Signal and
its total power to be transmitted.

It is also to be noticed that if only a few sidebands are transmitted through limited bandwidth, then,
the distortion produced in the recovered baseband signal at the receiver is almost insignificant and
the quality of the recovery signal is not that compromised. To bring the bandwidth within the
practically feasible parameters, we use only those sidebands which contain the 98% of the total power.

Case 1. fd << fm (NBFM)

Since mf = fd/fm

If fd << fm

=> mf << 1

hence, It is the case for narrowband FM

Since the bandwidth by the Carson's rule is given as B = 2(fd + fm)

= 2fm(mf + 1)

Therefore, for mf << 1

B = 2fm

Case 2. fd >> fm (WBFM)

Since mf = fd/fm

Therefore, if fd >> fm

=> mf >> 1

hence, It is the case for wideband FM

Then, since by Carson's rule

B = 2fm (mf + 1)

Therefore, for mf >> 1

B = 2fmmf

But fmmf = fd

Therefore

B = 2fd

(1)A broadcasting station has a highest modulating frequency fm = 10kHz and a maximum frequency
deviation fd =4 kHz. Calculate the bandwidth required using Carson's Rule.

Using Carson's Rule formula:

B = 2(fm + fd)

B = 2(10+4)
B = 2x14

B = 28kHz

Therefore, the required bandwidth for the broadcasting station is 28kHz.

Fourier Transforms
 Lecture Notes on Digital Communica on (ECE 3011)
Module-1: Basic signal processing opera ons: Block diagram of digital communica on, Sampling
Principles: Sampling Theorem, Quadrature sampling of Band pass signal, Prac cal aspects of sampling
and signal recovery, Hilbert Transform, Pre-envelopes, Complex envelopes, Numerical.

Block diagram of a digital communica on system

1. Informa on Source and Input Transducer:

The source of informa on can be analog or digital, e.g., analog: audio or video signal, digital: like
teletype signal. In digital communica on the signal produced by this source is converted into digital
signal which consists of 1ʹs and 0ʹs. For this we need a source encoder.

2. Source Encoder:
In digital communica on we convert the signal from source into digital signal as men oned above. The
point to remember is that we should like to use as few binary digits as possible to represent the signal.
In such a way this efficient representa on of the source output results in li le or no redundancy. This
sequence of binary digits is called informaƟon sequence.
The process of efficiently conver ng the output of whether analog or digital source into a sequence of
binary digits is known as source encoding.

3. Channel Encoder:
The purpose of the channel encoder is to introduce, in controlled manner, some redundancy in the
binary informa on sequence that can be used at the receiver to overcome the effects of noise and
interference encountered in the transmission on the signal through the channel.
For example, considering 𝑘 bits of the informa on sequence and map that 𝑘 bits to unique 𝑛 bit
sequence called code word. The amount of redundancy introduced is measured by the ra o 𝑛/𝑘 and
the reciprocal of this ra o (𝑘/𝑛) is known as rate of code or code rate.

4. Digital Modulator:
The binary sequence is passed to digital modulator which in turns convert the sequence into electric
signals so that we can transmit them through a communica on channel. The digital modulator maps
the binary sequences into signal wave forms , for example if we represent binary 1 by 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 and binary
0 by 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 then it is needed to transmit 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 for binary 1 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 for binary 0 ( a case similar to
BPSK).

1
5. Channel:
The communica on channel is the physical medium (or physical layer) that is used for transmi ng
signals from the transmi er to the receiver. In wireless system, this channel consists of atmosphere
(par cularly the ionosphere) and , for tradi onal telephony, the channel is wired, made of conductors.
Wired channels can be op cal fibres too, enabling high speed (and high bandwidth) modern day digital
transmission and under water acous c communica on, etc. Communica on channels are further
discriminated on the basis of their property and characteris cs, like Addi ve White Gaussian Noise
(AWGN) channel, coloured channel etc.
The major transmission impairments that occur in communica on channels are: (1) a enua on (2)
distor on (3) mul path propaga on effect, leading to fading (caused due to destruc ve interference
and phase shi of mul ple paths) and, (4) electrical noise.
Of these impairments, only a enua on and noise effects are felt in wired channels (like single
conduc ng wire, twisted pair, coaxial cables, op cal fibres). Distor on and mul path propaga on
effect (fading) affect wireless communica on extremely badly.

