NETWORK HARDWARE

Network hardware in computer networks refers to the physical devices and equipment that
enable communication and data transfer between devices on a network, such as routers,
switches, modems, and cables.
Definition:

Network hardware comprises the physical components that facilitate communication and
interaction between devices in a computer network.
Examples:

Common network hardware includes:

• Routers: Connect different networks and direct data traffic.

• Switches: Connect devices within a network and forward data packets efficiently.
• Modems: Convert digital signals to analog signals and vice versa, allowing
communication over phone lines.
• Hubs: Connect multiple devices to a network, but send data to all connected devices,
regardless of the intended recipient.
• Bridges: Connect two or more network segments, filtering traffic based on MAC
addresses.
• Network Interface Cards (NICs): Allow computers to connect to a network, either
wired or wirelessly.
• Cables: Physical connections between network devices (e.g., Ethernet cables).
• Wireless Access Points (WAPs): Provide wireless connectivity to devices in a network.
Function:
Network hardware devices play a crucial role in enabling communication and data sharing
between devices, ensuring efficient and reliable network operation.
Importance:
The choice and arrangement of network hardware can significantly impact network
performance, reliability, and scalability.

NETWORK SOFTWARE
Network software encompasses the programs and tools that manage, monitor, and enable
communication within a computer network, facilitating operations, design, and
implementation.
Key Functions:

• Facilitating Communication: Network software enables devices to communicate and

exchange data across a network.
• Network Management: It helps administrators configure, monitor, and troubleshoot
network issues.
 • Performance Optimization: Network software can optimize network performance,
ensuring efficient data transfer and resource utilization.
Examples of Network Software:
• Network Operating Systems (NOS): Software that manages network resources, user
access, and security, such as Windows Server or Linux-based network operating
systems.
• Network Monitoring Tools: Software that monitors network performance, identifies
problems, and provides insights into network traffic, such as NetWorx.
• Firewalls: Network security software that protects against unauthorized access and
malicious traffic.
• Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS): Software that detects and alerts administrators to
potential security breaches.
• Traffic Analysis Tools: Software that analyzes network traffic to identify patterns,
troubleshoot problems, and optimize performance, such as Wireshark.
• Software-Defined Networking (SDN): An approach to networking that uses software-
based controllers to manage and control network traffic.

OSI MODEL
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework that divides
network communication into seven abstract layers, providing a standardized way to
understand and design networks, even though the modern internet uses the TCP/IP model.

Breakdown of the OSI model:

Purpose:
The OSI model serves as a universal language for computer networking, allowing diverse
systems to communicate effectively by breaking down complex network functions into
manageable layers.
7 Layers:
The model consists of seven layers, each responsible for specific functions:
• Application: Provides network services to applications (e.g., web browsers, email
clients).
• Presentation: Handles data formatting, encryption, and compression.
• Session: Manages connections between applications (e.g., establishing, maintaining,
and terminating sessions).
• Transport: Ensures reliable data delivery between end-points, including error
correction and flow control.
• Network: Determines the best path for data packets to travel across the network (e.g.,
using IP addresses).
• Data Link: Handles error-free data transmission between two directly connected
devices (e.g., using MAC addresses).
 • Physical: Deals with the physical transmission of bits over the network medium (e.g.,
cables, wireless signals).

Benefits:

The OSI model helps network professionals:

• Understand how networks operate.
• Troubleshoot network issues by isolating problems to specific layers.
• Design and implement complex networks.

TCP/IP REFERENCE MODELS:

The TCP/IP reference model is a fundamental framework for understanding how data is
transmitted over networks, defining the protocols and layers involved in communication
between devices, particularly on the internet.
Purpose:

It defines how data is transmitted over networks, ensuring reliable communication between
devices.
Layers:
The TCP/IP model is often described as having four layers (though some sources may group
layers):
• Application Layer: This layer provides the interface between the user or application
and the network, handling protocols like HTTP, SMTP, and FTP.
• Transport Layer: This layer (TCP) is responsible for reliable end-to-end communication
and data segmentation.
• Internet Layer: This layer (IP) is responsible for routing packets from the source to the
destination.
• Network Access Layer: This layer handles the physical transmission of data across the
network.

Protocols:
Key protocols in the TCP/IP model include:
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Provides reliable, connection-oriented
communication.
• IP (Internet Protocol): Handles addressing and routing of data packets.
• HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring data over the internet,
especially for web pages.
• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used for sending email.
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring files.
• DNS (Domain Name System): Translates domain names (like google.com) into IP
addresses.
Relationship to OSI Model:

While the TCP/IP model is a practical model, the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
model is a more comprehensive, protocol-independent framework designed to
encompass various network communication methods.

ARPANET :

The U.S. Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) was the first public packet-
switched computer network. It was first used in 1969 and finally decommissioned in 1989.
ARPANET's main use was for academic and research purposes.

