UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION TO MOBILE COMPUTING

Mobile Computing is a technology that provides an environment that enables users to transmit
data from one device to another device without the use of any physical link or cables.

In other words, you can say that mobile computing allows transmission of data, voice and video
via a computer or any other wireless-enabled device without being connected to a fixed physical
link. In this technology, data transmission is done wirelessly with the help of wireless devices
such as mobiles, laptops etc.

This is only because of Mobile Computing technology that you can access and transmit data
from any remote locations without being present there physically. Mobile computing technology
provides a vast coverage diameter for communication. It is one of the fastest and most reliable
sectors of the computing technology field.

The concept of Mobile Computing can be divided into three parts:

o Mobile Communication
o Mobile Hardware
o Mobile Software

Mobile Communication specifies a framework that is responsible for the working of mobile
computing technology. In this case, mobile communication refers to an infrastructure that
ensures seamless and reliable communication among wireless devices. This framework ensures
the consistency and reliability of communication between wireless devices. The mobile
communication framework consists of communication devices such as protocols, services,
bandwidth, and portals necessary to facilitate and support the stated services. These devices are
responsible for delivering a smooth communication process.

Mobile communication can be divided in the following four types:

1. Fixed and Wired

2. Fixed and Wireless
3. Mobile and Wired
4. Mobile and Wireless
Fixed and Wired: In Fixed and Wired configuration, the devices are fixed at a position, and
they are connected through a physical link to communicate with other devices.

For Example, Desktop Computer.

Fixed and Wireless: In Fixed and Wireless configuration, the devices are fixed at a position,
and they are connected through a wireless link to make communication with other devices.

For Example, Communication Towers, WiFi router

Mobile and Wired: In Mobile and Wired configuration, some devices are wired, and some are
mobile. They altogether make communication with other devices.

For Example, Laptops.

Mobile and Wireless: In Mobile and Wireless configuration, the devices can communicate with
each other irrespective of their position. They can also connect to any network without the use of
any wired device.

For Example, WiFi Dongle.

Mobile Hardware

Mobile hardware consists of mobile devices or device components that can be used to receive or
access the service of mobility. Examples of mobile hardware can be smartphones, laptops,
portable PCs, tablet PCs, Personal Digital Assistants, etc.

These devices are inbuilt with a receptor medium that can send and receive signals. These
devices are capable of operating in full-duplex. It means they can send and receive signals at the
same time. They don't have to wait until one device has finished communicating for the other
device to initiate communications.
Mobile Software

Mobile software is a program that runs on mobile hardware. This is designed to deal capably
with the characteristics and requirements of mobile applications. This is the operating system for
the appliance of mobile devices. In other words, you can say it the heart of the mobile systems.
This is an essential component that operates the mobile device.

This provides portability to mobile devices, which ensures wireless communication.

Applications of Mobile Computing

Following is a list of some significant fields in which mobile computing is generally applied:

o Web or Internet access.

o Global Position System (GPS).
o Emergency services.
o Entertainment services.
o Educational services.

GENERATIONS OF MOBILE COMMUNICTIONS TECHNOLOGIES

First Generation (1G)

First-generation mobile networks relied on analogue radio systems, which meant that users could
only make phone calls and not send or receive text messages. The 1G network was first
introduced in Japan in 1979 before being rolled out in other countries, such as the USA, in 1980.

Cell towers were built around the country to make it work, meaning that signal coverage could
be obtained from greater distances. However, the network was unreliable and had some security
issues. For instance, cell coverage would often drop, it would experience interference by other
radio signals, and it could easily be hacked due to a lack of encryption.

This means that conversations can be heard and recorded with a few tools.

Second Generation (2G)

The 1G network was not perfect, but it remained until 1991, when it was replaced with 2G. This
new mobile network ran on digital signal, not analogue, vastly improving its security and
capacity. On 2G, users could send SMS and MMS messages (although slowly and often without
success), and when GPRS was introduced in 1997, users could receive and send emails on the
move.
Third Generation (3G)

Third-generation mobile networks are still in use, but normally, when the superior 4G signal
fails. 3G revolutionized mobile connectivity and the capabilities of cell phones. Compared to 2G,
3G was much faster and could transmit greater amounts of data. This means that users could
video call, share files, surf the internet, watch TV online, and play games on their mobiles for the
first time.