6. Digital Demodulator:
The digital demodulator processes the channel corrupted transmi ed waveform and reduces the
waveform to the sequence of numbers that represents es mates of the transmi ed data symbols.

7. Channel Decoder:
This sequence of numbers is then passed through the channel decoder which a empts to reconstruct
the original informa on sequence from the knowledge of the code used by the channel encoder and
the redundancy contained in the received data.

8. Source Decoder:
At the end, if an analog signal is desired then source decoder tries to decode the sequence from the
knowledge of the encoding algorithm. This results in the approximate replica of the input (transmi er
end) at the receiver.

9. Des na on or at the use of informa on block:

Finally, the desired signal in the an cipated format, analog or digital is available. Output transducer
converts electrical signal (analog or digital) to human percep ve signals like acous c, video, etc.

Advantages of digital communica on

2
 Comparison between analog and digital communica on systems
SR. Parameter Analog Communica on Digital Communica on
No. System System
1. Speed and BW Less High
2. Transmission Power High Less
3. Immunity to noise and interference Very low High
4. Quality of recep on Sa sfactory Very good
5. Mul plexing FDM TDM
6. Synchroniza on Not required Required
7. Programmable Not possible Achievable
8. Scalability Difficult to upgrade Compara vely far easier
9. Security of informa on Extremely low High
10. Complexity of circuits Low High
11. Cos ng Inexpensive Expensive
12. Propaga on range Long Short
13. Frequency Spectrum Lower band Higher band
14. Signal type Con nuous- me Discrete- me

Theory of Sampling
Sample means a specimen. Sample of an electrical signal means a specimen of that electrical signal.
By the process of sampling, we convert a con nuous- me signal to a discrete- me signal. A discrete-
me signal to a more discrete- me signal.

The Nyquist sampling theorem consists of four statements. Out of these, only the first and fourth
statements are significant and predominant.

3
 Sampling Theorem

1. An analog signal is expressed by the equa�on 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) = 3𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶500𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 + 10𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆300𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 −

𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶100𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋. Determine the minimum sampling frequency.
Ans : Clearly, the three frequency components of 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) are 𝑓𝑓1 = 250 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻, 𝑓𝑓2 = 150 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 and 𝑓𝑓3 =
50 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻. The highest frequency component is 𝑓𝑓1 = 250 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻. ∴ the Nyquist frequency or
minimum sampling frequency is 2 × 𝑓𝑓1 = 2 × 250 = 500 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻. (Answer)

2. Find the Nyquist rate and Nyquist interval for the signal
1
𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶(4000𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋). 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶(1000𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋)
2𝜋𝜋
Ans: We can rewrite 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) as:
1
𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) = [2. 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶(4000𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋). 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶(1000𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋)]
4𝜋𝜋
1
⇒ 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) = (𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶5000𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶3000𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋)
4𝜋𝜋
Recall: 2. 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶(𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵) + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶(𝐴𝐴 − 𝐵𝐵)
1 1
⇒ 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) = (𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶5000𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋) + (𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶3000𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋)
4𝜋𝜋 4𝜋𝜋
So, the signal 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) have two frequency components; 𝑓𝑓1 = 2500 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 and, 𝑓𝑓2 = 1500 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻.
∴ the Nyquist sampling rate is: 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 = 2 × 𝑓𝑓1 = 2 × 2500 = 5000 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻. (Answer)
∴ the Nyquist interval is 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 = 1�𝑓𝑓 = 1�5000 = 0.2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (Answer)
𝑠𝑠