For example, the first email message was sent over ARPANET in 1971, and the first online chat
system was developed on the network in 1973. In addition, ARPANET was the first network
to use the TCP/IP protocol suite, which is still used today as the standard for internet
communication.

Features of ARPANET :

1. Packet switching
2. Decentralized network architecture
3. Resource Sharing
4. Email
5. File transfer
6. Remote login
7. Error correction
8. Research and innovation

Importance of ARPANET :

1. Science and research

2. Education
3. Business and commerce
4. Government
5. Social life
6. Healthcare
7. Défense
Internet:
Examples of networks, including the Internet, within the broader context of computer
networks, encompass various types like Local Area Networks (LANs), Wide Area Networks
(WANs), Personal Area Networks (PANs), and Enterprise Private Networks (EPNs), all of which
utilize technologies like Ethernet and Wi-Fi.

Here's a breakdown of different network types and their characteristics:

1. Local Area Network (LAN):
• Definition: A network connecting devices within a limited geographical area, such as
a home, office, or school.
• Technology: Often uses Ethernet for wired connections and Wi-Fi for wireless
connections.
• Example: Your home Wi-Fi network or a network within a company's building.
2. Wide Area Network (WAN):
• Definition: A network that spans a large geographical area, connecting multiple LANs
or devices across cities, countries, or even globally.
• Technology: The Internet itself is a large WAN, using technologies like the Internet
Protocol (IP).
• Example: The Internet, a global network connecting countless devices and networks.
3. Personal Area Network (PAN):
• Definition: A network connecting personal devices around a single person, such as a
phone, laptop, and smart watch.
• Technology: Often uses wireless technologies like Bluetooth and Wi-Fi.
• Example: Connecting your phone to your laptop via Bluetooth or Wi-Fi.
4. Enterprise Private Network (EPN):
• Definition:
A private network used by a company to connect its various branches and share resources.
• Technology:
Can utilize various technologies like VPNs, LANs, and WANs to create a secure and private
network.
• Example:
A bank's internal network connecting different branches across the country.
5. Other Network Technologies and Concepts:
• Ethernet:
A common wired networking technology used in LANs and WANs.
• Wi-Fi:
A wireless networking technology used in LANs and for connecting to the internet.
• Internet Protocol (IP):
The fundamental protocol that enables communication between devices on the internet.
• TCP/IP:
A suite of protocols that enables reliable communication over networks, including the
internet.
• Border Gateway Protocol (BGP):
A routing protocol used to exchange routing information between different autonomous
systems on the internet.
• Open Shortest Path First (OSPF):
A routing protocol used within a network to find the shortest path for data transmission.
• Peer-to-Peer Networks:
A network where devices can directly communicate with each other, rather than relying on a
central server.
• Storage Area Network (SAN):
A network specifically designed for high-speed data storage and access.

PHYSICAL LAYER:
In computer networking, the physical layer, the lowest layer of the OSI model, deals with the
physical transmission of data, converting data into signals (like electrical pulses or light
signals) and transmitting them over physical media like cables or wireless signals.

Key Functions and Responsibilities:

• Data Transmission:
The physical layer is responsible for sending and receiving raw data (bits) over a physical
medium.
• Physical Media:
It defines the physical characteristics of the network medium, including cables, connectors,
and wireless signals.
• Signal Encoding:
It specifies how data is represented as signals (e.g., voltage levels, light pulses, radio waves).
• Bit Synchronization:
It ensures that the sender and receiver are aligned in terms of timing and data rate.
• Modulation and Demodulation:
It converts digital data into signals suitable for transmission and vice versa.
• Hardware:
It deals with the physical hardware components like network interface cards (NICs), cables,
hubs, and repeaters.
Examples of Physical Layer Technologies:
• Ethernet: Uses cables (twisted pair, fiber optic) and defines the physical
characteristics of the signals.
• Wi-Fi: Uses radio waves to transmit data wirelessly.
• Bluetooth: Another wireless technology that operates at the physical layer.
• Fiber Optics: Uses light pulses to transmit data over optical fibers.

Analog and Digital signal:

Analog and digital signals are two fundamental types of electrical signals used to transmit
information in various electronic systems. Analog signals are continuous and vary smoothly
over time, while digital signals are discrete and represented by a series of discrete values.

Analog Signal:
Analog signal is a type of signal that represents continuous data using a continuous range of
values. In other words, it can take on any value within a certain range. Analog signals are
characterized by their smooth and continuous nature.
For example, imagine a sound wave. In analog form, the sound wave is represented by a
continuously varying electrical signal that mirrors the fluctuations in air pressure caused by
the sound.
 Digital Signal:
Digital signal is a type of signal that represents data as a sequence of discrete values, typically
using binary numbers, it also contains different voltage values. Unlike analog signals, which
vary continuously over time, digital signals are discrete and quantized, meaning they only take
on specific, distinct values.
In digital communication and computing systems, information is encoded into digital signals
for transmission, processing, and storage. These signals are commonly used in
telecommunications, audio and video processing, computer networks, and many other
applications.

