Teacherle Cpy jee LECTURE NOTES FOR TRANSPORT PLANNING & ENGINEERING (As per Syllabus of Purbanchal University) By Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha Acme Engineering College 2015 September 01Transport Planning & Engineering Table of Contents Chapter 1: Introduction Chapter 2: Urban and Regional Planning ‘Chapter 3: Urban Transport Planning Process Chapter 4: Transportation System Analysis Chapter 5: Introduction to Airport Engineering Chapter 6: Introduction to Railway Engineering Chapter 7: Ropeways (Chapter 8: National Transport Policy Handouts by Or. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) 19 4B 68 BTransport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) 1. Chapter 1 Introduetion 1.1, Transportation planning ‘Tianseortation planning is a process that includes careful considerstion of problem, incorpération of alternative viewpoints of analysis and evaluation, development of goals, objectives and a staement of desirable transportation system performance and completion of the technical analysis needed to determine impact of alternative decisions. ‘At simplest level, transportation planning isthe process of answering four basie questions. 1D Where are we now? (Such as trends, and conditions relating to population, the transportation system, and general state of the urban area) 2) Where do we want to 20? (major issues, obstacles, and opportunities) 3) What will guide us? (goals, objectives, input and performance measures) 4) How will we get there? (revenue estimation, policy changes, program implementation) ‘Types of transportation planning * Long term transport planning (strategic transport planning) : It work out a financially feasible ‘ransportation system that is compatible to future development. It i prepared for 20 to 25 years e.g, new highway system * Shon term transport planning: It takes into account the more immediate needs of transportation system performance. Itis prepared fr 5 to 10 years. eg. traffic engineering techniques, 1.2.Scope of transportation planning and system engineering a) System characteristic study A lransporiation system consists of the facilities and services thet allow an efficient movement of people and goods. The following system characteristics are studied + System hierarchy: order and function to the operation of the individual components System purpose: purpose of transportation system System Boundary: the boundaries of the system being analyzed System components: individual parts or components such as user, mode, infrastructure ete System performance: the level and quality of the outputs System capacity: the number of units passing a given point during a given time period System control: means of system cootdination system feedback: feedback to individual components of transportation system b) Transportation system impact [Tie transportation system can impact the natural environment and urban systems in vatiety ways, These impacts can range from the physical effects to the social and cultural effects. Impacts can be direct and inditect. Impacts may be: + Natural system impact: terrestrial /aquatic ecology + Physical impact: air quality, noise, vibration, water quality, landslide ete, * Social and cultural impact: historic end archeological impact, displacement of people, land use, business activities ete ©) Demand analysis Estimating the demand for transportation facilites and services is one of the most important task in urban {farsportaton planning, Demand analysis to find how many people, what type of people, what purpose ‘they will use the transportation system for, and expected flow of goods in metropolitan ares:Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) 4) Supply analysis Developing and managing the supply of transportation is a primary focus of an effective transportation planning process. Supply related policies are, infrastructure (fixed facilities), vehicles, routes, schedules tc. Supply can be chatacterized by performance of the transportation system (e.g, travel times, headway, and capacities). ¢) Transportation system evaluation Evaluation is the process of determining the relative value of individual alternatives and the desirability of one alternative over other. Evaluation provides information to decision makers on impacts, trade off and area of uncertainty. Different evaluation techniques such as B/C ratios are used, {) Program and project implementation Programming is the process of matching available or expected resources with transportation needs to achieve planning goals. Transportation planners establish project priorities for project implementation. 1.3. Significance of transport planning i) Justify funding ‘Transportation project expenditure requires huge investment. A detailed plan of how this road/service will impact upon the population needs to be conducted. Transportation planning will help to justify funding, ii) Obtain planning permission When a large development is being planned, one of the key elements in such a plan is the traffie impact assessment and transportation plan for the new site These plans are included in the application of planning permission, Environmental considerations sportant that in the transport plan that environmental considerations are taken into account. Iti 1.4, Transportation modeling ‘Transportation model is a simplification of transportation reality. Transportation Modeling is representation of transportation reality to analyze the future traffic conditions or existing conditions, ‘Transportation models are applied to individual highway facilities, or entire transportation system at the city, stat, and national levels. They can be divided into the following categories. 1. Demand models (economic models, short-term traffic prediction, traffic generation ete) 2, Network models (model split, traffic assignment; scheduling) 3. Traffic models (advanced traffie control) ‘4, Performance models (pollution model, safety performance models, traffie mode!) ‘Modeling step 4. Model formulation: A model may be formed by using various mathematical functions or forms. It can be linear, exponential etc. for example,Y = AX +B, where, Y is a function of variables X. a, b are model parameters to be estimated. 'b. Model estimation: It is the process by which the numerical values of the parameters of an assumed ‘model are estimated. e. Model validation: It refers to the testing of calibrated model by using empirical data that used to estimate the model.Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) 1.5. Transport Problems in Cities a. Traffic congestion Inadequate transport infrastructure, problems in traffic management and increasing number of vehicles are major cause for traffic congestion. Traffic congestion can be reduced with increase infiastructures, increase passenger flow, reducing demand ete. b, Traffic accident Deficiencies in road infrastructures, increase in motorized trafic with ill mannered driving, drunken Giving and speeding are major causes of traffic aocident. Improved road design, drivers training, education and education measure can reduce traffic accident ©. Inadequate accessibility Bad secess to any area, inadequate bus lines ete should be addressed by providing new roads, transit or bus lines ete. 4. Pollution and Nuisance Rapidly increased motorized traffic and the continued use of outdated motor vehicles become major sources of atmospheric deterioration such as air pollution. €. Social Injustice and inequality Biased accessibility for elderly, handicapped people, pedestrian, poor people ete should be addressed with Provision of passenger and pedestrian friendly facilities, affordable transportation modes et £ Inadequate mobility Tnadequate road facilities, obstruction, narrow roads ete results delay and large travel time. g. Inadequate (lack) of funding Insufficient funding affects development of new infrastructures. The existing funds should be efficiently utilized, 1.6.Transportation Network and their Characteristics Transportation network consists of system of highway, railway network, waterway network, pipeline networks ete, Transportation networks have a node and link structure link represent the linear features Providing for movement such as highways and rail lines and nodes represents intersections, terminals ete, Highway link attributes are starting node, ending node, road length, free flow speed, capacity, number of lines or road width, type of road ete. Similarly, highway node attributes are node number, starting nodes of all Tinks joining current node, type of eevoy intersection ete. (oso HONW) plait Reade Highway network consists of networks of roads which include freeways, arterials, collectors and local roads, + Free ways: these roads provide largely uninterrupted travel, often using partial or full access control designed for high speeds, * Arterials: arterials are major through roads that are expected to carry large volume of traffic * Collectors : collectors collect traffic from local roads, and distributed it to arterials * Local roads: these roads have the lowest speed limit and cany low volume of traffic.Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) 2 Chapter Il Urban and regional Planning 24. Difference between Urban and Regional Planning Urban areas may be cities, towns or conurbations characterized by higher population density and vast hhuman features. Urban, city and town pianning is the planning and designing of infrastructures considering wide range of the aspects of the built and social environment of urban area. Urban planning deals with small environment at more detailed level. Region is larger than urban area which may consist of a few villages and town to a number of countries. Region may be several towns, cities or different states. Regional planning is a category of planning and development that deals with designing end placing infrastructure and other elements across large arca. Regional planning is normally long range planning and deals with larger environment at less detailed level 2.2 Transportation demand surveys and studies Transportation survey includes the following types of study: ‘Travel pattern survey An inventory of existing transport facilities An inventory of existing land use and economic activities 2.2.1 Travel pattern survey 2.2.1.1 Home Interview Survey It intended to yield data on the travel pattern of the residents of the household and the general characteristics of the household influencing trip making. ‘The information collected in these home interviews are the type of housing structure, number of vehicle ‘ownership, household numbers, household income, description of trips (origin, destination, trip purpose, ‘tip times and travel modes) ete made by household member 5 years or older A number of techniques are available forthe home interview survey. Full interview technique — it involves interviewing as many members of household as possible and directing recording all the information Home questionnaire technique — the interviewer collects only details of the household characteristics, leaving forms for household ‘residents to complete with regard to travel information ‘Variant of home interview i) The telephone interview : In the telephone surveys, questionnaire is sent out by post before the survey date and the reply are received by telephone ii) The postal questionnaire: in the postal survey method, the questionnaire is mailed and the household are requested to send their replies by post in pre-paid envelopes. 