3. Given a signal 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) = 10. 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2000𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋. 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶8000𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋. (a) Determine the minimum sampling rate
based on lowpass sampling theorem. (b) Determine the minimum sampling rate based on
bandpass sampling theorem.
Ans: (a) 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) = 10. 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2000𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋. 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶8000𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 ⇒ 5. 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶6000𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 + 5. 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶10000𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋.
⇒ 𝑓𝑓ℎ = 5𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 = 2 × 𝑓𝑓ℎ = 10𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 (𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴)
2. 𝑓𝑓ℎ�
(b) Based on bandpass sampling theorem, the minimum sampling rate: 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 = 𝑘𝑘, where 𝑘𝑘
𝑓𝑓
is the nearest lower integer of the ra�o ℎ�(𝑓𝑓 − 𝑓𝑓 ).
ℎ 𝑙𝑙
𝑓𝑓
In this case, 𝑓𝑓ℎ = 5𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 and 𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑙 = 3𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘. ∴ ℎ�(𝑓𝑓 − 𝑓𝑓 ) ra�o gives: 5�(5 − 3) = 2.5.
ℎ 𝑙𝑙
⇒ 𝑘𝑘 = 2.
2. 𝑓𝑓ℎ� 2 × 5𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘� = 5𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 (𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴)
∴ 𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑠 = 𝑘𝑘 = 2

4. A signal 𝑥𝑥1 (𝑡𝑡) is bandlimited to 2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 and another signal 𝑥𝑥2 (𝑡𝑡) is bandlimited to 3𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘. Find
the Nyquist sampling rate for (a) 𝑥𝑥1 (2𝑡𝑡) (b) 𝑥𝑥2 (𝑡𝑡 − 3) (c) 𝑥𝑥1 (𝑡𝑡) + 𝑥𝑥2 (𝑡𝑡)
Ans: (a) The spectrum of 𝑥𝑥1 (2𝑡𝑡) (�me compression) stretches to 4𝐾𝐾ℎ𝑧𝑧. Thus, the Nyquist rate
is 8𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾. (Answer)
Recall: Time scaling property of Fourier Transform:
𝐹𝐹
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) → 𝑋𝑋(𝜔𝜔)
𝐹𝐹 1 𝜔𝜔
𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎) → 𝑋𝑋 � �
|𝑎𝑎| 𝑎𝑎
The above equa�on implies that �me compression of a signal (𝑎𝑎 > 1) results in its spectral
expansion and that �me expansion of the signal (𝑎𝑎 < 1) results in its spectral compression.

6
Module-3: Passband Digital Transmission
Introduction
Baseband pulse transmission has been covered in Unit II. In today’s world, information signals or
messages in the form of speech/video or data signals are generally coded as digital signals. The input
data for baseband pulse transmission can be in the form of discrete PAM signal (the various line codes
that we studied in the previous unit). Baseband signal cannot be transmitted using radio links as they
require impractically large antennas. This necessitated the need for moving to higher frequency
spectrum. This is accomplished by using a higher frequency carrier to modulate a baseband digital
signal. Bandpass channels are used for communication, like a satellite channel, microwave radio
connection, optical fibre link, etc.

Digital Modulation
The data in digital domain is generally transmitted by varying the parameters of the carrier signal in
accordance with the data to be transmitted. The carrier frequency is often chosen higher than the
highest frequency of the modulating signals, similar to analog modulation systems. To create digital
passband modulation, the amplitude, phase, frequency, or combination of these parameters of the
sinusoidal carrier are changed. Pass-band modulation is the process of modifying an RF carrier's
amplitude, frequency, and phase, individually or in combination, to match the content that will be
wirelessly transmitted or broadcast.

Types of Digital Modulation Techniques

We know that modulation can be done by the use of an analog or digital carrier. Further, as shown in
fig.1, analog data varies the amplitude, frequency, or phase of the analog carrier resulting in
Amplitude Modulation (AM), Frequency Modulation (FM), or Phase Modulation (PM) and if digital
data varies the amplitude, frequency and phase will result in ASK or OOK, Frequency Shift Keying
(FSK) or PSK. If the digital data varies both amplitude and phase of the analog carrier, it would result
in Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM). (if the analog data varies the pulse amplitude, width,
and position, that would result in PAM, PWM, and PPM. If digital data is used to encode the digital
carrier, it would result in PCM).
Digital modulation schemes can be categorised based on the following:
A. Detection method,
B. Mapping technology
C. Performance of the modulation scheme and the characteristics of the modulating

Fig. 1. Modulation types

1
A. Based on the method of detection we have two digital modulation methods:
• Coherent (Synchronous) detection
• Non-coherent (Envelope) detection.
In order to account for the phase shifts caused by the channel, a coherent detection requires a
reference signal at the receiver that is in phase coherence with the carrier of the transmitted signal.
Such a reference signal is not necessary for noncoherent detection schemes, although this comes at
the cost of poor power efficiency. The greater complexity of the reference acquisition circuit is the cost
to be paid for the enhanced performance of coherent systems.