Difference Between Analog and Digital Signal :

Basis Analog Signal Digital Signal

Definition Analog signals represent continuous Digital signals are Discrete and
variations in magnitude over time. quantized, with specific values.
Signal Type Continuous waveforms Discrete Signals
Processing Requires complex processing for Easier to process and manipulate
manipulation. digitally.
Storage Less efficient for storage due to More efficient for storage due to
continuous nature. discrete values.
Bandwidth Typically requires more bandwidth. Requires less bandwidth for
transmission.
Examples Analog audio signals, analog radio waves, Digital audio signals, digital data
Human voice, etc. streams, computers, etc.
Errors Susceptible to noise and distortion More resistant to noise and distortion
Circuit Amplifiers, filters, continuous-wave Microprocessors, binary counters, logic
Component oscillators gates
Signal Values Infinite range of values Limited to discrete values
Conversion No conversion required Analog-to-digital conversion (ADC)
required
Applications Analog signals are used in electric fan, Digital signals are used in computers,
landlines, radio frequency smartphones, digital sensors, digital
communications, etc. imagining, etc.

Periodic Signals:
Periodic signals are a type of electrical signals which repeat their behaviour after a certain
interval of time known as time period. It is also know as a cyclic function and the part of
function which repeats is called a cycle. For example, a sine wave, in which the signal has a
unique behaviour from t=0s to t=2π s .After this we observe that the waveform begins to
repeat . This means that sine wave is a periodic signal with a time period of 2π seconds.

Properties of Periodic Signal

Here are some properties of periodic signal:
 • One important property of periodic signals is their periodicity .Periodic signals have
this property since they show a repeating pattern after a constant interval of time
called Time period.
• Another important property if Periodic Signals is Amplitude of periodic signals. It is the
maximum absolute value of the signal. which represents magnitude or strength of the
signal.
• We can define Frequency of periodic signals as number of cycles per unit time. It is the
reciprocal of time period and is denoted in Hertz.
• Orientation or shape or form of a periodic signal is another important property.
Common periodic waveforms include sine waves, square waves, sawtooth waves,
and triangular waves.
Advantages of Periodic Signals
The advantages of periodic signals are stated below:
• Periodic signals are bandwidth-efficient as compared to non-periodic signals.
Frequency modulated and Amplitude modulated signals generally use periodic signals
due to their low bandwidth requirement.
• It is easier to analyse periodic signals over aperiodic signals due to their easier
mathematical representation. Tools like Fourier series can be easily used for dealing
with periodic signals.
• Periodic signals are efficiently transferred as compared to aperiodic signals. Due to
their repetitive nature , simple modulation techniques can be used for transmission
and storage of information.
Disadvantages of Periodic Signals
The limitations of periodic signal are stated below:
• These signals become complex in case of non-linear systems where we can't apply
normal and simple techniques associated with periodic signals.
• Periodic signals lack the application in real-life world since most signals in everyday
life are not periodic rather they have some irregularities and have non-repeating
behaviour in their patterns.
• Periodic signals are sensitive to noise . This means that addition of noise might disrupt
the original wave affection the accuracy and transmission of the signals.
Applications of Periodic Signals
Periodic signal is used in various applications like:
• Periodic signals are abundantly used in communication system. Signals like sine wave
are fundamental signals used in various modulation techniques.
• Periodic signals are widely used in audio processing. This is because musical notes,
speech signals have to exhibit periodic properties.
• Periodic signals are used in control theory where systems are often modelled and
analysed using sine signals.
• Periodic signals are essentially used in signal processing. Periodic signals are analyse
using tools like Fourier series to understand various signals.
Transmission Impairments:
Transmission impairment occurs when the received signal is different from the transmitted
signal. As we know, a signal can be transmitted as Analog signal or it can be transmitted as a
digital signal.
In Analog signals due to transmission impairment the resulting received signal gets different
amplitude or the shape. In the case of digitally transmitted signals at the receiver side we get
changes in bits (0's or 1's).
Causes of Transmission Impairments:
There are various causes of transmission impairments –
• Noise
• Distortion
• Attenuation

Noise
• Noise is the major factor for the transmission distortion as any unwanted signal gets
added to the transmitted signal by which the resulting transmitted signal gets
modified and at the receiver side it is difficult to remove the unwanted noise signal.
These noises are various kinds like shot noise, impulse noise, thermal noise etc.
• Noise is diagrammatically represented as follows –

Distortion
• This kind of distortion is mainly appearing in case of composite signals in which a
composite signal has various frequency components in it and each frequency
component has some time constraint which makes a complete signal.
• But while transmitting this composite signal, if a certain delay happens between the
frequencies components, then there may be the chance that the frequency
component will reach the receiver end with a different delay constraint from its
original which leads to the change in shape of the signal. The delay happens due to
environmental parameters or from the distance between transmitter and receiver etc.