2.2.1.2 Road side interview It can be done by directly interviewing drivers of the vehicles at selected survey points or by issuing prepared post cards containing the questionnaire to all or sample of driversTransport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Prodeep Kumar Shrestha ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) Data Collection Sheet Road Side Interview Date: Location: Please take a moment to answer a few questions about your rip. Your responses will help determine the need for improvements in this area 1) Where did your trip begin? 2)_ What type of place is your trip start point? 7 Primary Residence D Workplace Store Gi School (1 am a student) © Recreation Area Bother. 3) Where did your trip end? 4)_ What type of place is your trip end point? Gi Primary Residence 1D Workplace D Store 1 School (I ama student) Gi Recreation Area Other 5)_ What was the purpose of your trip? Work Commute Business Related C1 Shopping © School (attend class) Recreation Bother 6)_ How many people were in the vehicle, including the driver? a1 o2 a3 a4 05 or More ‘T)_ What type of vehicle were you in? 1G Passenger vehicle (car, motorcycle, SUV, pick-up truck, minivan) O Commercial vehicle Bown 8) Do you regularly use this route?) Yes GNo 9) Please add any comments on transportation you ‘Thank you very much for your cooperation! 2.2.1.3 Public transport survey In order to assess the number of bus passenger, the survey can either by ditect interview with passengers or by issuing post card questionnaires. Sample of data sheet is shown below: Data Collection Sheet Public Transport Survey Vehicle Type: Registration No.: Name of Owner: Address; Date: Day: Tip No. [Origin Destination [Start Time [End Time | Number of Passengerransport Planning & Engineering 22A4 Registration Plate No. Survey 22-1 ethod consists of nothing the regstalicn numbers of vehicles entering and lees aes By matching the repistation numbers of ‘vehicles at points of entry ‘Handouts by br. Prodeep Kumar Shrestha “acme Engineering College (PU) sect from the area, O—D of vehicles, path relpved, travel times ete. can be obtained. Field Data Collection Sheet Registration Plate No. Survey Survey Station: Date: Registration No. 22.8 Post Card Survey (Wail back survey) i ie method, questionnaires are banded over 9 each driver or a samp! prepaid envelop and request them to omplete the information and retuin the questo Surveyor: Day: ‘Time { Vehicle Type | Others: it Field Data Collection Sheet Post Card Questionnaire Survey Survey Station: Date: Time: vel icle Occupancy: “Types of Goods Carried: 2.2.1.6 Tags on Vehicle waives ae stopped at each point where the road ores Ne cordon fines and tag is fixed usually under the venteen wiper. The tags for diferent survey stations have different color and shape to identify the ‘Surveyor: Day: Vehicle Type: Destination: vnvey station, The vehicles are stopped again atte ‘exit point when tags are collected back. Field Data Collection Sheet “Tag on Vehicle Survey Survey Station: ‘Surveyor Date: Day: Time while starting: Vehicle Type: Survey Station: Surveyor Date: Day: ‘Time while Removing: Vehicle Type: Je at the survey point along with ynnaire by post.Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Or. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha Acme Engineering College (PU) 2.2.1.7 Commercial vehicle survey It is conducted to obtain information on journey made by all commercial vehicles based within study area. Address of the operators is obtained and forms are issued to drivers with the request that they record particulars of all trips they could make. Data Collection Sheet Vehicle Type: Name of Owner: Date: Trip No. [Ori Destination [Start Time | End Time ‘Types of Goods 2.2.2 _ Inventory study of Transportation Facilities Inventory of existing transport facilities should be undertaken to identify the deficiencies in the present system and the extent to which they need to be improved, The inventory consists of: ‘© Inventory of streets forming the transport network ‘Traffic volume, composition, peak and off peak Studies on travel time by different mode Inventory of public transport buses Inventory of rail transport facilities Parking inventory Accident data 2.2.3. Inventory of Land Use and Eeono1 2.2341 Inventory of Land use Since travel characteristics are closely related to the land use patter, it is of utmost importance that an accurate inventory of land use be prepared. Land use type such as residential, industrial, commercial recreational,, open space etc. in each of the traffie zones are to be collected from concerned department. activiti 22.3.2 Inventory of Economie activities ‘Aggregate data on demographic and socioecono include the following: ‘+ Population of the planning area and the various zones ‘Age, sex and composition of the family Employment statisties Income Vehicle ownership activities should be collected. Other sources to 2.3 Travel demand forecasting Travel demand forecasting is a method used to predict future demand for transport facilities and services in an area, city or tegion. Travel demand model are designed to calculate the nuniber of trips connecting O-D, predict mode of travel, and identify roadways or transit routes most likely to be used for the trip. Travel demand forecasting is the sequential steps of trip generation, trip distribution, modal choice and traffic assignment as shown in figure.Tronsport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) 23.1 Steps in travel forecasting process ‘@) Population and economic analysis determines the magnitude and extent of activity in the urban area b) Land use analysis determines where the activities will be located ©) Trip generation determines how many trips each activity will produce or attract d) Trip distribution determines the origin or destination of trips that are generated at a given activity ©) Modal split determines which mode of transportation will be used to make the trip 4) Traffic assignment determines which route on the transportation network will be used Population, Economic activity, Land use data ‘Trip Generation Model Trip Distribution Model (Transportation Networ Modal Split Model Travel Mode data Traffic Assignment 2.3.2 Factors influencing Travel Demand ‘Three factors that influence the demand for urban travel: ‘© land use characteristics ‘+ Socioeconomic characteristics + Availability of Transportation facilities and services‘Transport Planning & Engineering Hondouts by Or. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) 3.. Chapter3 Urban Transport Planning Process 3.1. Urban Transport Planning Process Inventory of Existing conditions + Population & economic activity + _Land use & Transport Feclities I Forecasting population, land use, Economic Activities ¥ Generation of Alternatives ‘Travel Demand Forecasting | ¥ Estimation of project cost & Annual Estimation of usage level and user benefit Operation and maintenance cost and impact Evaluation of Alternatives Choice of Project & Implementation 3.2. Four step transport planning Four step transport planning is the sequential steps of trip generation, trip distribution, modal choice and traffic assignment. The details of each step are explained in the following sub topics, 3.2.1. Trip Generation Trip.generation is the process of determining the number of trips that will begin or end in each traffic analysis zone within study area, In other words, trip generation is the prediction of the number of trips produced by and attracted to each zone. ‘Trip production ~ the home end of home based trip or asthe origin of an non-home based trip, ‘Trip attraction — the non home end of HB trip or the destination of an non home based trip,Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) Production Attraction Home || ————____» ———$< | work —_ Production Attraction oes Work | > = | shop Attraction Production L__] ——— _ Production Attraction 3.2.1.1. Classification of Trips * By trip purpose ~ work trips, education trips, shopping trips, social and recreational trips, other ‘tips (health, trip accompanied by person) + By time of day ~ peak hour trips (8:00 — 10:00 & 4:00 ~ 6:00 pm), off peak hour trips (10:00 12:00) + By person type — by income level, car ownership, household size and structure 3.2.1.2. Factors affecting trip generation * Personal trip production - Income, age, car ownership, household size and structure, value of land, residential density, accessibility + Personal tip attraction ~ roofed space available for industrial, commercial and other activities, employment, accessibility + Freight trip production and attraction ~ number of employee, number of sales, roofed area of firm, total area of firm ete 3.2.1.3, Method of estimating trip generation i) Growth factor modeling ‘Trip will increase at the same growth rate at which socioeconomic variable inerease. Future trip is simple multiple of growth factor and current trip. Th = ATE Where, (fi= growth factor for zone ‘i? T= Current tips in zone “7 7;1= design (future) year trips in zone ‘? The'growth factor ‘f° depends on the explanatory variables such as population (P), average household income (1), average vehicle ownership (C) ete. fest cy’ A TGEIECD, ‘Where superscripts‘d” and ‘c” represents the design (future) anid current year respectively.Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Or. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) ) Cross classification or category analysis, In category analysis, the population of the study atea is divided into a number of homogeneous group especially based on socioeconomic characteristic (family size, automobile ownership ete.) Trip rate for ‘each categories are estimated and this rip rate is used for forecasting trips for other zones, Regression analysis The total number of trips produced or attracted in an area is assumed to depend upon some variables such ‘5 population, family income, family size, employment etc. Regression analysis predicts the umber of future trips from the measurement of the other independent variables. {f the relationship between the independent and the dependent variable is linear, then the analysis is called tinear regression. If independent variables are two or more in numbers, then the analysis is called multiple regression analysis. A linear regression line is, Yaatbx Where, x= the independent variables the dependent variables mdr) 4} ndxy-Dxdy nx? = a? ‘The slope of line is *b” and the intercept ‘a’. a Multiple linear regression analysis is the statistical technique mostly used to derive the estimates of future ‘tip generation where two or more independent factors are affecting the amount of travel. YA BAF Dy oer see veers sere k By Where, the dependent variable (zonal measure of trips in terms of person/vehticle movement) Xp Xay «ses-oXg = the independent variables (socio-economic variables) = constant to represent the portion having value ‘y" which is not explained by the independent variables by, ba = the coefficients of respective independent variables ‘Two independent variables ‘The general form of regression equation for two variable case, can be written as: YeathX + bX Where p, = SADE ay) - Cue Exy) . ONO) - Onn)? CDE xy) -Oxuxn)Tay) (x28) — Sax)? a=V— bX bk ge gt ahh m=h-% yay-P; Xe, are the means of the X,,%; &Y respectivelyTransport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) 3.2.2. Trip Distribution ‘Trip distribution is a process by which the trips generated in one zone are allocated to other zones in the study area, Example, if the trip generation analysis results in an estimate 200 home based work trip in zone 10, the trip distribution analysis would determine how many of these trips would be made between zone 10 and all other zones. | ° ‘The trip pattern in a study area can 20S [EO 2 vee Vr * le bbe represented by trip matrix or 1 Tr Te Ty vs Tm [Or destination (O-D) matrix. Ty 2 Ta Tn Te veces Tan | Or is the number of trip between origin - oe so tneaee i’, and destination ‘j°. ‘O, is the Ho: - |. total number of trips originating ini Ty Te Tw Tm 10; zones “i” and ‘D? is the total number ; . of trips atracted to zone {, i) Growth Factor Method a Ty To » Ten | Oy ‘The present day impersonal D,(A) [Di _Ds D, Da |T movements are multiplied by growth factor in order to estimate the future distribution of tips between traffic zones. Common growth factor methods of are: 8) Uniform growth factor b) Average growth factor ©) Fratar method a) Uniform growth factor This is the oldest and simplest method of projecting future trip distribution. A single growth factor is caleulated for the entire area under study and used to multiply all the present inter-zonal movements to produced the estimates of future inter~zonal movements. ‘The future trips between zone ‘i? and zone ‘’, namely, “7,’ are calculated by applying the uniform growth factor ‘F” to the base year trips, between zone “’ and 4. thus, fy SFX ty b) Average growth factor method In this method, the growth factor represents the average growth associated with both origin and destination zones. If “F)’ and ‘F) are the growth factors for the zone ‘i? and ‘7° respectively, and ‘ty’ is base year trips, between zone ‘i and ‘j’. Then, the future trips “7? are calculated by, ©) Fratar Method ‘This method was introduced by TJ. Fartar. As per this method, the total future trips for each zone are ‘obtained by multiplying the base year trip between two zones, their respective growth factor and relative attractiveness factor. ‘Then future trips estimated for any zone would be distributed in the measurements involving that zone in proportion to existing trips between it and other attraction zones and expected growth of each other zone. Ty Oy x FX Where, ‘ty’ & °Ty? are base year trip and the predicted future trips between zone ‘and zone ‘respectively ‘Fi’ and ‘F)’ represents growth factor of zone ‘i’ and ‘j’ respectively.Transport Pionning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha Acme Engineering College (PU) Advantages of Growth Factor models + Easily understood. ‘+ Simple in operation and application + Reasonable for areas with stable development Disadvantage + Underestimate trips where present day development is limited and over estimate where present day development is intensive Ifthe present trips between any two zones is zero, the future trips also become zero It doesn’t take into account the resistance to travel It neglects the effects of changes in travel pattern by new construction Present (base year) trip distribution matrix must be obtained first ii) Gravity Method Gravity model is preferred over other models because it uses the attributes of the transportation system and land use characteristics, and has been calibrated extensively for many urban areas. Gravity model states that the number of trips between two zones is directly proportional to the number of tip attraction generated by the zone of destination and inversely proportional to a function of time of ‘travel between the two zones. Trip distribution between zones “i? and ¢j? can be written as, Pedy Ty = eM / n a Dn = Dena Fy fA Where, Pi and Aj are the production and attraction of zone Fy = Gris the impedance function, and K = constant Sin) Kray Ap its Rak y ar OS A Also, Mathematically, amy = ceva Ter Fy Ky Where, Kj = socioeconomic adjustment factor for interchange i Fj can be determined using travel time values and an inverse relationship between F and t exists such as t', t7, e" ete, eg, the friction factor can be expressed as F= able 3.2.3. Model split models (Mode choice model) Mode choice is determining the number (or percentage) of trips between zones that are made by particular mode. The factors influencing mode choice are:Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kurmar Shrestha Acme Engineering College (PU) + Characteristic of trip maker — such as car ownership, possession of a driving license, household structure, income, residential density ‘Trip characteristics — such as trip purpose, time of the day Characteristics of the transport facility ~ such as travel time, in-vehicle time, waiting time and qualitative factors such as comfort, convenience, reliability, security ete.) Most widely used model for modal split model is logit models. Logit models are based on utility maxi mn principle. The traveler will associate some value for the utility of each mode. Ifthe utility of one mode is higher than other, then that mode is chosen. The utility of each mode can be expressed as summation of each modal attribute. Then the choice of a mode is expressed as a probability distribution. Y= Jax Where, Ux= utility of mode ‘X” n= number of attributes X; attribute value (such as time, cost, and so on) a= coefficient value of attribute ‘i’, (negative since the values are disutilities) ‘The probability of using any mode *k’ can be expressed as, elt e) weg p(k) 3. Where, p(k) = probability of using mode ‘k* U,= Utility of using mode ‘k’ Ux = utility of using any particular mode *X” N= Number of mode to choose from 3.24. Traffic Assignment Traffic assignment, route choice or route assignment is the final step of 4-step modeling process. Traffic assignment involves computing one or more optional route between each origin and destination and distributing travel demand over these routes, 3.2.4.1. Application of traffic assignment model ‘© To determine the deficiencies in the existing transportation system To evaluate the effects of the improvements ‘+ To develop the construction priorities ‘+ To test the transportation system proposals 3.2.4.2. Types of traffic assignment model i) Allofnothing model It is based on the theory that a motorist or transit user will select the quickest route that represents minimum:travel time. First, the shortest routes between traffic analysis zones are computed. Then, all ‘tips are assigned to links comprising the shortest route, Continue until trips between all traffic analysis zone pairs have been assigned This is simple, inexpensive, fast method, and results are easy to understand and interpret. However, it generates unrealistic flow patterns in situations where there are minor differences in travel impedance between alternative routes.Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) Multipath assignment model (Multiple route assignment model) ‘This method assigns inter zonal flow to several paths between each pair of zones based on their relative impedance. Irwin and Van cube suggested the following inverse proportion function to compute the fraction to be assigned to each of number of inter zonal routes. Wie p= at PO= FW Where, Ws. the impedance of route ‘r’ from ‘i’ to ‘7 iii) Capacity restraint method ‘The number of trips assigned to each link is compared with the capacity of the link to determine the extent to which link travel time have been increased by the additional volume placed on the formerly empty link. A reassignment is then made based on these new values. The iteration process continues until a balance is achieved. Several link performance functions are found in literatures. The functional form developed by the BPR (Bureau of Public Roads), is expressed as, t fh +045 @)] Where, t= travel time on the link t= free flow travel time V= Volume on the link C= Capacity of the link ‘A trip between a pair of zones is chosen at random, the minimum path is determined using the free-flow impedances, and the entire interchange volume is assigned to this minimom path. The impedances of the Jinks that make up this path are updated according to the assigned flows and another interchange is randomly chosen. The procedure ends when all interchanges are considered. iv) Capacity constraint multipath Model In this method, traffic is assigned as per multipath assignment model. Then, the number of trips assigned to each link is compared with the capacity of the link to determine the extent to which link travel time hhave been increased by the additional votume placed on the formerly empty link. A reassignment is then made based on these new values. The iteration process continues until a balance is achieved. v) _ Diversion Curve Method Diversion curves are empirically derived relationship showing the proportion of traffic that is likely to be diverted on a new facility (bypass, new expressway, ete.) once such a facility is constructed, This model is based on travel time saved, distance saved, travel time rato, distance and speed ration, travel cost ratio ete bureau of Public roads fitted curve to the following formula I Paro Where, p= %of the traffic diverted to new system ravel time rato (time on new systema /time on old system) California curve method ‘Travel time saved and distance saved are used, The formula is, : 50x (d+ 0.5t) % traf fic diverted (9) = 50+ psp ea gyE Where, ‘d’ and ‘tare distance saved in miles and travel time saved in minutes.Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestho ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) 4. Chapter IV ‘Transportation System Analysis 4.1. Generation of Alternatives ‘Transportation Engineer has a variety of option available in any particular situation, Consideration should be given to a variety of ideas, designs locations and system configurations that might pro problem, The alternatives available to the transportation engineer include various technotogies, network configurations, vehicle operating policies, and organizational arrangements. Federal transit administration (FTA, USA) has suggested 6 principles of the developing altematives: ‘Alternatives should be defined in terms of their design concept and scope Alternatives should respond directly to clear statement Should be developed through a process of considering all reasonable options Should be structured to provide a range of options to decision makers Should be as competitive as possible Alternatives should be identified and refined in an open, well documented process. 