Under 3G, cell phones were no longer just about calling and texting; they were the hub of social
connectivity.

Fourth Generation (4G)

The introduction of 4G went one step further than the revolutionary 3G.

It is five times faster than the 3G network – and can theoretically provide speeds of up to
100Mbps. All mobile models released from 2013 onwards should support this network, which
can offer connectivity for tablets, laptops, and smartphones.

Under 4G, users can experience better latency (less buffering), higher voice quality, easy access
to instant messaging services and social media, quality streaming, and faster downloads.

Fifth Generation (5G)

The network has arrived and has been largely welcomed by the mobile industry. The network has
changed more than our mobile use and affects how we connect our devices to the internet. The
improved speed and the massive network capacity have developed new IoT trends, such as smart
cities, healthcare, IoT in the home or office and connected cars.

5G can theoretically have a download speed 20x faster than 4G and boasts a very low latency
compared to its predecessor. This means the time delay for online gaming, video calls, and
critical mission applications will be significantly lower.
With almost a decade of 5G development left, the technology’s full potential is yet to come. The
5G network will revolutionize how people live and work worldwide, so expect to see exciting
changes in the coming years.

Multiplexing in Mobile Computing

Multiplexing is a technique used in the area of electronics and signal processing. In mobile
computing, telecommunications and computer networks, Multiplexing is a method that can be
used to combine multiple analog or digital signals into one signal over a shared medium. The
main aim of using this method is to share a scarce resource.

Example: You can see a real-life example of Multiplexing in the telecommunication field where
several telephone calls may be carried using one wire. Multiplexing is also called as muxing.

History of Multiplexing

The concept of Multiplexing was originated in telegraphy in the 1870s. Nowadays, it is widely
used in communications.

George Owen Squier is called the father of Multiplexing in telephony. He was credited for the
development of telephone carrier multiplexing in 1910.

Key points of Multiplexing

o Multiplexing is a technique that allows multiple simultaneous analogs or digital signal
transmission across a single data link.
o The main motive behind the development of Multiplexing is to provide simple and easy
communication, proper resource sharing and its utilization. This is the best way to utilize
and share a limited resource equally among multiple devices.

Multiplexing can be classified into the following four types:

o Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

o Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
o Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
o Space Division Multiplexing (SDM)

Use Image of Multiplexing

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

Frequency division multiplexing or FDM is inherently an analog technology. As the name

specifies, in Frequency Division Multiplexing, the frequency dimension spectrum is split into
smaller frequency bands. It combines several smaller distinct frequency ranges signals into one
medium and sends them over a single medium. In FDM, the signals are electrical signals.

FDM's most common applications are a traditional radio or television broadcasting, mobile or
satellite stations, or cable television.

For example: In cable TV, you can see that only one cable is reached to the customer's locality,
but the service provider can send multiple television channels or signals simultaneously over that
cable to all customers without any interference. The customers have to tune to the appropriate
frequency (channel) to access the required signal.

In FDM, several frequency bands can work simultaneously without any time constraint.

Advantages of FDM

o The concept of frequency division multiplexing (FDM) applies to both analog signals and
digital signals.
o It facilitates you to send multiple signals simultaneously within a single connection.

Disadvantages of FDM

o It is less flexible.
o In FDM, the bandwidth wastage may be high.

Usage

It is used in Radio and television broadcasting stations, Cable TV etc.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

The Time Division Multiplexing or (TDM) is a digital or analog technology (in rare cases) that
uses time, instead of space or frequency, to separate the different data streams. It is used for a
specific amount of time in which the whole spectrum is used.

The Time frames of the same intervals are divided so that you can access the entire frequency
spectrum at that time frame.

Advantages of TDM

o It facilitates a single user at a time.

o It is less complicated and has a more flexible architecture.

Disadvantages of TDM

o It isn't easy to implement.

Usage

o It is mainly used in telephonic services.

Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)

The Code Division Multiplexing or (CDM) allots a unique code to every channel so that each of
these channels can use the same spectrum simultaneously at the same time.
Advantages of CDM

o It is highly efficient.
o It faces fewer Inferences.

Disadvantages of CDM

o The data transmission rate is low.

o It is complex.

Usage

o It is mainly used in Cell Phone Spectrum Technology (2G, 3G etc.).

Space Division Multiplexing (SDM)

The Space Division Multiplexing or (SDM) is called a combination of Frequency Division

Multiplexing (FDM) and Time Division Multiplexing (TDM).

It passes messages or data-parallel with the use of specific frequency at a specific. It means a
particular channel will be used against a specific frequency band for some amount of time.
Advantages of SDM

o In SDM, the data transmission rate is high.

o It uses Time and Frequency bands at its maximum potential.

Disadvantages of SDM

o An inference may occur.

o It faces high inference losses.

Usage

o It is used in GSM (Global Service for Mobile) Technology.

Spread Spectrum in Mobile Computing

Spread spectrum is a technique used for wireless communications in telecommunication and

radio communication. In this technique, the frequency of the transmitted signal, i.e., an electrical
signal, electromagnetic signal, or acoustic signal, is deliberately varied and generates a much
greater bandwidth than the signal would have if its frequency were not varied.

In other words, "Spread Spectrum is a technique in which the transmitted signals of specific
frequencies are varied slightly to obtain greater bandwidth as compared to initial bandwidth."

Now, spread spectrum technology is widely used in radio signals transmission because it can
easily reduce noise and other signal issues.

Example of Spread Spectrum

Let's see an example to understand the concept of spread spectrum in wireless communication:

We know that a conventional wireless signal frequency is usually specified in

megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz). It does not change with time (Sometimes it is
exceptionally changed in the form of small, rapid fluctuations that generally occur due to
modulation). Suppose you want to listen to FM stereo at frequency 104.8 MHz on your radio,
and then once you set the frequency, the signal stays at 104.8 MHz. It does not go up to 105.1
MHz or down to 101.1 MHz. You see that your set digits on the radio's frequency dial stay the
same at all times. The frequency of a conventional wireless signal is kept as constant to keep
bandwidth within certain limits, and the signal can be easily located by someone who wants to
retrieve the information.

In this conventional wireless communication model, you can face at least two problems:
 1. A signal whose frequency is constant is subject to catastrophic interference. This
interference occurs when another signal is transmitted on or near the frequency of a
specified signal.
2. A constant-frequency signal can easily be intercepted. So, it is not suitable for the
applications in which information must be kept confidential between the source
(transmitting party) and the receiver.

The spread spectrum model is used to overcome with this conventional communication model.
Here, the transmitted signal frequency is deliberately varied over a comparatively large segment
of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum. This variation is done according to a specific but
complicated mathematical function. If the receiver wants to intercept the signal, it must be tuned
to frequencies that vary precisely according to this function.

Reasons to use Spread Spectrum

o Spread spectrum signals are distributed over a wide range of frequencies and then
collected and received back to the receiver. On the other hand, wide-band signals are
noise-like and challenging to detect.
o Initially, the spread spectrum was adopted in military applications because of its
resistance to jamming and difficulty intercepting.
o Now, this is also used in commercial wireless communication.
o It is most preferred because of its useful bandwidth utilization ability.

Usage of Spread Spectrum

There are many reasons to use this spread spectrum technique for wireless communications. The
following are some reasons:

o It can successfully establish a secure medium of communication.

o It can increase the resistance to natural interference, such as noise and jamming, to
prevent detection.
o It can limit the power flux density (e.g., in satellite down links).
o It can enable multiple-access communications.

Types of Spread Spectrum

Spread Spectrum can be categorized into two types:

 o Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
o Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum(DSSS)

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

o The Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS allows us to utilize bandwidth

properly and maximum. In this technique, the whole available bandwidth is divided into
many channels and spread between channels, arranged continuously.
o The frequency slots are selected randomly, and frequency signals are transmitted
according to their occupancy.
o The transmitters and receivers keep on hopping on channels available for a particular
amount of time in milliseconds.
o So, you can see that it implements the frequency division multiplexing and time-division
multiplexing simultaneously in FHSS.

The Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS can also be classified into two types:
 o Slow Hopping: In slow hopping, multiple bits are transmitted on a specific frequency or
same frequency.
o Fast Hopping: In fast hopping, individual bits are split and then transmitted on different
frequencies.

Advantages of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

The following are some advantages of frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS):

o The biggest advantage of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS is its high
efficiency.
o The Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS signals are highly resistant to
narrowband interference because the signal hops to a different frequency band.
o It requires a shorter time for acquisition.
o It is highly secure. Its signals are very difficult to intercept if the frequency-hopping
pattern is not known; that's why it is preferred to use in Military services.
o We can easily program it to avoid some portions of the spectrum.
o Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS transmissions can share a frequency band
with many types of conventional transmissions with minimal mutual interference. FHSS
signals add minimal interference to narrowband communications, and vice versa.
o It provides a very large bandwidth.
o It can be simply implemented as compared to DsSS.

Disadvantages of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

The following are some disadvantages of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):

o FHSS is less Robust, so sometimes it requires error correction.

o FHSS needs complex frequency synthesizers.
 o FHSS supports a lower data rate of 3 Mbps as compared to the 11 Mbps data rate
supported by DSSS.
o It is not very useful for range and range rate measurements.
o It supports the lower coverage range due to the high SNR requirement at the receiver.
o Nowadays, it is not very popular due to the emerging of new wireless technologies in
wireless products.

Applications of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

Following is the list of most used applications of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS:

o The Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS is used in wireless local area
networks (WLAN) standard for Wi-Fi.
o FHSS is also used in the wireless personal area networks (WPAN) standard for
Bluetooth.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

The Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) is a spread-spectrum modulation technique

primarily used to reduce overall signal interference in telecommunication. The Direct Sequence
Spread Spectrum modulation makes the transmitted signal wider in bandwidth than the
information bandwidth. In DSSS, the message bits are modulated by a bit sequencing process
known as a spreading sequence. This spreading-sequence bit is known as a chip. It has a much
shorter duration (larger bandwidth) than the original message bits. Following are the features of
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS.

o In Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS technique, the data that needs to be
transmitted is split into smaller blocks.
o After that, each data block is attached with a high data rate bit sequence and is
transmitted from the sender end to
o the receiver end.
o Data blocks are recombined again to generate the original data at the receiver's end,
which was sent by the sender, with the help of the data rate bit sequence.
o

o If somehow data is lost, then data blocks can also be recovered with those data rate bits.
 o The main advantage of splitting the data into smaller blocks is that it reduces the noise
and unintentional inference.

The Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS can also be classified into two types:

o Wide Band Spread Spectrum

o Narrow Band Spread Spectrum

Advantages of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

The following are some advantages of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS:

o Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS is less reluctant to noise; that's why the DSSS
system's performance in the presence of noise is better than the FHSS system.
o In Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS, signals are challenging to detect.
o It provides the best discrimination against multipath signals.
o In Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum, there are very few chances of jamming because it
avoids intentional interference such as jamming effectively.

Disadvantages of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

The following are some disadvantages of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS:

o The Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS system takes large acquisition time;
that's why its performance is slow.
o It requires wide-band channels with small phase distortion.
o In DSSS, the pseudo-noise generator generates a sequence at high rates.
Applications of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

Following is the list of most used applications of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS:

o Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS is used in LAN technology.

o Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS is also used in Satellite communication
technology.
o DSSS is used in the military and many other commercial applications.
o It is used in the low probability of the intercept signal.
o It supports Code division multiple access.

Multiple Access Techniques

In wireless communication systems, it is often desirable to allow the subscriber to send

information simultaneously from the mobile station to the base station while receiving
information from the base station to the mobile station.

A cellular system divides any given area into cells where a mobile unit in each cell
communicates with a base station. The main aim in the cellular system design is to be able
to increase the capacity of the channel, i.e., to handle as many calls as possible in a given
bandwidth with a sufficient level of quality of service.