B. Based on the mapping techniques we have four different schemes:

• Binary Scheme: Binary ASK(BASK)/ OOK, Binary FSK (BFSK), Binary PSK(BPSK)
• Quaternary Scheme: Quaternary PSK (QPSK), Minimum Shift Keying (MSK)
• M-ary Scheme: M-ary ASK, M-ary FSK, M-ary PSK
• Hybrid Scheme: Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM), Amplitude and Phase Shift Keying
(APK)
The waveforms of the digital modulation techniques BASK (OOK), BFSK, BPSK are shown in fig. 2 for a
binary information signal (bits) ‘0101101001’.
In ASK, the carrier amplitude is varied to obtain the modulated signal. However, the frequency and
phase components remain same. In ASK, we can see that the sinusoidal carrier representing the
modulated signal, has two amplitude levels for a logical ‘0’ input and logical ‘1’ input. However, for
OOK there is absence of carrier for a logical ‘0’ input and presence of carrier for a logical ‘1’input.
In FSK, the frequency of the carrier signal is varied to represent data as ‘0’ and ‘1’. The frequency of
the modulated signal is constant for the duration of one signal bit and it depends upon bits ‘0’ and ‘1’,
but changes for the next signal bit if the data bit changes. However, the peak amplitude and phase
remain same for all data bits. In binary FSK, two frequencies say f1 for a data bit ‘0’ and f2 for a data
bit ‘1’.
In PSK, the phase of the carrier is varied in accordance with the information bits. However peak
amplitude remains the same. Also, within each bit duration, the phase of the signal is constant and
depends on the input. In BPSK, we have used only two message bits, one with a phase of 0°, and the
other with a phase of 180°. BPSK performs superior to ASK as it is less susceptible to noise.

In ASK, the criterion for bit detection is the amplitude of the signal, in FSK it is the frequency change
and in PSK, it is the change of phase from one bit to the next. It may be noted that the noise can easily
modify amplitude than phase and hence we can safely say that PSK is less susceptible to noise than
ASK. Also, PSK is superior to FSK because we do not need two carrier signals.

C. Based on the performance of the modulation scheme and the characteristics of the modulating
Signal:
In this category, the digital modulation techniques look at some important performance parameters
(Power efficiency & Bandwidth efficiency) or type of modulations (Continuous phase (CP) / In phase
Quadrature phase (I-Q)/Constant envelope/non-Constant envelope, Linear/ Non-linear/ Modulation
scheme with memory or without memory).

Requirements of Passband Modulation Schemes

The following parameters are the major requirements of passband or carrier modulation schemes:

Minimum
➢ Probability of symbol errors
➢ Transmitted power
➢ Channel BW and
➢ Circuit complexity

2
Maximum
➢ Data transmission rate
➢ Resistance to interfering signals

Fig. 2. Basic digital waveforms for message data bits ‘0101101001’

Advantages and Drawbacks of Passband Data Transmission

Passband data transmission has several advantages over baseband data transmission as follows:
• Long distance transmission.
• ISI and cross talks can be minimized.
• Bandwidth conservation by way of various multiplexing possibilities.
• Suitable for wireless transmission.
• Availability of a large number of modulation techniques.
There are however some drawbacks of using passband data transmission in that they are not suitable
for short distance communications and also system complexity due to complexities of
modulator/demodulator circuits, transmit/ receive antennas, and interference issues due to wireless
environments.

3
Model of a typical Passband Data Transmission System
In fig. 3, message 𝑚𝑖 (𝑡) from a source is fed to an encoder which generates the signal vector. The
modulator generates the modulated signal with the help of a high frequency carrier giving out a
modulated signal 𝑆𝑖 (𝑡) that is transmitted through the channel. This signal passes through the
transmission channel producing a received signal 𝑥(𝑡). The receiver has a detector (either synchronous
or envelope detector) and a decoder producing an estimate of the transmitted message 𝑚 ̂ 𝑖 (𝑡).