42. Evaluation of alternatives Evaluation is the process of determining the desirability of different course of action and of presenting this information to decision makers in comprehensive and useful form. Evaluation is a comparison of alternatives that give decision makers better information on the trade off and likely impacts of a project. 4s Purpose of evaluation Determine the cost effectiveness of a project Recognizes uncertainties Examine trade off Rank alternatives Provide the best information to decision makers 4.2.2. ‘The basis of evaluation ‘+ Appropriateness Equity Effectiveness Adequacy Efficiency Implementation Feasibility Sensitivity anal 42.3. Characteristics of Evaluation Should focus on the decisions being faced by decision makers Should relate the consequences of alternatives to goal and objectives Should determine how different groups are affected by project, Should be sensitive to the time frame Should produce information on the likely impacts of alternatives Should analyze the implementation requirements of each alternatives Should assess the financial feasibility of the actions recommended in the plan Should provide information to the decision makers on the value of alternativesTransport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha Acme Engineering College (PU) 4.3. Costs and benefits of transport Project 43.1. Benefits Benefits are the desirable effect (positive impact) of an investment, ‘The evaluation of user benefit is a process of determining how great a reduction in costs will occur if an improvement is made. Benefits are: ‘© Benefit from travel time saving — monetary value of travel time saving ‘© Benefit from reduction in accidents —a monetary value of reduced fatalities and injuries a to reduction in accidents + Benefit from reduced cost of vehicle operation ~ a monetary value of the saving due to reduction ite of vehicle operating cost 43.2. Cost ‘The Cost of a transportation facility improvement includes: i) Capital costs ~ initial cost, total investment required ii) Operation and maintenance cost ~ operation and maintenance cost incurred over the life of the facility iil) Social and environmental cost 4.3.3. Social Cost of Transportation Deluchi (1999) provideds the following classification of motor vehicle costs, 'a) Personal non monetary cost of using motor vehicles, such as: '* Uncompensated non-work travel time «Personal time working on-motor vehicles * Noise suffering on oneself + _Airpollution suffering oneself b)_ Explicitly priced private sector motor vehicle goods and seivices, taxes and fees «Annualized costs of vehicle, excluding taxes, Automobile insurance + Parking cost © Overhead expenses ©) Bundled private sector goods + Annualized cost of non-residential parking + Annualized cost of home garages and other residential parking 4) Government services charged partly to motor vehicles user + Annualized cost of road maintenance + Annualized cost of municipal off street parking © Highway law enforcement © Environmental regulation, protection and clean up ©) Monetary externalities # Cost of travel delays caused by others # Accident costs not paid for by responsible party + Price effect of using petroleum fuel for motor vehicles 1 Non-monetary externalities Air pollution Accidents, pain, suffering , death not paid by responsible party Global warming Noise and water pollution Habitat and species damagedTransport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha ‘ome Engineering College (PU) 44. Economic evaluation methods An economic evaluation of a transportation project is completed using one of the following methods. 44.1. Present worth (PW) ‘+° Most straight forward of the economic evaluations + Itrepresents the current value of all the costs that will be incurred over the life time of the project. Where, C,= facility and ser cost incurred in year tn” N = service life (in year) i= interest rate Selection criteria - Select project with least present worth for cost project 4.42, Equivalent Uniform Annust Worth ‘The conversion of a given cash flow to series of equal annval amounts is referred to asthe equivalent uniform annual worth (EUAW). asin evaw = new [po] ‘Where, NPW = net present worth Selection criteria - Select project with least EUAW for cost project 44.3. Benefit cost ratio ‘The ratio of the present worth of net project benefit and net project costs is called the benefit cost ratio (BCR). B = reduction in user and operation cost C C= increase in facility cost Selection criteria - Select project with B/C greater than 1. 4.4.4, Internal rate of return ‘©The interest rate at which the PW of benefit equals o PW of cost. ‘+ Project is feasible if interest rate is greater than minimum attra + PW(B)-PWC)=0 erate of return (MARR) Selection criteria - Select project with IRR greater than MARRTransport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) ‘ 5. Chapter V Introduction to Airport Engineering 1. Airport Engineering A branch of Transportation Engineering (civil engineering) which deals with the planning design, construction, and operation and maintenance of facilities providing for landing and takeoff, loading and unloading, servicing and storage of aircraft. S.L1. Advantage of Air Transportation * Improves accessibility «Fastest and safe mode of transport * Provides continuous connectivity + Promotion of trade and commerce ‘* Add foreign reserve through tourism © Military, agricultural spraying, aerial photography etc Disadvantages of Air Transportation + Heavy funds required for both initial investment as well as operation * Highly depended upon weather conditions ‘+ Requires highly sophisticated machinery ‘+ Outward flow of foreign exchange + Noise pollution 5.2. Factor Affecting Airport Site Selection + Regional plan * Airport use + Proximity to other airports © Ground accessibility + Topography * Obstructions © Visibility © Wind * Noise nuisance © Grading, drainage and soil characteristics + Future development © Availability of utilities from town + Beonomic considerations 53. Aireraft Component Parts Its essential parts are as given below: a) Engine: Engine provides the force required for propelling the aircraft through the air. According to the method of propulsion aircraft engine can be Piston engine, Jet engine (Turbo Jet, Turbo Prop, Turbo fan etc.). An airplane can be single engine or multi engine. Single engine usually mounted atTransport Plonning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha b) o 4) ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) the nose of the fuselage. In two or four engine aireraft, they usually housed in the leading edge of the airoraft or wing, Fuselage: It is main body of the aircraft and provides space for the power plant, fuel, cockpit, passenger, cargo etc, Vertical stabitzer. Horizonta Stabitizer Ving et Engine Wings: Wings are re speed. red to support the machine in the air, when the engine has given forward Three controls: There are three axes about which an aircraft in space may move. The ‘movement of aireraft about the X, Y and Z axes are called lateral (rolling), pitching and and yawing movements respectively. To control these movements, the airplane is provided wit three principal controls namely (i) elevator (ii) rudder and (ii) aileron, () Elevator: It consists of two flaps capable of ‘moving up and down through an angle of 50° toa 60%. They are hinged to a fixed horizontal stabilizer (til plane). It conttols the pitching or ‘upand down movements of the aircraft ll Axis (il) Rudder: It consists of a streamlined flap hinged to a vertical fin provided at the tail. It can be moved right or left of the vertical axis through an angle of about 30°. It is utilized for the turning or yawing movement of the aircraft (iii) Aileron: It is a hinged flap which is fixed in the trailing edge of the wing near the wing tip. When aileron in one wing is pulled up that in other is pulled down, Once the wing with aileron deflected downwards, there will be an increased lift under the wing. Pulling an aileron up reduces the lift on the plane, Flaps: Flaps are located along the trailing edge of both wing typically close to fuselage. They are similar to aileron in that they affect the amount of lift created by the wing,Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Br. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha Acme Engineering College (PU) Main Whees (Sine) f) Tricycle Under Carriage: It is a structure to support " the aircraft while it is in contact with the ground, Tt has two principal functions are: (i) To absorb landing shocks while an aircraft lands -—= Main Wheels (Dual) (ii) To enable the aircraft to maneuver on ground 5.4. Aireraft characteristics “C /—Main vests (Oval Tans) ‘These ate importance to the airport planner and designer. / a) Engine Type and Propulsion system: It affects size of aircraft, circling radius, speed, weight carrying capacity, noise nuisance etc, Engine ‘Speed Limit (kmph) ] Piston 250 to 750) {Jet Engine 1000 to 3000 J [Ram jet - 1280 to 2400 [EZ Rocket 4600 b) Size of Aireraft: Aircraft’s wing span, fuselage length, height, distance between main gears, wheel base, trail width ete affect various components of airport. © Minimum turning radius: It is the the line joining the center of rotation and the tip of farthest wing of the aircraft. Maximum angle of nose gear is limited 50°to 60° for turbo jet. It is important to establish the radius of taxiways, and the path of the movement of aircraft. @) Min cireling radius: Separation between two nearby airports is governed by minimum circling radius. It varies from 1.6 km for small aircraft to 80 km for large jet engine aircraft. €) Speed of Aircraft: Speed of aircraft is expressed with respect to ground (called cruising ot ground speed) or air. f) Weight of Aircraft & wheel configuration: Weight and Wheel configuration. affect the pavement design of runway, taxiway, aprons and hangers, 8) Aireraft Capacity: It depends on size of aircraft, propulsive power, speed ete h) Jet blast: Jet blast affect inconvenience to passenger and bituminous pavement. i) Fuel spillage: It should bring within minimum limit. Therefore, constant supervision is required. BD. Noise: Noise should be minimum.Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestho ‘Aome Engineering College (PU) Lengt /\ sinum Taning Rasa Figure: Circling Radius Figure Circling Radius Figure: Minimum Turning Radius 53. Airport Classification Based on takeoff and landing a. Conventional take off and landing (runway length > 1500m) b. Reduced take off and landing (runway length 1000 1500)Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) ¢. Short take off and landing (runway length 500 ~ 1000) 4d. Vertical take off and landing (operational area 25 to 50 sq.m) 5.5.2. ICAO Classification ‘Two classification system i) Length of runway available ii) __Aireraft wing span and outer main gear wheel span 5.5.2.1.Based on Length of runway available ‘Code Number Basic Runway Length (m) 1 ess than 800m __ 2 800 m up to but not including 1,2000 m 3 1,200 m up to but not including 1,800 m _| 4 Over 1,800 m 5.5.2.2.Based on Length of runway available Code letter [ Wing span [Outer main gear wheel span___| A Up to but not including 15 m [Up to but not including 4.5 m B 15 m up to but not including 24m__| 4.5 m up to but not including 6 m c 24'm up to but not including 36m_| 6m up to but not including 9m _| D 36 m up to but not including 52m | 9m up to but not including 14 m E 52 m up to but not including 65m | 9 m up to but not including 14 m [WF ‘65 m up to but not including 80m | 14 m up to but not including 16m 5.5.3. FAA Airport Classification Federal Aviation Authority (A.A) classifies as per approach speed 7 (craaas ‘Approach Category ‘Approach Speed (Knots) <1 91-120 121-140 141 165 166 or greater L to} | to 5.5.4. Based on Function International Airport — Handles flights from different countries © Domestic Airport - Handles flights within country * Combined ~ Handles both domestic as well as international flights 5.5.5. Classification based on Mach Number(M) Flow Velocity Local Speed of Sound Subsonic (M<1) Transonic (M=1) Supersonic (M>1) Hypersonic (M>>1) Mach Number(M) =Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha ‘Aeme Engineering College (PU) 55.6, ssification based on Engine type «Propeller (Piston) © Turbojet : © Turboprop © Turbofan © Ramjet © Rocket 5.5.7. Classification based on Number of Engine Single, Twin (Double), Four Engines, Six Engines 5.5.8. Classification based on Number of Wings ‘+ Mono planes + Biplanes 5.5.9, Classification based on Range © Short Range (<500 km) ‘+ Medium Range (3,000 km) ‘+ Long Range (>3,000 km) 5.5.10, Classification based on Mode of take off & Landing © Normal VTOL (Vertical Takeoff & Landing) XSTOL (Extremely Short Take off & Landing) STOL (Short Take off & Landing) STOVL (Short Take off &Vertical Landing) 5.5.11. FAA Aireraft Design Group (ADG) Classification Design | Tail Height Wing Span | Representative Aireraft Group _| (feet) (feet) _ Cessnal 72, Beeth36, a ia eee oe Cessna 421, Lear Jet 35, Beech B300, Cessna $50, H [2030 | Pes Falcon 50, Challenger 605 _ Boeing 737, Airbus A320, I | 30t0<45 TI< 118 | CRI~900, EMB 190 | Boeing 767, Boeing 757, Ee aires M8t<171 | airbus A300, Douglas DC-10 Vv 60 to <66 Ite <214 Boeing 747, Airbus A340, ae Boeing 777 vi 66 to <80 2140 <262 | Airbus A380Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestho Acme Engineering College (PU) 5.6. Air Travel demand Forecasting Air Travel Demand forecasting is the activity of estimating the amount of an air travel that traveller will use. Use + To aid air lines in their long run planning + Toassist government in orderly development of air transportation system + To assist government in planning facilities required for air transportation system 5.6.1. Trend Forecasting method ‘This method is based on the past travel pattern. Forecaster assume that the traffic will continue to develop in the future as in the past. This method is more reliable for forecasting over a short period Methods of finding trend, a) Fitting trend line by graphic. b) Time series analysis employing least square, 5.6.2. Base forecasts Method In the base forecast method, annual national passenger volumes are obtained as percentages of national forecasts. There are two methods used in USA: Method A: * Determine the percentage of national enplaned passenger that the airport has attracted in the past . * Adjust this percentage to reflect anticipated abnormal growth trends ‘* Obtain data for national passenger volume forthe design year * Calculate step down design figure as the product of the percentage of step 2 and the national figure from step 3. Method B * Obtain the number of passenger per 1000 population that the airport has experienced in the past, and the number of passengers nationally per 1000 population. + Compute the ratio: Passenger per 1000 Population for Airport Passenger per 1000 Population for Nation * Obtain the national forecast of air passenger volumes per 1000 population for the design year. + From the ratio computed in step 3 and the national forecasts of step 4, calculate the local passenger volume per 1000 population 5.6.3, Analytical methods of air travel demand forecasting * Conventional analysis of traffic demand divides the modeling procedure into four distinct consecutive steps:Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha Acme Engineering College (PU) Generation _—_-How many trips originate & terminate in specific area Distribution mp _ Tp interchange between specific pairs of origin and destination Modal choice aap It split the interchanges into those specific to individual modes Assignment — @ Route taken by the individual traveler from a choice of all available route ‘+ In case of air transport, the model chain has frequently been simplified toa mode specific chain of the following from: 5.6.3.1.Market analysis: © It is dominant technique for aviation demand forecasting © Trend forecasting or Cross classification, * Historical data are examined to determine the ratio of local airport traffic to total national traffic + National demands total are estimated for the design date * Demand for local airport is obtained by multiplying national demand with the ratio 5.6.3. Regression analysis: + A statistical relationship between rate of trip generation (dependent variable) and a number of independent variables is established by regression analysis +. Typically the air trip generation regression model would be: LTH aghaxrtanxeh.esesot ake o Where, + T=The number of air trip # Xi, X25 .-.an™ independent variables a5, 83, «ed = regression constant 5.6.4, Air trip distribution models + The trip distribution models predicts the level of irip interchange between designated airport pairs, once the level of generation of air trip ends at the individual airports have been computed © The most widely used distribution model is the gravity model. Where, ‘Ty = Travel by air passenger between cities ‘i* and ‘j” P., Aj= Production and Attraction of zone ‘i’ and ‘j' respectively F)= Friction Factor (Impedance function)Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Or. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) 5.7. Airport Components An Airport has two major components: (i) Airfield and (ii) Terminal i) Airfield ‘The area and facilities on the property of an airport that facilitate the movement of aircraft are said to be part of the airport’ airfield, Components of Airfield are: + Runways + Taxiways Hanger Navigational Aids Lighting Systems ies for air traffic control and surveillance Fueling the aircraft Signage and markings Weather reporting facilities, Security and fire control ii) Terminal Terminal area provides the facilities, procedures and processes to efficiently move crew, passengers and cargo onto and off of aircraft. Components of Airport Terminal are: + Apron + Gate system + Passenger Handling System + Ground Access oO O_SLe_@ ay > 2 ¢ que 5.8. Airport Layout Layout of an airport is dependent upon the following factors: ‘+ Number and orientation of runways ‘+ Number of taxiways + Size and shape of aprons + The area and shape of landTransport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestho ‘Aome Engineering College (PU) + Topography and site soil cont + Obstacle to air navigation + Required proximity of land uses within the airport boundary + Surrounding land uses ‘+ Timing and scale of phased development of the airport + Meteorology * Size and scale of airport facil ions 3.9, Runways 59.1. According to ICAO: “A runway takeoff of aircraft The runway is designated by two digits just after the threshold marking on both ends of the runway, which is based on magnetic bearing. In addition, it also indicate the left, right, or central runway if there are two or more parallel runways Touch Down Fixed Distance ‘Thweshold Zone ‘© Non-instrument runway: A runway intended for the operation of aireraft using visual approach procedures. ‘+ Instrument runway: Runways intended for the operation of aircraft using instrument approach procedures, Instrument runway may be: — Non-precision approach runway: An instrument runway served by visual aids and a non-visual aid providing at least directiongl guidance adequate for a staightin approach. t — Precision approach runway: An instrument runway served by Instrument Landing System (ILS) and/or Microwave Landing Systetn (MLS) and visual aids. a defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and.Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Or. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) 5.9.3. Runway Configuration FAA includes over 20 runway layouts. Amongst them there are 4 basic runway patterns: a) Single Runway Configuration It is simplest of all configurations. It is one runway optimally positioned for prevailing’ winds, noise, land use and other determining factors. Capacity of single runway is 50 — 100 per hour on VER rule, and 50 —70 per hour on IFR rule. b) Parallel Runway Configuration ‘Two runways parallel to each other, one runway is used for landing while other for takeoff. Two or Four parallel runways are common. Spacing between runways may be close (700% to 2500 fl), intermediate (2700 ft — 4300 ft), far ( more than 4300 ft). Under VER conditions, it can handle 70% more traffic than single runway, where as under IFR conditions, it can handle 60% more traffic. : | | | > + }——* = 26008 HF Siose t intermediate + ©) Open-V Runway Configuration They are runways diverging from different directions but do not intersect and form an open-V shape. They are necessary when relatively strong winds blow from more than direction, During strong winds, only one can be used Open V with dependent operations away from intersection. ‘Open V with dependent operations toward the SONITransport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha y ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) 4) Intersecting Runway Configuration ‘Two or more runways that cross each other are classified as intersecting runways. This type of runway is used when there are relatively strong prevailing winds from more than one direction during the year. Both runways can only be used when there is light wind. ‘wo intersecting runeays ateach one's mid-point ‘tection of paatons \ 5.9.4, Factors Affecting Runway Orientation © Wind * Airspace availability + Environmental factors (noise, air and water quality) * Obstructions to navigation (natural or man made) * Air traffic control visibility + Wildlife hazards * Terrain and soil considerations ‘Two inesectng runways a at fr tneshold Two ntersecting runways.at near thveshold Cross wind vsing 5.9.4.1. Wind Effect ‘Head wind is a wind which is coming from the side Vi of, from the front side that is just opposite to the movement of the aircraft. Tail’ wind is a wind I 8 which is coming from the tail side, then that is known as tail wind. The normal component of the fr D> —~ Voos0 wind (V Sind) acting at right angle to the direction aii ying | Head wind of aircraft is Cross Wind. Air craft will drift from \ a the runway if eross wind is very larger Unfortunately, wind conditions vary from