There are several different ways to allow access to the channel. These includes mainly the
following −

 Frequency division multiple-access (FDMA)

 Time division multiple-access (TDMA)
 Code division multiple-access (CDMA)
 Space division multiple access (SDMA)

Difference between FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA

These are all techniques for data transfer and communication. They are quite effective, but they
are employed in several ways due to their unique features. In this article, you will learn about the
difference between FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA. But before discussing the differences, you must
know about FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA with their advantages and disadvantages.

What is FDMA?

FDMA is an abbreviation for "Frequency Division Multiple Access". It is a form of

channelization protocol. In this system, the bandwidth is separated into different frequency
bands. Each station is assigned a band to transmit data, and that band is always reserved for that
station.

A tiny band of unused frequency separates different stations' frequency bands, and these unused
frequency bands are known as guard bands, which prevent station interference. It is similar to the
data link layer access approach, in which the data link layer at each station instructs the physical
layer to generate a bandpass signal from the data provided to it. The signal is generated in the
assigned band, and no physical multiplexer is present at the physical layer.

Advantages and Disadvantages of FDMA

There are various advantages and disadvantages of FDMA. Some main advantages and
disadvantages of FDMA are as follows:

Advantages

1. In terms of hardware resources, it is very simple and easy to use.

2. Because FDMA is efficient, it can manage a smaller user population.
3. The system's complexity is modest.
4. All stations may constantly run for 24 hours without waiting for their chance.
5. The reduced information bit rate can have a positive impact on capacity.
6. It reduces inter-symbol interference.

Disadvantages

1. It only works with analogue signals.

2. There isn't much room for flexibility. Therefore, existing traffic patterns must be slowly
changed.
3. The transponders require extensive bandwidth.
4. The traffic's carrying capacity is not very high.
5. RF (Radio Frequency) filters must fulfil stringent adjacent channel rejection
specifications. It can enhance the system's cost.
6. The highest bit rate per channel is small and fixed.

What is TDMA?

TDMA is an abbreviation for "Time Division Multiple Access". It is a channelization system

that divides channel bandwidth into many stations simultaneously. Each station is assigned a
time slot and may only transmit data during the same time slot. Each station should be aware of
the beginning and location of its time slot. Synchronization between stations is needed for
TDMA. It is a form of data link layer access mechanism. The data link layer instructs each
station to utilize the assigned time slot.

It is utilized in digital 2G cellular network systems like Personal Digital Cellular (PDC), GSM,
IS-136, and iDEN, and in the Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications
(DECT) standard for mobile phones. Western Union's Westar 3 communications satellite was the
first to utilize it in satellite communication networks in 1979. It is commonly used for upstream
traffic from premises to the operator in combat-net radio systems, satellite communications
networks, and a passive optical network (PON).

TDMA is a form of time-division multiplexing (TDM) in which numerous transmitters are

connected to a single receiver rather than a single transmitter. The uplink from a cellular phone
to a base station is particularly troublesome because it may move and modify the timing advance
needed to match the transmission gap from its peers.

Advantages and Disadvantages of TDMA

There are various advantages and disadvantages of TDMA. Some main advantages and
disadvantages of TDMA are as follows:

Advantages

1. As cell sizes reduce, TDMA delivers significant investment dollars in space, support, and
base-station hardware.
2. It may transmit data at speeds ranging from 64 kbps to 120 Mbps.
3. It separates clients based on time guarantees that no interference from concurrent
transmission will occur.
4. TDMA enables administrators to do administrations such as fax, voiceband information,
SMS, and applications such as mixed media and video conferencing.
5. It extends the client's battery life by communicating alone for a part of the time during
discussions.
6. TDMA may surely adapt to information transmission and voice correspondence.

Disadvantages

1. The user won't be connected to a call if all of the time slots in the current cell and the cell
they are entering are already taken because they have been allotted a specific slot.
2. In TDMA, frequency/slot allocation will be complicated.
3. In TDMA, high data rates needed equalization.
 4. Network and spectrum planning is a complex and time-consuming process requiring
great expertise and resources.
5. The focus is on organization and range arranging.