Distortion is diagrammatically represented as follows –

Attenuation
Attenuation is generally decreased in signal strength, by which the received signal will be
difficult to receive at the receiver end. This attenuation happens due to the majority factor
by environment as environment imposes a lot of resistance and the signal strength decreases
as it tries to overcome the resistance imposed.

The above picture shows that the signal loses power at its travels time.
Attenuation is diagrammatically represented as follows −

Data rate Limits:

In computer networks, data rate limits, or maximum data rates, refer to the theoretical or
practical limits on the speed at which data can be transmitted over a communication channel,
typically measured in bits per second (bps) or bytes per second (B/s).

Factors influencing data rate limits:

• Bandwidth: The available bandwidth of the channel (the range of frequencies it can
transmit) is a primary factor.
• Signal Levels: The number of signal levels used to represent data (e.g., binary or multi-
level signaling) also impacts the data rate.
• Channel Quality: Noise and other impairments in the channel can reduce the
achievable data rate.

Theoretical Limits:
 • Nyquist Bit Rate: For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the
maximum bit rate, which is based on bandwidth and the number of signal levels.
• Shannon Capacity: For a noisy channel, the Shannon capacity formula provides a
theoretical limit on the data rate, considering bandwidth, signal-to-noise ratio (SNR),
and other factors.
Practical Limits:
• Network Infrastructure: Physical limitations of network hardware (e.g., cables,
routers, network cards) can restrict data rates.
• Protocols and Standards: Network protocols and standards also define maximum
data rates for specific technologies (e.g., Ethernet, Wi-Fi).
Examples:
• A Fast Ethernet network has a maximum bandwidth of 100 Mbps, meaning it can
theoretically transmit up to 100 million bits per second.
• A Wi-Fi network's data rate depends on the frequency band, channel width, and
modulation scheme used.

Guided Transmission Media:

Guided transmission media refers to the physical mediums that guide the transmission of data
signals from one device to another within a network. These media can take the form of
twisted pair cables, coaxial cables, or fibre optic cables, each offering different characteristics
suited to specific networking needs. Examples of guided media being twisted pair, coaxial,
and fibre optic cables.

Twisted Pair Cables

This consists of pairs of copper wires twisted together to reduce electromagnetic
interference. These cables are commonly used in LANs (Local Area Networks) and telephone
networks. It has two types:

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around
one another. This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on
a physical shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.
Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair
• Least expensive
• Easy to install
• High-speed capacity
Disadvantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair
• Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
• Short distance transmission due to attenuation

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cable consists of a special jacket (a
copper braid covering or a foil shield) to block external interference. It is used in fast-data-
rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.
Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair
 • Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
• Eliminates crosstalk
• Comparatively faster
Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted Pair
• Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
• More expensive
• Bulky

Coaxial Cable:
Coaxial cable has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or
Teflon and 2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover.
The coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable
bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable TVs
and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.

Advantages of Coaxial Cable

• Coaxial cables has high bandwidth .

• It is easy to install.
• Coaxial cables are more reliable and durable.
• Less affected by noise or cross-talk or electromagnetic inference.
• Coaxial cables support multiple channels

Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable

• Coaxial cables are expensive.

• The coaxial cable must be grounded in order to prevent any crosstalk.
• As a Coaxial cable has multiple layers it is very bulky.
• There is a chance of breaking the coaxial cable and attaching a “t-joint” by hackers,
this compromises the security of the data.

Optical Fiber Cable

Optical Fibre Cable uses the concept total internal reflection of light through a core made up of
glass. The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the coating. It is
used for the transmission of large volumes of data. The cable can be unidirectional or
bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely
unidirectional and bidirectional mode.

Advantages of Optical Fibre Cable

• Increased capacity and bandwidth
• Lightweight
• Less signal attenuation
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference
• Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages of Optical Fibre Cable
• Difficult to install and maintain
• High cost
Applications of Optical Fibre Cable
• Medical Purpose: Used in several types of medical instruments.
• Defence Purpose: Used in transmission of data in aerospace.
• For Communication: This is largely used in formation of internet cables.
• Industrial Purpose: Used for lighting purposes and safety measures in designing the
interior and exterior of automobiles.

Wireless transmission:
Wireless communication is also referred to as Unguided Media or Unbounded transmission
media. In this mode, no physical medium is required for the transmission of electromagnetic
signals. In wireless communication, we can transfer our message through the air, water or
vacuum i.e. Infrared, Radio wave, Microwave wave.