hour to hour thus requiring a careful examination of prevailing wind conditions at the airport site. Aircraft do not maneuver safely at the wind that contains a large component at right angle to the direction of travel. Therefore, we require finding ut that particular direction, where the maximum wind will remain can be ascertained throughout the year. Wind Rose Diagram is the commonly used method to find correct orientation of runway, 5.9.4.2. Wind Rose Diagram The wind data (Direction, duration and intensity) graphically represented by a diagram called Wind Rose. It helps in analyzing wind data and obtaining the most suitable direction of theTransport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha Acme Engineering College (PU) runway. Design Data should be collected for the period of 5 to 10 year. A standard wind rose consists of a series of concentric circles cut by radial line into 16 parts by using an angle of 22.5° a) Design Criteria A runway (or runways) orientation should be in the direction that satisfies 95% coverage considering yearly wind conditions. If one runway does not meet the 95% criteria, design a second crosswind runway FAA/ICAO Crosswind Design Criteria Air Craft types Crosswind Value (km/hr) Small_Aircrafls, 48 knvhr (13 mph) Mixed Air Trafic 25 km/hr (15 mph) Big Aircrafts 36 km/hr (23 mph) b) ‘Types of Wind Rose Diagram * Type I: Showing direction and duration of wind * Type Il Showing direction, duration and intensity of wind ‘Type I This type does not account for wind velocity as well as cross wind component. Therefore, it is not so accurate. Radial Line shows wind direction and Frequency of wind is marked on radial line. Plotted pt. is joined by straight line. The best runway is the longest line on wind rose diagrain ‘Type IL ‘Type Il considers all direction, duration and wind intensity, Circle represents velocity and Radial’ line indicates direction. The percentage of frequency appropriate segment. Transparent rectangular indicator is used whose length equals to wind rose diameter and width equals to permissible cross wind drawn same scale as wind rose. Total percentage coverage is determined with the indicator oriented in several slightly different directions. Correct orientation is one with maximum coverage. eres AufTransport Plonning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Prodeep Kumar Shrestha ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) 5.9.5. Basic Runway Length It is the length of the runway under following assumed conditions of the airport + Ainport altitude is at sea level © Temperature at airport is statidard(15°C) + Runway is levelled in longitudinal direction * No wind is blowing on runway . Aircraft is loaded to it’s full loading capacity + There is no wind blowing ‘enroute to the destination + Enroute temperature is standard 5.9.5.LApproximate Runway Length + Arunway of at least 6,000 ft (1,800 m) in length is usually adequate for aircraft weights below approximately 200,000 lb (90,000 kg). + Larger aircraft including wide bodies will usually require at least 8,000 ft (2,400 m) at sea level and somewhat more at higher Altitude airports + International wide body flights, which carry substantial amounts of fuel and are therefore heavier, may also have landing requirements of 10,000 ft (3,000 m) or more and takeoff requirements of 13,000 ft 4,000 m). 5.9.5.2.Factors affecting the basic runway length © Aircraft characteristics + Safety requirements © Airport Environment a) Aireraft characteris + Power and propulsion system " * Gross take off and landing weights of the aireraft + Type of aircraft b) Safety Requirement ‘+ Normal landing case + Normal takeoff case + Engine failure case © Continued takeof © Aborted takeoff‘Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumor Shrestha ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) For jet engine aircrafts, all 3 cases are considered. For piston engine Aircrafts only 1* and 3! cases are considered, 1) Normal landing case Aircraft shall come to to stop within 60% of landing distance, LD = Landing distance SD = Stopping distance FS =Full strength pavement FL=Field length | 60% of anaing sinance —— Landing distance | ————_____ LD =1.67SD FS =FL=LD 2) Normal Take off Case Clearway is provided at the end of the runway. Total takeoff distance including clearway shall be 15% more than the total distance required to reach aircraft to height of 10.5 m (358). Clearway s% of this distance 115% of Lift Off distance Distance to 10.5 m height (Ds) 115% of distance to 10.5 m height (take-off distance (TOD=1.15Ds.) Longitudinal Section cle & Crap - 115 Lop) Fs 2 TR FL = PS+OL ToR= TA -CL Min. 450mTransport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr, Pradeep Kumar Shrestha ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) Where, CL = Clear way TOR = Take off run ‘TOD = Take off distance 3) Engine Failure Case Stop way is provided at the end of runway to be able to stop the aircraft after running some distance, 1 of thie dustance. Cleanway < 5 eel Decelerated |stop distance. Engine failure distor Caag| ea Clear} Accelerated ctop_clistance CaaS) | Delane ty (0-5 height Gake of distanw, Ds, = TOD) Engine off aborted Engine ff - Grtinued FS, a= DAS-SW Cleo= Y CDs, - Lon) : : WRey = - Fle, a? FS 5 BSN T0Rep = DB5e,- Cle, Feo -c* Token Where, DAS = Accelerated stop distance Ploy e = FSeo-0 +Cl gg, LOD = Lift off distance, SW = Stop way eo = engine fe @o-a= engine AF aboried , eo- 6 = engine off continued|Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) + Case 1: Normal Take off + Case 2: Engine Failure — Contifiue + Case 3: Engine Failure Aborted + Case 4: Lending Runway length is the maximum of following cases: FL=max(TOD,,TOD,, DAS,,LD,) FS = max(TOR, ,TOR,,LD,) SW = DAS —max(TOR, TOR, ,LD,), SW = min(FL~ DAS,,CLy oyy¢sCLa na) =0,CL,,, = 1000, If both ends of runway are to be used, the field length components (FS, SW, and CL) must exist in each direction ©) Airport Environment The basié runway length is for mean sea level having standard atmospheric conditions. Change in elevation, temperature and gradient for actual site of construction will have effect on the length of runway. 1) Elevation As elevation increases, air density reduces. This reduces lift on wings of Aircraft and requires greater ground speed. Longer runway is required for greater speeds. ICAO recommends that basic runway length should be increased at the rate of 7% per 300m rise in elevation above MSL. The factor for Elevation correction, Ky, is: K, fi +007 #5) Where, H'= Airport Elevation in meters 2) Temperature Aerodrome reference temperature: The aerodrome reference temperature is the monthly mean of the daily maximum temperatures for the hottest month of the year. The hottest month is the month that has the highest monthly mean temperature. This temperature should be averaged over a period of years. K,=1+0.01x6 where,t, 1, fay bas) = Airport reference temperature Standard AtmosphericTemp. at given elevation =15" ~0,0065 x Elevation ta = the monthly mean of average daily temperature for the hottest month of the year ‘the monthly mean of the maximum daily temperature(Tm) bnTransport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Prodeep Kumar Shrestha ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) 3) Gradient The slope computed by dividing the difference between the maximum and minimum elevation along the runway centre line by the runway length, Uphill gradient requires more runway length than a down-ward gradient. Increase and decrease in runway length is linear with change in gradient As per FAA, the runway length having been corrected for elevation & temperature be further increased at a rate of 20% for each 1% of the runway Effective Gradient (G). ‘The Gradient correction factor is: Where, 4) Procedure of Runway length corrections for elevation, temperature and runway slope Step—1: For Critical (design) aircraft select a basic runway length (L) required for take-off or landing at standard atmospheric conditions [sea level, zero wind, zero runway slope and temperature 15° Celsius} Step—2: Correction for elevation (h) Lh) = Ky xb Where, Ky Elevation correction factor Step-3: Correction for temperature (t) L(ht) = Lh) x K, Where: K,= Temperature Correction factor Step=4: Check Correction for Elevation and Temperature ‘The runway length {L (h,t)} corrected for elevation and temperature under Steps 2 & 3 should be less than 35% of Basic runway length, Else, ICAO recommends these corrections should be further checked by specific studies Step—5: Correction for runway slope (g) L(h,t& g)=L(h, )xK, Where, K,= Correction of gradient 5.9.6. Runway Width It varies from 45 m to 30. It depends upon types of airport and the biggest aircraft in operation. Runway width as per ICAO recommendation are: Code | Code Letter _ Number A _B cub E F r 18m 18m 23m = ee a 23m. 23m 30m if, = | : 3 30m 30m 30m 45m. - - 4 = = 45 m 45m__| 45m 60m __| a. The width of a precision approach runway should be not less than 30 m where the code number is 1 or 2. _Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) 5.9.7. Longitudinal Slope ‘The longitudinal gradient of runway increases required length and the aircraft performance. The difference between the maximum and minimum elevation along the runway centre line by the runway length should not exceed: ‘© 1% where the code number is 3 or 4 ‘+ 2% where the code number is 1 or 2 5.9.8. Transverse Slope ‘The runway is cambered to promote rapid drainage of water. The recommended transverse slopes as per ICAO are: © 1.5% where the code letter is C,D, E or F © 2% where the code letter is A or B 5.9.9. Runway Shoulder ‘These are usually lesser strength pavements and are provided on both sides of the runway. They provide sense of openness to pilot. Runway shoulders are paved to resist jet blast or maintenance equipment and are about 7.5 m both sides of runway. 5.9.10. Typical cross-section of Runway ‘SeNTERLINE PABWARYISURFACE ! BUNWAY SAFETY AEA LOCATION OF DITCH OF SWALE DEPENDS (ON SITE CONDON BUT HNO CASE |WITHIN LISTS OF RUNWAY SAFETY AREA, NOTES: 1, TRANSVERSE SLOPES SHOULD BE ADEQUATE TO PREVENT THE ACCUMULATION OF WATER ON THE ‘SURFACE BUT SHOULD FALL WITHIN THE RANGES, ‘SHOWN ABOVE. 7 _2THE RECOMMENDED 1° PAVEMENT EDGE DROP IS pEmE INTENDED TO BE USED BETWEEN PAVED AND. ‘UNPAVED SURFACES. 8. FOR THE FIRST 10" OF UNPAVED SURFACE IMMEDIATELY ADJACENT TO THE PAVED SURFACE - {1S DESIRABLE TO MAINTAIN 5% SLOPE. ‘MIvadund REQUIRED 9% SLOPE.Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha 5.10. ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) Taxiways Taxiways are paths on the airfield surface for the taxing of the aircraft and are intended to provide linkage between one part of the airfield (runways) and another part of the airfield (apron). 