What is CDMA?

CDMA is an abbreviation for "Code Division Multiple Access". It is a combination of FDMA

and TDMA in which resources are allocated based on frequency and time. FDMA divides the
frequency band across several users for the duration of the session, whereas TDMA permits each
user to utilize the full frequency band for a defined session. On the other hand, the CDMA
system takes advantage of both systems by allowing several users to simultaneously utilize the
same frequency band defined by a unique code.

These codes are selected in such a way that if the code is utilized for a second time, the user who
knows the code may identify that specific user among the other users. This method may only be
applied to a specific number of users because each user is a source of noise for the receiver. As a
result, it is highly susceptible to noise. Because as the number of user numbers increases, the
noise also increases. As a result, the system may collapse.

Advantages and Disadvantages of CDMA

There are various advantages and disadvantages of CDMA. Some main advantages and
disadvantages of CDMA are as follows:

Advantages

1. It has an extremely high spectral capacity to support many users in MHz of bandwidth.
2. There is no need for synchronization.
3. CDMA channels are difficult to decode, so they enhance cellular communication
security.
4. It offers better secure transmission.
5. Dropouts occur only when the user is twice the distance from the base station.

Disadvantages

1. One of the main issues with the CDMA system is channel pollution, which occurs when a
user's phone has two or more cell sites, but only one of them is powerful.
2. It is not a mature organization because the CDMA is still new compared to GSM.
3. CDMA needed time synchronization.
 4. As the number of users rises, the CDMA system's performance decreases.
5. It has a high price because of the greater equipment.

Key differences between FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA

Here, you will learn the various key differences between FDMA, CDMA, and CDMA. Various
differences between FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA are as follows:

1. FDMA distributes a single bandwidth among multiple stations by dividing it into sub-
channels, whereas TDMA only shares the time of transmission through the satellite, not
the channel. On the other hand, CDMA shares both time and bandwidth among multiple
stations by allocating a unique code to each slot.
2. FDMA only requires the guard bands between adjacent channels, whereas TDMA
requires the guard time of the adjacent slots. On the other hand, CDMA requires both
guard time and guard bands.
3. FDAM has a low data rate, whereas TDMA has a medium data rate. On the other hand,
CDMA has a high data rate.
4. FDMA doesn't need any synchronization, whereas TDMA system needs synchronization.
On the other hand, CDMA doesn't need any synchronization.
5. FDMA has a very low cell capacity, and TDMA has a very restricted cell capacity as
well. On the other hand, CDMA has no capacity restriction for a channel, although it is
interference-limited.
6. The FDMA does not require a codeword, and neither does the TDMA. On the other hand,
CDMA needs the codeword.
7. FDMA happens by filtration in the frequency domain, while TDMA involves
synchronizing the time domain. In contrast, CDMA happens through codes and
sophisticated receivers.
 8. FDMA has little flexibility, but TDMA has moderate flexibility. On the other hand,
CDMA is highly flexible. Head-to-head comparison between FDMA, TDMA, and
CDMA Here, you will learn the head-to-head comparisons between FDMA, TDMA, and
CDMA. The main differences between FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA are as follows:

Features FDMA TDMA CDMA

Full Forms FDMA is an GPRS is an CDMA is an abbreviation

abbreviation for abbreviation for for Code Division Multiple
Frequency Division Time Division Access.
Multiple Access. Multiple Access.

Mode of It distributes a single It only shares the It shares both time and
Operation bandwidth among time of transmission bandwidth among multiple
multiple stations by through the satellite, stations by allocating a
dividing it into sub- not the channel. unique code to each slot.
channels

Flexibility It has a little flexible. It has moderate It has high flexibility.

flexibility.

Codeword It doesn't require a It also doesn't It needs a codeword.

codeword. require a codeword.

Rate of Data It has a low data rate. It has a medium data It has a high data rate.
rate.

Mode of Data It uses continuous It uses signals in It uses digital signals for
transfer signals for data bursts for data data transmission.
transmission. transmission.
Synchronization It doesn't need any It requires It also doesn't require any
synchronization. synchronization. synchronization.