Fig. 3. Model of a typical passband data transmission system

❖ Binary Amplitude Shift Keying (BASK)

This method is also called as On Off Keying (OOK). The basic passband modulation techniques, BASK,
BFSK and BPSK are shown in fig, 4, which are basically obtained as amplitude/frequency/phase
modulation of the carrier signal, 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡.

Fig. 4. Basic passband modulation schemes

Generation of BASK/BOOK
A binary ASK signal is generated by sending a carrier signal 𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡, whenever the information
bit is ‘1’ and by sending a ‘0’ if the information bit is ‘0’ as shown in fig 5.

𝑆𝐵𝐴𝑆𝐾 (𝑡) = 𝑆𝐵𝑂𝑂𝐾 (𝑡). 𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 ……………………………………………………………………………………………… (1)

4
 Fig. 5. Binary OOK and binary ASK waveforms

A BASK transmitter essentially consists of a product modulator as shown in fig. 6 with a binary
wave in unipolar form 𝑥(𝑡) as input to the product modulator multiplied by a carrier wave
𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡, producing a binary ASK wave 𝑠(𝑡).

The product modulator acts as a switch, controlled

by the carrier wave 𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡. For an input ′1′ the
switch is closed and the output of the product
modulator will be the carrier wave itself. On the
other hand, a ′0′ the switch is off and product
modulator generates no output. The product
modulator behaves like an on-off switch producing
BASK, because of which BASK is also known as
Fig. 6. BASK transmitter
Binary On Off Keying (BOOK) modulator.

BASK Receiver
The BASK receiver performs the coherent demodulation function by use of a coherent detector as
shown in fig. 7. It basically consists of a product modulator, an integrator, and a decision device.
The binary ASK signal is applied to one input of the product modulator and the other is supplied with
a local carrier𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 . The integrator essentially performs a low-pass filtering operation, whose
output is fed to a decision device.

Fig. 7. BASK receiver

5
The decision device compares the output of the integrator with the threshold value. If the output value
is more than the threshold, a ′1′ is decoded, else it decodes the bit as ′0′. However, an assumption of
perfect synchronization between local oscillator and the carrier used in the transmitter has been made
here. This essentially means that the frequency and phase of the local oscillator are the same as those
of the carrier used in the transmitter. Hence in a coherent detector, both phase synchronization (local
carrier wave locked in phase with respect to carrier at transmitter) and timing synchronization are
required.
A non-coherent BASK receiver is also possible by using an envelope detector wherein we do not require
a phase-coherent local oscillator. Such a non- coherent receiver for BASK receiver is shown in fig. 8.

Fig. 8. Non-coherent BASK receiver

The greatest advantage of using BASK is its simplicity. It is easy to generate and demodulate a BASK
signal (simple circuitry). However, BASK is very sensitive to noise, and can only be used at very low
data rates, (only up to 100 bps).

❖ Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)

In a BPSK scheme, a binary ‘1’ is represented by a carrier of amplitude ‘𝐴’, frequency ′𝑓𝑐 ′ with phase
of ′𝜙1 ′ while a binary ‘0’ by a sinusoidal carrier of amplitude of ‘𝐴’, frequency ′𝑓𝑐 ′ with phase of ‘𝜙2 ′.

Generally, 𝜙1 = 0 and 𝜙2 = 𝜋, which means that the difference in phase of the two carriers used for
representing logic ‘0’ and logic ‘1’ is 1800 .
Mathematically,

𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 ; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙 ′1′

𝑆 (𝑡 ) = {
𝐴𝑐 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜋) ; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙 ′0′

Generation of BPSK Waves

A product modulator can be used to generate BPSK. The inputs to the product modulator are the
sinusoidal carrier and the binary bit stream in polar form ( Binary PAM signal, (BPAM).

𝑆𝐵𝑃𝑆𝐾 (𝑡) = 𝑆𝐵𝑃𝐴𝑀 (𝑡). 𝐴𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 ……………………………………………………………………………………………… (2)

This is shown in fig. 9 (b). Fig. 9 (a) gives a product modulator that can generate a BPSK wave.

Fig. 9 (b) Product Modulator