5.104 Factor affecting layout of Taxiways Minimum interference between just landed aircraft and ready to take-off aircraft Provision of separate entrance and exit taxiways at various locations Avoiding intersection of taxiway and active runway Facilitate higher turn-off speed for reducing runway occupancy and increasing airport capacity Shortest possible distance between terminal building and end of take off runway 5.10.2. Types of Taxiways i) ‘Apron taxiway: They are provided very near to the apron, so as to provide the storage of the aircrafts somewhere at the periphery of the apron. Dual parallel taxiway: Two parallel taxiways on which aircraft can taxi directions. two opposite ‘Terminal taxi way: Provided very near to the terminal building and it is portion of apron intended to provide access to the terminal 5.10.3. Taxiways Geometric a) Length — as short as possible. It will increase as number of taxiways have to provide along the runway b) Longitudinal gradient : level taxiways are desirable. As per ICAO, maximum, longitudinal gradient is 3% for A & B type of airports and 1.5% for C, D, E type of airport ©) Width of taxiway: width of taxiways is lesser than runway, as aircraft is not air borne and speeds are small. It varies between 22.5m and 7.5 m d) Transverse gradient: ICAO recommended maximum pavement transverse gradients of SAL. ‘The ai 2% for A and B and 1,5 % for airports with code C, D, and E type of airport. Minimum gradient is taken as 0.5% for rigid pavement cases and 1% for other cases. Transverse gradient of at least 3% for turf of shoulders ‘Turning radius: Change in aircraft path is done by providing a horizontal curve, Recommended radii corresponding to taxing speeds of small, subsonic and supersonic airplanes is 60 m, 135 m and 240 m, respectively. Apron ‘rport apron is the area of an airport where aircraft ate parked, unloaded or loaded, refueled, or boarded.Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha ‘Acme Engineering College (PU} 5.11.1. Holding Apron Holding bay or aprons are place adjacent to the ends of runways where aircraft park briefly before taking off. Aircraft is held due to + Runway being busy + Engine warming up + Cockpit or instruments check up before take off Runway Hoking Apron §.11.2. Loading (Passenger) Apron his is a paved area adjacent and in front of terminal building. It is used for loading, unloading, fueling, minor servicing or checkup of aircraft. Size of loading apron depends upon number of gate position, size of gates, arrangement of gate positions around terminal buildings, system of aircraft parking, 5.11.3. Parking Apron Parking apron is the apron where aircrafts can be parked for a specific period of time. The airplanes are berthed on the aprons before they are loaded and unloaded. It may be used for light periodic servicing and maintenance. Parking aprons are located as close to the terminal apron as possible. 5.11.4. Cargo Terminal Apron Separate apron for aircraft that carry only freight and mail adjacent to cargo terminal building. 5.11.5. General Aviation Apron General aviation aircrafts, used for business or private flying which requires several categories of aprons to support different general aviation activities. 5.11.6. Transient aprons ‘The aprons used for temporary parking of aircrafts such as access to fuelling and other services are known as transient aprons. 5.12. Terminal Anairport terminal is a building at an airport where passengers transfer between ground ‘transportation and the facilities that allow them to board and disembark from aircraft 5.12.1. Functions * Change of mode i.e. Transfer from car, train, or bus to the air plane ‘+ Passenger processing such as ticketing, check in security check ‘+ Provide passenger facilities such as shopping, toilets, eating, meeting & greetings etc. 5.12.2. Parts of Terminal Building ‘+ Passenger check in area and baggage handling counter + Baggage claim sectionTransport Plonning & Engineering ‘© Waiting hall for passenger © Shop retails ‘ecurity Check & passport control * Custom control © Lounges of business class * Passenger meet and greet area Airline offices and counters Travel and tour agencies counter Restaurants & bars Toilets First aid room Post office, Bank 5.12.3. Types of Terminals Open et | Terminal Building 4% aaa Terminal Building Transporter te tk \ ' ' Transport Mode Satellite 44 Foe Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha ‘Aeme Engineering College (PU) Terminal Building i] Terminal Building Terminal Building 5.12.4, Land side Terminal Facilities + Pedestrian fa ss (sidewalk, curb islands, pedestrian crosswalks etc) © Access roads ( loading and unloading lanes, by pass lanes, through lanes) ‘+ Parking (terminal passenger parking, remote passenger parking, Airport employee parking etc) + Public transport terminals, taxi standsTronsport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) 5.13. Introduction to Airport Pavement Design 5.13.1. FAA Method (CBR Method) of Flexible Pavement Design FAA uses modified CBR method of design of Flexible pavement ‘The sub grade soil is categorized based on the soil classification group, drainage, and frost damage conditions + Design charts are available for design of pavements for gross aircraft weight of 30000 Ibs or more for single, dual and dual tandem aircrafts + It is assumed that 95% of the gross weight of the aircraft is carried by the main landing gear and 5% by the nose gear + Three Basic Design Parameter are Sub grade Strength (CBR), Design Aircraft (Gear type and Gross Load) and Traffic (Annual Departures) Procedure Step 1: Determination of Design Aircraft © The design aircraft is not necessarily the heaviest aircraft in the forecast. It is the one requiring the greatest pavement thickness. © Due to the differences in stress distribution characteristics, separate flexible pavement design curves for several gear configurations have been prepare. Q 00 00 00 = 00 0 0 00 00 00 00 Ss D 2D Single Wheel Dual Wheel Dual Tandem * Determine the required pavement thickness for each aircraft, using weight/gear configuration/traffic for given CBR value. © Select the aircraft requiring the largest thickness, which is the design aircraft Step 2: Conversion into the same Landing gear type as the Design Aircraft Sinee the traffic forecast is a mixture of a variety of aircraft having different landing gear types and different weights, the effects of all traffic must be accounted for in terms of the design aircraft. First, all aircraft must be converted to the same landing gear type as the design aircraft. ‘The following conversion factors should be used to convert from one landing gear type to another: “To convert from | To ‘Multiply Departures by ingle Wheel Dual wheel 0.8 Single Wheel Dual Tandem 05 ~ Dual Wheel ‘Dual Tandem _ 0.6 _ Double Dual Tandem Dual Tandem | 1.0 Dual Tandem Single Wheel 2.0 _ Dual Tandem ‘Dual Wheel L7 [Dual Wheel Single Wheel 13 Double Dual Tandem ~ Dual Wheel 17Transport Plonning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) Step 3: Determination of Equivalent Annual Departures by the Design Aircraft The conversion to equivalent annual departures of the design aircraft should be determined by the following formula: wt log R, = ea,>(%) Ry = equivalent annual departures by the design aircraft Ry = annual departures expressed in design aircraft landing gear W, = wheel load of the design aircraft W, = wheel load of the aircraft in question Step 4: Using the landing gear configuration of Design Aircraft select the appropriate pavement design chart. Determine the total thickness of pavement using Design Aircraft Weight, Total Equivalent Annual Departures and Sub Grade Strength Step 5: With CBR for sub base, determine the pavement thickness to protect the sub base Step 6: Calculate the thickness of the sub base as the difference of the two thicknesses calculated Step 7: Calculate the thickness of base by subtracting the “minimum surface thickness 5.13.2. FAA Method of Rigid Pavement Design Step 1: Determine the Concrete Flexural Strength ‘The required thickness of concrete pavement is related to the strength of the concrete used in the pavement. The design flexural strength of the concrete should be based on the age and strength the concrete will be required to have when it is scheduled to be opened to traffic. Step 2: Determine Modulus of Subgrade Reaction, ke Foundation modulus of the subgrade, in pei, can be estimated 120 from CBR Value as: & 100 ra = | 90 ise CBR a 80 6 70 a g 60 If the subgrade is multi-layered, 50 or sub-base (granular or = stabilized) is put over the = & at g subgrade, the effective modulus gy °° of subgrade reaction needs to be & determined. Charts are provided, similar to the figure below. My 20 15 Step 3: Find Design Aircraft and Equivalent Annual Departures of reuraee valent 5 8 9 ton Design Aircraft. (Same as in SHICKNESS OF SUBBASE, INCHES Flexible Pavement Design) Step 4: Design charts are available, which involves the input parameters as, concrete flexural strength, effective modulus of sub grade reaction, gross weight of the design aircraft and the annual departure of the design aircraft.Wind Rose Diagram |Wind Rose Diagram II798. Ac_150/5320-6D CBR 3 4 5678910 15 20 30 40 50 SINGLE WHEEL GEAR THICKNESS HOT MIX ASPHALT SURFACES ISIN. NONCRITICAL AREAS. 3 4 5 6 78910 15 20 30 40 50 0793 THICKNESS, IN. FIGURE 3-2 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN CURVES, SINGLE WHEEL GEAR‘Ac1150/5320-60 78s CBR 3 4 5 6 78910 15 20 30 40 50 DUAL WHEEL GEAR 2 “fo, oo Peo, Soi 4 dc nea! Sg iim'18,000 han THICKNESS HOT MIX ASPHALT SURFACES 4-IN. CRITICAL AREAS ‘3-IN._NONCRITICAL ‘AREAS 4 5 6 7 8910 15 20 30 40 50 THICKNESS, IN. 0793 FIGURE 3.3 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN CURVES, DUAL WHEEL GEAR3 ‘0703 AC_150/5320-6D CBR 4 5 678910 15 20 30 40 50 DUAL TANDEM GEAR 113,000 J if6.000 15,0004 25,000 {iff THICKNESS HOT Max ASPHALT SURFACES 4-IN. CRITICAL AREAS i SIN. NONCRITICAL AREAS 4 5 6 7 8910 15 20 30 640 50 THICKNESS, IN. FIGURE 3-4 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN CURVES, DUAL TANDEM GEARAC 150/5320-60, 7798. UVAD TAM ATONIS ‘SAAWND NOISAG LNAWAAVE GIORI LIE TANT & IN ZLz'0 = Od T 34 psr'0 = aT ht/nw 6900°0 = Fed Tum gg = HOM T TELON es os __ wee fa = pera ea lee ee 8 oe p a Peps} e'| ox EGE 6 : Be eee or- 6° x nf Z uw or- ZZ Oo Tt or + Sad AS a Bol deel Z f a jer 11 eS Beery Sx ‘ Lar jer %/ nd er ae : B a oe [2 ie st et- mH | or [PT er oo0's2° at 000'9 cove 00e't SUUNLUVdad TVANNVY VAD THHHM HTONIS 00S 009 004 008 006 sd ‘HLONGYLS IVYNXHTd ALYONOO 59AC 15015320-60 195 ¢Va9 WAGNVAL TYAd ‘SAAUND NOISAA INAWAAVA GIDRL “6I-¢ SUAOTA SU/NA 2uz0 = dt | BH bSyO = aT ay UT ‘SSUNMOIHL avis MA 69000 = Isd | uur yee = you SALON 00S OSs 009 os9 004 OSL le ZA se aly = 6 6 2 & 6 a ord or 6 \— o 6 Tha A ot . 1 ur It us Stade |e 7 at" ya sets let a fers a5, ay dst st st ery da] faa peal ee 24% 6r sty ur zz{ joe St for ez] 027 ot pe { 8 zz. TZ) oz. ¥e ae ft fefeed oe ec, i acl a, iE 000'sT 000'e 000'se 000'9 o0z'T SHEALUVAaC TVANNY uvad WHINVL ‘Ivana tsd ‘HLONTULS WaAXdTd FLYONOD09 CONCRETE FLEXURAL STRENGTH, psi DUAL WHEEL GEAR ANNUAL DEPARTURES 1,200 6,000 28,000 3,000 °°°° 15,000 900: y 26 j-27 Las|-2l,.