Terminals Every terminal has its Every terminal on Every terminal may remain
own constant the same frequency operational at the same
frequency. is active for just a time and in the same
short period of time. location without
interruption.

Cells Capacity It has a limited cell It also has a limited It has no capacity
capacity. cell capacity. restriction for a channel,
although it is interference-
limited.

Cost It has a high cost. It has a low cost. Its installation cost is high,
but the operational cost is
low.

Guard times and It needed guard It needed guard It needed both guard times
Bands bands. times. and guard bands.

Fading It doesn't require an It needed an RAKE receiver may be

Mitigation equalizer. equalizer possible in CDMA.

Advantages It is a very reliable, It is highly flexible, It is more flexible, needs

well-established, and entirely digital, and less frequency planning,
straightforward well-established. and offers a softer signal
protocol. handover.

Disadvantages It is very flexible, and It requires guard It works with extremely

the frequencies are space. complicated receivers, and
limited. senders/transmitters need a
more complex power
control method.
Conclusion

FDMA is generally combined with SDMA (Space Division Multiple Access) and TDMA,
whereas TDMA holds the standards in fixed networks. Many mobile networks utilize it in
conjunction with SDMA or FDMA. On the other hand, CDMA continues to face significant
challenges, and it is more complicated and has lower expectations. It will most likely be
compatible with FDMA and TDMA.

SDMA space division multiple access

SDMA (Space Division Multiple Access) is a technique used in wireless communication systems
to increase the capacity and efficiency of data transmission by exploiting spatial resources. It is a
form of multiple access technology that enables multiple users to simultaneously transmit and
receive data over the same frequency band by using different spatial resources.

In traditional wireless communication systems, such as cellular networks, multiple users share
the same frequency band, and they are separated using techniques like Time Division Multiple
Access (TDMA), Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA), or Code Division Multiple
Access (CDMA). These techniques allow multiple users to access the same resources by dividing
them either in time, frequency, or using different codes.

However, these techniques have their limitations when it comes to increasing capacity and
efficiency, especially in dense urban environments where interference and limited spectrum
resources are major concerns. SDMA overcomes these limitations by exploiting the spatial
dimension.

SDMA works by utilizing multiple antennas at both the transmitter and receiver sides. This
configuration is commonly known as Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO). Each antenna
pair can form a unique spatial channel, allowing the system to simultaneously transmit multiple
data streams to multiple users.

The basic principle of SDMA is to create orthogonal or nearly orthogonal spatial channels
between the transmitter and each receiver. Orthogonal channels ensure that interference between
different users is minimized, enabling simultaneous transmission and reception without
significant degradation in signal quality.

To achieve this, SDMA employs advanced signal processing techniques, such as beamforming
and spatial multiplexing. Beamforming involves adjusting the antenna weights and phases to
focus the transmitted signals towards the intended users, enhancing the signal strength at the
receiver side. Spatial multiplexing takes advantage of the multiple antennas to transmit
independent data streams to different users simultaneously.

SDMA also requires accurate channel state information (CSI) to enable efficient spatial resource
allocation. CSI is obtained through channel estimation techniques, which involve transmitting
known pilot signals and measuring the received signals at the receiver side. This information
helps in determining the optimal transmission strategy, including beamforming weights and
modulation schemes for each spatial channel.

One of the key advantages of SDMA is its ability to increase system capacity and spectral
efficiency. By utilizing spatial resources effectively, SDMA enables more users to access the
same frequency band simultaneously, thereby increasing the number of supported connections
and overall data throughput.

Moreover, SDMA can improve the quality of service (QoS) for individual users by reducing
interference and enhancing signal strength. This is particularly beneficial in scenarios with high
user density, where traditional multiple access techniques may lead to severe interference and
reduced signal quality.

SDMA has been incorporated into various wireless communication standards, such as LTE-
Advanced and 5G (fifth generation) networks, to enhance their performance and support higher
data rates. It is expected to play a crucial role in future wireless communication systems,
including 6G, where even higher capacity and efficiency requirements are anticipated.