|—2s Ba | 22}23| 94 |—25 ~ 21/221 a5 |—24 |} 2oF21}22|—28 800 A 19 20; [2 ay tt E 2 4 re fro --20[ 7 750- + -}10}19 an EY 7 9B A 17 38. a Ly A 16 td i7 1S 700: AAA aca is[_° 178 is fhe =z 16 = 14] elias a 650 18 valle 13 14 ct 12 13 t pe 13 B 600. -10 4 ra 12 - 9 pu 10 11 9 10 550: ‘ Lo o| Ppre y al, 9 -7 1, alg Node 7 500: ‘07835 NOTE: 1 Thch 0.8544ignm FIGURE 3-18, RIGID PAVEMENT DESIGN CURVES, DUAL WHEEL GEAR CFOCESTOET OV OL7795 ‘AC_150/5320-60 (mm) 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 500-—y 400 SSS tas % 100 S 90 300 80 <2 70 a 200 6° 2 °8 40 g & ay 30 = 100 z 90 25 S 80 Vern 20 60 | || 36 50 0793 4 5 6 7% 8 9 10 11 12 THICKNESS OF SUBBASE, INCHES FIGURE 3-16 EFFECT OF STABILIZED SUBBASE ON SUBGRADE MODULUSTransport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) 6. Chapter VI Introduction to Railway Engineering 6.1.Railway Engineering ‘The branch of civil engineering which deals with the design, construction and maintenance of the railway ‘racks for safe and efficient movements of trains, a, Advantages of Railway Railway can handle heavier loads at higher speeds Lower operation costs and cheapest High speed rails are much faster than roads Convenient for long haul distances Itis very environment friendly if electricity is used Safe Promotes industrial development b. Disadvantages ‘+ High construction and maintenance cost ‘+ Restricted to be in one direction ‘© Less suitable for hilly areas with curves 6.2. Rail Gauges ‘The gauge of a railway track is defined a5 the clear minimum perpendicular distance between the inner faces ofthe two rails. 62.1. Types of Rail Gauges a) Broad Gauge: Width 1676 mm to 1524 mm. + 1676 (india, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Brazil, Argentina) + 1670 (Spain, Portugal) + 1600 (reland) = 1524 (Russia, Finland) b) Standard Gauge (Standard or International or Normal gauge): + Width 1435 mm and 1451 mm (England, USA, Canada, China Turkey ete.) ©) Meter Gauge: ‘Width 1067 mm (Cape gauge - Japan, Australia, New Zeland, South Africa, Indonesia) = 1000 mm (India, France, Argentina) and = 915 mm (Ireland) 4) Narrow Gauge: * width 762 mm and 610 mm ©) Mixed Gauge: + 1,435 mm (Standard) & 760 mm (narrow) — Czech + 1,435 mm (Standard) & 1,000 mm (meter) ~ Switzerland 1,435 mm (standard) & 1067 mm (cape) - JapanTransport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha Acme Engineering College (PU) 63, Railway Classification 8), Broad gauge (BG) routes have been classified into five different groups based on speed criteria + Group A: sanctioned speed of 160 krw/hr of more . Group B: sanctioned speed of 130 knvhr Group C: sanctioned speed of 120 km/hr Group D; sanctioned speed of 100 knvbr Group E: branch lines with sanctioned speed less than 100 knv/hr b)_ Meter gauges routes have been classified according to importance of route, traffic carried and ‘maximum permissible speed + Q Routes: max. permissible speed more than 75 km/hr, traffic density more than 2.5 GMT [gross million tone(s) per krv/annum) + Rrroutes: max, permissible speed of 75 knw/hr and a traffic density of more than 1.5 GMT. R routes have further been classified into three categories depending upon the volume of traffic: © Ri—traffic density more than 5 GMT. © R2—traffic density between 2.5 and S GMT © R3—traffie density between 1.5 and 2.5 GMT +S routes: max. permissible speed less than 75 km/hr and a traffic density less than 1.5 GMT. ‘They are further sub classified into three routes, namely, S1, $2, and $3. ‘© SI routes are used for the through movement of freight traffic, © $3 routes are uneconomical branch lines, and (© S2routes are those which are neither SI nor $3 routes. Iway Components - * Permanent way (Track) = Rolling Stock * Station & Terminals "Signaling & Control = Depot and workshop 6.5. Permanent way (Rail Track) ‘The track or permanent way is the railroad on which trains run. The permanent way of track, therefore, consists of the rails, sleepers, fittings and fastenings, the ballast, and the formation as shown in Figure. 2d | 05m 34m osm) 2d 27m rat ptm fa, Gauge g [—— Seay Pate SleeperTransport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha 65. 6.5. 65. The Join bolts. a) b) bit) bay b3) ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) Rails Sleepers Fasteners Ballast 1, Requirements of a good Permanent Way Correct and uniform. Proper level in straight portion and Proper amount of super elevation in curves ‘An uniform and gentle gradient Resilient and elastic Uniformly distributed load on both the rails Good lateral strength to maintain its stability Proper drainage facilities Easy replacement of various track components Low initial as well as maintenance cost. 2. Components of Permanent Way 2.1. Rails rails on the track can be considered as steel girders for the purpose carrying axle loads. Rails are ied in series by welding a few of them (5 of them) and the welded lengths are joined by fish plates and Functions of Rails + Provide hard, smooth and contintious surface + To give minimum wear surface ‘+ To bear stresses due to vertical load and transmit loads to the sleepers + Serve as a lateral guide for the running of wheels ‘Types of rail sections Double headed rails (D.H Rails): In the beginning, the rails used were double headed(D.H) of @ dumb-bell section. The idea behind using of these rails was that when the head was worn out in course of time, the rail can be inverted or reused, Bull headed rails (B.H Rails): The head is made little thicker and stronger than the lower part, by adding more metal to it, so that even after wear, it can withstand stresses. Flat footed rails (F.F rails): It could be directly fixed into sleeper. It would eliminate the need for chairs and keys required for the bull headed rails. Demerit of flat footed rails is that heavy train load ‘cause the foot of rail to sink into wooden sleeper,Transport Plonning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) Head i Figure DH rails ©). Details of standard rail sections + 90R rails are suitable for annual traffic of about 10 gross million Tonne (GMT) speeds upto 100 mph and service life upto 20 to 25 yrs. 2MR (52 kg/m) rails are suitable for use of speed of 130 kmph and traffie density of 20 to 25 cnr. + GOMR (i.e. 60 kg/m) rails are suitable for use upto a speed of 160 kmph and traffic de about 35 GMT. ity of Type | Weim | Area [Dimensions of Rail Section (mm) - _|_tke)__|_ (nm?) A [ BT c¢ D E F_| gor_| 44.61 | s79s_| 1429 | 1365 | 66.7 | 139 | 437 | 206 s2MR | 51.89 | 6615 156 136 or 155 | 51 29 | 6oMR | 60.34 | 7686 im 150 743 16.5 SI 31s] 4) Length of Rails ©) The most common length for BG rails is 13m (42'8") although double-length rails (26m, 85'4") are seen in some places. MG rails are usually 12m (39%4") in length: NG rails vary, but the commonest length is 9m (29'6"). Factors goveming length of rails:- + Manufacturing cost + Transportation facility + Lifting and handting operation 6.52.2. Sleepers Sleepers are the transverse ties that are laid to support the rails. Rails are fixed to sleepers by different types of fixtures and fastenings. The typical length ofa BG sleeper is 2.7 m. 1a) Classification of Sleepers a.1) Wooden sleepers: Wooden sleepers are ideal sleeper. Life of timber sleepers depends on their ability to resist wear, decay, attack by vermin, and quality of timber. Generally sleepers are made of Sal, teak, chir and deodar. The sizes of sleepers used for BG, MG, and NG as well as the bearing area per sleeper are as follows: Gauge Size (em) 7 Bearing area per sleeper Gm") BG 275 x25 x13 [0.465 MG 180x20x 11.5 0.3098 - NG 150x 18x 11.5 0.209Transport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) Advantage of Wooden sleepers: + Cheap and easy to manufacture + Absorbs shocks and dampen vibrations + Easy to handle + Suitable for track-circuited sections + Alignment can be easily corrected + More suitable for modern methods of maintenance + Can be used with or without stone ballast wdvantage of Wooden sleepers: + Lesser life (12 -15yrs) due to wear, decay, and attack by vermin + High maintenance cost (e.g. pest control) + Liable to mechanical wear due to beater packing + Susceptible to fire hazards, theft + _ Negligible scrap value a2) Metal sleepers: In view of the shortage of wooden sleeper and durability concern, metal sleepers have been developed ‘These are either steel or cast iron, mostly cast iron since itis less prone to corrosion. Particularly they are used in Girder Bridge. Advantage of Metal (SteeV/Cast Iron) sleepers: + Longer life (30-40 years) + Ensure smoother track + Easy to maintain gauge + Less maintenance problems + Lesser damage during handling and transport + Not susceptible to fire hazard, vermin attack + Have a good scrap value Disadvantage of Metal (Steel/Cast Iron) sleepers: Corrosion prone + Unsuitable for track circuiting areas + Develops cracks at rail seats + Gauge change is not possible + Light weight and not suitable for fast track a3) Concrete sleepers: Large scale trail of concrete sleepers were done mostly due to shortage of wooden sleeper and economic consideration. Two types of concrete sleepers are used namely reinforced concrete sleepers and pre- stressed concrete sleepers. Advantage of Concrete slee} + Offer higher longitudinal and transverse stability + Easy to maintain gauge, cross level and alignment + Can be used in track circuited areas + Long life (40-50 years) + Impervious to effect of moisture + Not susceptible to corrosion, chemical attack, fire hazards, pest attack ete, + Easy to mould into required shapes Disadvantage of Concrete sleepers: + Heavy to handle, therefore track laying need mechanical method + Heavily damaged at the time of derailment + Have no serap valueTransport Planning & Engineering Handouts by Dr. Pradeep Kumar Shrestha ‘Acme Engineering College (PU) b). Spacing of Sleeper Sleeper density = Number of sleepers per unit rail length (per unit track length for welded rail). Nos. of Sleepers per rail length = M + 7 (BG), Where, M is length of rail in mlf the sleeper density is M+ 7 on a broad gauge route and the length of the rail is 13 m, it means that 13 + 7 = 20 sleepers will be used per rail on that route. Spacing is closer near the joints. sow Sieopr ‘Seeger Roeper ‘Spacing oF sleepers Broad gauge Meter gauge centie-to-centre _centre-to-contre spacing (mm) spacing (im) Wooden Metal Wooden Metal ‘Between joint sleepers (a) 300~«380~=S=«20SC8O Between joint sleepers and the first 610610, S80 580 shoulder sleeper (6) Between first shoulder sleeper and 700 720-700-710 second shoulder sleeper (©) for sleeper (640)" (630) (620) (600) density M+4 Between intermediate sleepers (d) 840830 820810 for sleeper density M+4 (680) (680) (720) (640) * Values within parentheses are those for sleeper density A+ 7. Factors affecting spacing are: + Axle load and speed ‘Type and section of rails ‘Type and strength of sleepers ‘Type of ballast and ballast cushion ‘Nature of formation 6.5.2.3, Ballast Itis a layer of broken stone, gravel, moorum or any other gritty material placed and packed below and around sleepers a) Desirable Properties of Ballast Cubical with sharp edge ‘Tough and wear resistant Good bearing capacity and crushing value Good drainage property ‘Non porous Weather resistant Low lifecycle cost